Category: Belief

Currently, there is a trend in public education to change teaching methods. In addition, students need teachers who constantly provide new, meaningful experiences and therefore change according to modern requirements. The combination of novelty and meaning underlies the cognitive process itself; however, it is not only what happens in our minds. Learning is an interaction between people that changes depending on the situation. The chapter raises an exciting solution to the question of how best to promote intellectual development from a Christian point of view.

Transformative learning involves creating dynamic teacher-student relationships and knowledge sharing to promote student learning and personal growth. From this point of view, teachers are intellectual trainers who help students interact with each other and their teachers to master the arrays of information (Dockery et al. 475). The preparation of a good teacher, not only in this context but in general, has an important place. Today, many still consider knowledge as something that a person will be taught. The authors say that being deeply and comprehensively trained in the field being taught is the path to success as a teacher. However, according to the authors, the highest priority should be the student from both pedagogical and spiritual points of view (Dockery et al. 477). That is the difference between mere informational and transformational learning.

Contrary to the belief of many educators, emotions (when used with intent and judgment) not only do not hinder learning but facilitate it. The suggestion that the spiritual element in learning is irrelevant to purpose seems rash in the face of the role that emotions and feelings play in human life (Dockery et al. 493). Transformational learning is based on the idea that the instructor’s goal is more than providing information. In this regard, the changed role of the teacher in transformational learning will make it possible to appeal to faith, and emotions and, thanks to this, make learning more effective.

Work Cited

Dockery, David S., et al. “Faith and Transformational Teaching.” Faith and Learning: A Handbook for Christian Higher Education, B&H Publishing Group, 2012, pp. 475–498.

Faith and spirituality play a considerable part in people’s lives, especially when it comes to some periods in their life. It has been acknowledged that adolescence is the period when individuals’ spiritual values are formed, and these values usually persist in adulthood (Barkin, Miller, & Luthar, 2015). Haley (2014) examines different developmental frameworks as applied to faith development in teenagers. One of the concepts discussed by Haley (2014) is worth close attention. Nurses should consider the concept of three dimensions of faith development (orientation, disorientation, and reorientation).

The dimension of disorientation is associated with adolescents’ clinical experiences, which is specifically true for patients with chronic conditions. Haley (2014) notes that disorientation occurs when individuals go through some devastating or overwhelming experiences. Learning about a serious health issue or having some clinical procedures are such experiences. During this period, adolescent patients are vulnerable, so nursing professionals should help them cope with the challenge they have to face.

As far as I am concerned, I will pay attention to an adolescent’s faith development who seems to be in the disorientation stage. In order to guide them to the reorientation level, I will first make sure I know a lot about the patient through the review of their history. My further step will involve conversations with the patient based on the results of my review. Some of the opening questions may be as follows. “Right now, do you feel comfortable talking about the higher power that guides people?” Another way to start the conversation can be linked to small talk or a discussion of some news. “Do you think there is the highest meaning in everything happening in the world?”

The conversations I had with a teenage patient were often aimed at her accepting the health issue she would have to cope with. This goal was achieved through the focus on major Christian values. The preliminary spiritual assessment helped me realize that the girl was likely to cherish them. At the same time, I always tried to remain open and encouraged the adolescent to speak freely without confining her answers to a specific domain.

The patient was in the process of transferring from the disorientation dimension to the reorientation stage. Although she did not practice any religion, she positioned herself as Catholic. She did not want to stress the fact that she did not really believe in God, but she often mentioned the highest power.

I believe my input was valuable for the patient and her faith development as she carved some of the spiritual pillars that would be helpful in her adulthood. I have to admit that I found it quite difficult to talk about the spiritual agenda of the patient. One of the most challenging aspects was the choice of the right words and proper moments for the talk. However, I witnessed the favorable effect of these conversations, which was rewarding.

Parks (2018) claims that modern people have to live in a world of information and communication. Adolescents often have little time to contemplate and search for their spiritual path. I tried to focus on the way the patient’s spirituality could help her in her life, especially when it came to health. We also touched upon such topics as life and death, love and hate, and family and peers. I noticed some traces of depression, but I also saw that the patient was becoming more positive, confident, and relaxed during her stay in the hospital.

References

Barkin, S. H., Miller, L., & Luthar, S. S. (2015). Filling the void: Spiritual development among adolescents of the affluent. Journal of Religion and Health, 54(3), 844-861. Web.

Haley, J. M. (2014). How do adolescents develop faith and how can nurses/nurse practitioners help? Journal of Christian Nursing, 31(2), 120-126. Web.

Parks, S. D. (2018). Faith development. In M. D. Waggoner & N. C. Walker (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of religion and American education (pp. 103-116). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Pascal’s wager was presented to me before. It is one of the favorite tools of religious preachers who try to appeal to famous names and a kind of logic to convince people to enter their faith. Pascal’s argument is that believing in God is a rational choice. Since we cannot prove or disprove God’s existence, we can evaluate the pros and cons of worshipping God. If God exists, then worshipping and living by his tenets will bring one eternal happiness after death. If God did not exist – nothing bad would have happened. If one does not believe in God and it turns out they exist, one is sentenced to eternal damnation. Therefore, Pascal argues, it is a safe bet to believe in God.

The argument is fallacious on numerous levels. First, the wager assumes that the person would have lost nothing if one worshiped God and it turns out they do not exist. That is false, as worshipping Gods places a number of restrictions on a person’s behavior, to the point of forbidding interaction and love between people of opposite religious groups. Praying and performing ceremonies also take a significant amount of time that could have otherwise been spent productively. Finally, there is the price of one’s own self-respect and muting one’s logical reasoning in order to ignore the obvious fallacies of religion.

The second argument against Pascal’s wager is in the unclarity of which God to worship. During the time Pascal came up with his logical fallacy, he obviously implied Christian God as the right answer. However, Christianity alone has over 60 subbranches of some renown, and the overall number of different religions with a cult following is significant enough numbers over 4,300. Note that the majority of them, even if they are worshipping the same God, promise the punishment of Hell if the person is not worshipping their God or does not do it in their way. This makes the bet on God as a “safe precaution” to be far less safe, with the chances of winning the wager about the same as winning the jackpot in a lottery, but with the price for participating being significant and certain. Therefore, the only logical solution is not to play.

Narrative healing at the pool on the Sabbath is important to Christians. However, the passages in the New Testament are filled with other accounts of miracles performed by Jesus and his apostles. In this case, healing is regarded as a spiritual service, where deliverance from sicknesses and forgiveness of sins occur simultaneously (Parham, 2019). The main teaching that people learn from Jesus’ time ministering the word and curing the sick is that Christians have the primary role of reaching out to those who are hopeless or afflicted by diseases, regardless of their convictions. Nevertheless, believing in Jesus and his message answers all problems. For example, in response to the courage that the woman with the flow of blood demonstrated, Jesus said that the faith she had made her whole (Wachter, 2021). But, an infirm man that Jesus healed at the pool of Bethesda had no faith. For these reasons, the association between healing and faith has been much misunderstood. The sick man demonstrated he was unprepared to receive and did not deserve God’s miracle healing. Murphy (2020) utilizes an example of a sheep heavy with wool that needs shearing. Thus, like sheep, people may be unable to eliminate problems weighing them down. Therefore, they need a Shearer or a Shepherd, but the only obstacle to their healing is whether they are willing to receive God’s divine intervention. In this case, many Christians may wonder why Jesus picked this particular man to heal out of many sick people gathered around the pool that day. Nevertheless, it is evident that God’s will is for everyone. The belief that healing depends on an individual’s faith is often misconstrued because divine intervention can happen to anyone.

References

Murphy, C.L.T. (2020). “Do you want to be well?” In The Inquisitive Christ: 12 Engaging Questions (pp. 179-196). Nashville: FaithWords Publishing.

Parham, S.H. (2019). Healing from a grace perspective: Live and not die, don’t live with chronic pain or disease. Christian Faith Publishing.

Wachter, R. (2021). The art of marketing Jesus: Unleashing the power of the gospel through the lives of everyday believers. Wipf and Stock Publishers.

According to Erikson’s definition of psychosocial development, adolescents pass through four domains of identity formation, such as faith, work, gender, and politics. My parents were probably the key persons who contributed to my faith commitment during my teenage years. Looking back, I understand that they always tried to recognize my needs and battles by putting themselves in my place. I remember many conversations that helped me to understand who I am and how I am connected with God. My parents respected my privacy and opinion, avoiding any forceful behaviors. As suggested by Stuart (2008), my parents reinforced my spiritual identity through their own examples and by practicing self-discovery. Nevertheless, our family had certain rules and rituals to be followed, such as reading and discussing of various verses, visiting the church, and considering faith principles in daily life. I agree with Smith and Denton (2005) who state that faith commitment helps teenagers to overcome social challenges since they feel that they are loved by God.

In terms of Marcia’s theory of identity development, the majority of adolescents reach a stable identity formation, but there can be various obstacles. As for my experience, I can note my identity foreclosure status, when I just adopted Christian views without considering any options. It was the beginning of my adolescence, which was replaced by a moratorium and related exploration of other cultures and religions. As a result, I made a commitment and took the responsibility for my decisions, which was a long process. Undoubtedly, my faith was helpful in the process of my identity formation in other areas as well, and it still guides me in such questions as social challenges, politics, gender issues, and so on.

References

Smith, C. & Denton, M. L. (2005). Soul searching: The religious and spiritual lives of American teenagers, Oxford Press.

Stuart, T. (2008). Six ways to build your teen’s identity.Focus on the family. Web.

Introduction

Faith and science are two concepts which differ sharply when it comes to verification of natural phenomena and life. Faith is a strong proponent of strong belief in the myths and stories handed down from one generation to another without questioning or trying to have an empirical verification of these beliefs. Faith is closely tied to religion where people believe in the Supernatural God that controls everything in universe. On the other hand, science is a strong proponent of empirical studies where everything that happens in the world is subject to questions and that answers to these questions can only be through empirical studies.

As such, there has been a major conflict between science (scientists) and faith (faithful of various religions) over various natural phenomena. The scientists try to question and when they come up with their answers based on their studies, they find that there is a sharp contradiction between what is believed under various faiths and what is true. These two concepts are very engaging especially given the fact that they sharply differ in the way they view certain issues about nature. It is important to look at some of the philosophical views and philosophers that supported the concept of faith, science or both.

Faith-based philosophies

In this section, the researcher will look at some of the philosophical concepts which support faith as a belief and source of information about life. Eudemonia is one of the leading faith-based philosophies. Eudemonia is a Greek philosophical view that focuses on the well-being of an individual based on the right action that he does (Coyne 23). It is a faith-based concept that can be supported by the works of popular philosophers such as Socrates. Socrates strongly supported religion because it ismajorly based on ethics and beliefs. For instance, he argued that no one desires evil, a concept popular in most of the religions (Ward 34).

Aesthetics as a philosophical principle focuses on artistic beauty and taste. It learns more towards belief and faith than on science. The philosophical works of Friedrich Nietzsche talks about aesthetics and their importance in one’s life. They help in taking one from the hard painful realities of the world to a new world of beauty and imagination (Goddard 41). This concept is also supported by Rousseau who was a great champion of imagination as a way of discovering new things and moving towards an ideal world.

Other philosophers such as Gottlieb Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, also championed for idealism as a way of moving away from the common to something that is near perfect.

Ethics and moral philosophy is basically based on two concepts of right or wrong, which makes it one of the main principles used in faith and religion (Ward 88). It emphasizes on doing the right thing for the benefit of all. It closely related to the works of Epicureans who emphasized on happy and content life. One can only have a happy and content life if he or she is at peace. This peace comes only when one is doing the right thing.

It can also be related to the Stoics works that promote endurance of pain and suffering without complaints. Sometimes to do the right thing and be contented and happy with life in future, we may need to endure some sufferings today by making a number of sacrifices. Berkeley’s philosophy of immaterialism also promotes having a society where greed and selfishness is not allowed to control of the decisions that people make (Ward 89).

Normative theory is a further emphasis on to be just and do the right thing in the society. It supports faith and the need to always do the right thing as a way of living peacefully and happily with others. Cynics, the ancient Greek philosophers, had contempt for pleasure and ease but supported the need to do the right thing as a way of promoting a better society. Theory of Forms holds that ideas (non-physical forms) often represent reality in the most accurate way (Frank 38). This concept helps in explaining both scientific and faith-based beliefs and practices.

Science-based philosophies

A number of philosophers have strongly supported science-based reasoning as the only way of finding answers about nature. Arithmetic is a popular concept that involves manipulation of numbers. It is the center of science and emphasizes on the need to conduct empirical studies before coming to conclusion over a given issue. The works of great philosophers such asLeibniz, a great scientist and mathematician, support the need to conduct empirical studies before believing in something. It strongly rejects blind faith without empirical tests.

Logic is another science-based philosophy that champions for demonstration and valid inference. Aristotle is known for his contributions in the development of logic as a concept of reasoning. According to Turell, logic reasoning sharply contradicts the skeptics who deny any possibility of rational belief and knowledge(54). As Aristotle suggested, knowledge and belief that can be proven through investigation are worth believing in and applying in a practical context.

Metaphysics focuseson abstract reasoning and mainly supports the need to question things around us, as strongly suggested by a number of philosophers. It is a science-based concept that challenges religion. Descartes strongly championed for the need to question and find answers about nature. His works closely relate to that of Spinoza who supported learning and understanding things beyond myths.

Empiricist such as Immanuel Kant also champions for reasoning beyond the popular beliefs and concepts which are sometimes misplaced. David Hume’s philosophical views also popularized naturalism, skepticism and empiricism as a way of addressing the realities of life. Arthur Schopenhauer was also a strong champion of metaphysics.

Epistemology is a scientific concept that seeks to distinguish justified belief from opinion. Plato was one of the greatest champions of epistemological reasoning as opposed to faith-based reasoning. This school of thought champions for validity in the beliefs that we have. The works of John Locke also support epistemology. He popularized the concept ‘tabula rasa’. His empiricism views hold that people can only have sensory knowledge.

Conclusion

It is clear from the above discussion that both science and faith play an important role in finding solutions to thereal-world problems. Science is based on making conclusions only after conducting an empirical study. It emphasizes on questioning things and conducting studies to find solutions. However, Magee (67) says that even science has its limitations. As such, faith helps in explaining some issues that people often struggle to understand.

Faith offers a very simple solution to complex problems. It emphasizes on believing in a Supernatural God, life after death, and rewards for people based on their actions on earth. It is, therefore, important to let these two concepts co-exist as a way of having a peaceful world.

Works Cited

Coyne, Jerry. Faith Versus Fact: Why Science and Religion Are Incompatible. New York: Cengage, 2015. Print.

Frank, Adam. The Constant Fire: Beyond the Science Vs. Religion Debate. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009. Print.

Goddard, Jerome. Faith Vs. Science: The Unnecessary Dichotomy. United States: First Edition Design Publishing, Inc, 2012. Print.

Magee, Bryan. The Story of Philosophy. New York: DK Pub, 1998. Print.

Turell, David. Science Vs. Religion: The 500-Year War : Finding God in the Heat of the Battle. Baltimore: Publish America, 2004. Print.

Ward, Keith. The Big Questions in Science and Religion. West Conshohocken, Pa: Templeton Foundation Press, 2008. Print.

In what do you have faith?

Taking into consideration the various misinterpretations of faith, it is frequently difficult to formulate in what one has faith. The major mistakes made when analyzing faith are reducing faith to “believing things,” relating it to “behaving morally,” dismissing faith as something “deep in our souls,” and associating it with “being religious” (Tilley, 8). To avoid any of these misinterpretations, I will try to come up with my own explanation of what faith is to me. Personally, I have faith in the fight between good and evil, and in the need to behave towards others as I would like them to treat me. My understanding of faith is close to the definition suggested by Tilley, who argues that faith is the relationship between the person who has faith and that “which one has faith in” (27-28). I believe that there can be a close connection between individuals and their beliefs that makes it possible to support their faith and cultivate it. On the contrary, when there is no such connection, one’s faith is not strong enough.

I have faith in doing good deeds for people and not expecting anything in return. This aspect of my faith is connected with religious beliefs. It presupposes not thinking of what I will receive in exchange for something I have done, but instead enjoying the mere satisfaction of having performed something nice for others. Also, I believe that if someone does something bad consciously and intentionally, he or she will be punished for that sooner or later. I think that people should support one another and live in peace irrespective of the differences in their religious views or moral values.

When it comes to sex, abortion, and consumerism, explore how the concept of “free choice” functions in the authors we read and the debates we had on voice-thread. Have a particular focus on the critiques which argue, because of the social structures in which they are made, our choices are less free than we might imagine them to be at first.

Some aspects of people’s lives are associated with so-called free choice, which entitles individuals to make decisions regarding how to behave in a particular situation. This includes such aspects as abortion, sex, and consumerism, among others. While the concept of free choice seems like a favorable option, some scholars argue that our decisions are not as independent as we imagine them to be. For instance, Smith remarks that donating one’s organs after euthanasia is “the last nod to a consumerist culture” (Camosy, 76). While someone has the choice of donating his or her organs after death, the increased responsibility gradually makes people feel obliged to give away their organs. As a result, as the scholar notes, some individuals may be prone to committing suicide or requesting euthanasia because they think that their lives would matter after they help others (Camosy, 76). This critique indicates that the notion of free choice is much more complicated than it seems at first sight.

There are similar concerns related to decisions regarding sex and abortion. It may seem that one has free choice of whether to engage in sexual intercourse. However, it turns out that individuals may feel pressure to do it even if they have not made up their mind yet. The critique of free choice concerning abortion is related to counting this act as a “grave moral disorder, since it is the deliberate killing of an innocent human being” (Camosy, 12). Thus, there are many arguments against abortion since it is the choice of the woman but not of her unborn child. In general, the social circumstances in which people’s choices are made undermine the possibility of counting such decisions as free to a great extent.

What, in your view, is a person?

In my opinion, a person is someone who has consciousness and has the right to freedom of speech, the right to vote, and others. When applying this definition to the available alternatives, most of them will not be regarded as persons. For instance, a 12-week-old fetus, a 26-week-old prenatal child, and a 24-week-old premature newborn infant have neither consciousness nor rights. This explanation coincides with Singer’s views since he considers neither fetuses nor infants to be persons (Camosy, 257). The same applies to animals such as dogs and pigs: they cannot be viewed as persons since they have no rights or consciousness. While this explanation comes from the suggested definition, such an opinion is viewed as “speciesist” (Camosy, 84). That is, according to Singer, not counting animals as persons is racist since it eliminates the rights of animals and makes them subject to suffering through scientific experiments and death for food (Camosy, 84). Still, it seems to me that it is not appropriate to call animals persons.

As far as adult humans in a persistent vegetative state (PVS), it may seem that they cannot be considered persons under my definition. However, according to research, the brain of comatose patients is capable of imagining and thinking (Egnor). Thus, it is impossible not to regard humans in a PVS as persons. Finally, Superman is an alien from Krypton that is not, in fact, a human. Under such circumstances, it seems viable to consider him a non-person since he lacks the consciousness and rights of humans living on the Earth. Still, there is quite a difference between acknowledging someone as a person and depriving them of rights. Whereas by my definition, animals, infants, and fetuses are not persons, it does not mean that I support abortions or cruelty towards animals.

Engaging both the arguments of Peter Singer and Catholic Teaching, what do we owe the poor?

Despite different views on some critical aspects of faith, both Singer and the Church have quite similar opinions on what we owe to the poor. The first major coincidence in views is that both parties recognize the present as a highly potential time for conducting “the battle against poverty” (Camosy, 137). Singer mentions that this is a “unique moment” when there are both many people having “far more than they need” and those who are “desperately in need” (Camosy, 138). Thus both opinions agree that there is an urgent need for equality between people’s possibilities and that those having too much should share with the ones not having enough.

Failing in one’s responsibilities to the poor is regarded by the Church as severe misconduct. For instance, Jesus mentions that the “love of money is the root of evil” (Camosy, 139). Christians took some of the words from the Bible so seriously that they decided to give a part of their income to support the world’s system of welfare. Singer follows some of the Church’s ideas and suggests that one-tenth of people’s resources should be donated to those living in “absolute poverty” (Camosy, 139-140). Therefore both the Church and Singer consider it important to help those in need.

Apart from praising morally right actions, both the Catholic Church and Singer condemn those who do not provide help when it is most needed. The common idea of both doctrines is that “suffering and death from lack of food, shelter and medical care are bad” (Camosy, 142). Thus, if someone can prevent another individual from suffering such misfortunes, it is his or her duty to do so. These views characterize Singer’s and the Church’s attitude towards what we owe to the poor.

Works Cited

Camosy, Charles C. Peter Singer and Christian Ethics: Beyond Polarization. Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Egnor, Michael. “A Map of the Soul.”First Things, Web.

Tilley, Terrence W. Faith: What It Is and What It Isn’t. Orbis Books, 2010.

Introduction

The subject of philosophy of religion is complex but exciting because of the possibility of discovering a variety of opinions. A number of ideas were introduced in the 19th century, and such authors as William Kingdom Clifford and William James remain the brightest contributors to the field. In both words, the philosophers discovered the same subject that is the significance of faith and beliefs through the prism of evidence. In his essay “The Ethics of Belief”, Clifford discussed the importance of formulating human beliefs in regard to available evidence. Despite situations, knowledge, and past experiences, it is an obligation for a person to use sufficient evidence in order to introduce and protect a belief.¹ Compared to such a radical thesis of Clifford, James’s approach allows the possibility to combine knowledge and passions that may influence society in different settings. The role of sentiments is lawful, and it is normal to leave questions open to enhance passionate discussion on it.² Both ideas make sense, and the goal of this review is to compare the opinions of James and Clifford to strengthen an understanding of the connection between beliefs, evidence, and sentiments.

Summary

The chosen articles aim to discuss the conditions under which a reasonable belief must be formulated. However, the role of evidence may be differently discovered, and the analyses offered by Clifford and James serve as strong examples of how the representatives of the same epoch could view the same topic. In general, Clifford performed the role of a defender of sufficient evidence, and James supported sentiments in decision-making.

Clifford began his discussion with a story of a shipowner who knew about defects of the ship but allowed sailing. The man “put his trust in Providence” without even trying to gather enough facts and check a factual condition of a ship.³ As a result, the ship and people in it sank, having no opportunity to be saved. Clifford concluded that “he had no right to believe on such evidence”, and it was a mistake to acquire “his beliefs not by honestly earning it in patient investigation, but by stifling his doubts”.⁴ In this essay, the author wanted to find a connection between human beliefs and actions. The example of a shipowner proved that as soon as a belief is built and fixed, there is a tendency to behave in a certain way. Insufficient or the lack of evidence results in poorly developed judgments, and a wrong solution made by one person could change the lives of millions of people. Therefore, it is expected to gather as much sufficient evidence as possible and use it carefully.

The article written by James as a part of a lecture begins with several clear definitions and explanations. The author explained their importance because they may contradict commonly used terms; thus it is necessary to learn them and understand his intentions. A hypothesis as “anything that may be proposed to our belief” can be live (a real possibility) or dead (impossibility).⁵ Options, both living and dead, forced and avoidable, momentous and trivial, determine the way of how a person is able to evaluate a situation and make a decision. In comparison to Clifford, who promoted the possibility of believing in nothing, James underlined the role of feelings and allowed errors to happen. He said that this world is not perfect, and “a certain lightness of heart seems healthier than this excessive nervousness on their behalf”.⁶ Considering the achievements of James, religion should exist because it is one of the possible ways to recognize the needs and interests of people and consider them in life.

Assessment

Reviewing the works done by Clifford and James, one should admit that their main distinction lies in their attitudes towards evidence and its contribution to the formulation of a belief. On the one hand, evidentialism offered by Clifford has its strengths and weaknesses because people are free to develop their own opinions and take actions in accordance with their knowledge and available resources. Clifford himself recognized certain challenges in his position due to the impossibility of predicting outcomes of all human decisions. On the other hand, there is James with his doubts, errors, and opinions. He stated, “passionate nature influencing us in our opinions” and “there are some options between opinions in which this influence must be regarded both as an inevitable and as a lawful determinant of our choice.”⁷ Following these arguments, both authors did well in identifying their values and morals. There is no right or wrong answer to the question of how to create a belief. It is the responsibility of society to weight their resources and define their future actions.

The strengths of Clifford’s essay include the use of clear real-life examples and the presence of definite facts. The author did not want to provide the reader with a choice but gave statements that did matter. One of his well-known propositions is that “it is wrong always, everywhere, and for any one, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence”.⁸ Clifford used the example of the shipowner and his neglect of ship’s recheck or the inhabitants of the island where a religious teacher failed to follow commonly accepted doctrines to explain his position. When people prefer to take everything for granted and avoid an opportunity to improve their knowledge by reading books or addressing different sources, they take sin against mankind.⁹ When a person has doubts about something, it is obligatory to work with available evidence and check all options to find out sufficient explanations and definitions. Beliefs do play a significant role in human life, but only if they are well-grounded and commonly proved.

In case of James, another definition of terms is given to prove that beliefs can be built in regard to human sentiments and emotions. If Clifford found it necessary to use real examples and situations, Jams based his discussion on the works of other writers, Clifford’s included. For example, following Hume, James explained that things are “the whole fabric of the truth”, and people should not believe in all of them in case they are unseen.¹⁰ Another support was found in work by Pascal, who believed that Christianity had to be approved by reasoning resembled with “the stakes of a game of chance”.¹¹ It means that people are free to choose what to believe, following their personal interests or the nature of things. Still, James mentioned that human will could not influence human beliefs. For example, if a man truly likes to believe that his wife can survive in a car crash after getting serious injuries, he cannot make himself believe in positive outcomes. It turns out to be clear that the nature of injuries contradicts the possibility of survival, and the person’s beliefs must include such evidence.

Therefore, it seems that Clifford had a definite position to use strong evidence and was not going to change it by any means. James relied on human passions and the possibility to use different sentiments to influence beliefs. At the same time, the task is not to understand how people must formulate their attitudes but to get a good guide on what should be done. In both cases, the authors failed to provide the reader with a chance to study how to search for evidence (Clifford) or how to choose between emotions (James). According to Clifford, “our lives are guided by that general conception of the course of things which has been created by social purposes”.¹² People use their properties to make decisions, improve their lives, and choose necessary directions. However, the weakness of the discussion is that no clear examples of how to differentiate good and bad things were given. Similar shortages are observed in James’s article, who said that “faith in a fact can help create the fact”.¹³ The reader does not get a clear picture of how the already established faith was formed.

The worth of evidence is discussed in terms of agnosticism and pragmatism. Evidentialism is the choice made by Clifford, who wanted to make people avoid defining statements as true if they are not supported by good evidence. However, such a radical point of view questions the importance of religious beliefs because if Clifford was correct, then religious beliefs and faith in God is not only impossible but also wrong. His thoughts gave rise to agnosticism and the necessity to investigate previous decisions that were based on faith, including killing each other for religious benefits. Still, many aspects remain unclear in Clifford’s work because the reader should know how to understand what evidence is sufficient, and Clifford did not give clear instructions. James, in his turn, approved the possibility of situations when sufficient evidence should be a determinant. He tried to prove the importance of knowing the truth and avoid errors, but these concepts should not be compatible.¹⁴ Being a pragmatic philosopher, James wanted to base faith on personal opinions and external motivators rather than evidence and facts. His major weakness is the absence of a major controller who possesses power.

In general, the offered readings help clarify the idea of faith in the modern world through evidence gathering and passion evaluation. Many people find it necessary to support the position developed by Clifford that evidence cannot be neglected in belief’s formulation. As soon as sufficient evidence is obtained, it is easy and lawful to make judgments and behave without being accused of something wrong. However, as well as any opinion, Clifford’s one is characterized by certain shortages, including the lack of guidelines and criteria according to which evidence may be classified as wrong or right. James is the author of an opposite opinion to add the worth of sentiments to human actions. Although evidence plays a significant role, the supporters of James believe that sometimes passion cannot be ignored. Therefore, religion and faith in God can be approved only in James’s discussion. Despite weakly organized examples, his essay makes sense and contributes to the philosophy of religion. The opposition between Clifford and James strengthens religious beliefs and the need for evidence in human life.

Bibliography

Clifford, William Kingdom. “The Ethics of Belief.” Contemporary Review 29 (1877): 289-309.

James, William. The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy. New York: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1896.

Footnotes

1. William Kingdom Clifford, “The Ethics of Belief,” Contemporary Review 29 (1877): 295.
2. William James, The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1896), 11.
3. Clifford, “The Ethics of Belief,” 289.
4. Clifford, 290.
5. James, The Will to Believe, 3.
6. James, 19.
7. James, 19.
8. Clifford, 295.
9. Clifford, 295.
10. James, 5.
11. James, 5.
12. Clifford, 202.
13. James, 25.
14. James, 17.

The thesis of Gettier’s article “Is Justified, True Belief Knowledge?” is centralized around methods of substantiating knowledge. According to the author, knowing that something is true takes several dimensions.

A person’s claim to knowledge depends on several factors including what the individual knows is true, his/her belief, and his/her right to be convinced. According to Ayer, these three factors form the basis of knowledge and its underlying definition.

On the other hand, Gettier argues that justified belief knowledge is false because it does not incorporate the element of ‘sufficient’ truth. Consequently, justified belief knowledge cannot be used to ascertain that a particular person knows that a certain proposition is true.

In addition, the article reveals that the concepts of ‘the right to be sure that’ and ‘has adequate evidence for’ only work if the element of ‘justified true belief’ is not introduced in an analysis. Gettier’s argument in the article “Is Justified, True Belief Knowledge?” focuses on the premises of truth, justified knowledge, adequate knowledge, and the right to be sure about something.

According to Gettier, in order for someone to know certain information several conditions have to be met. The first important condition for knowing certain information is the truthfulness of the particular suggestion. For instance, for someone to know a proposition, believe in it, accept it, and be sure it is the truth, the ‘information’ itself has to be true.

Gettier refutes the premise of justifiable true belief using the arguments of two other scholars; Chisholm and Ayer. According to Chisholm, a person has to accept a proposal and have adequate evidence to prove it in order for the aforementioned proposal to be true.

On the other hand, Ayer argues that any proposal is initially true. Consequently, a person becomes sure that the proposal is true, and he/she has the right to believe that it is so. According to Gettier, Ayer and Chisholm’s arguments are only true if the concept of ‘justified true belief’ is not introduced into their assertions.

Gettier’s main protest against ‘justified true belief’ is the fact that a person can use it to believe falsehoods. This argument is valid because believing in a proposition chiefly depends on the truthfulness of a conviction. Consequently, ‘believing’ a falsehood cannot be equated to ‘knowing’ it.

For example, someone can belief that person X is honest because he/she is justified to believe this to be true. The person’s conviction does not qualify to be termed as knowledge, because the person’s justified belief does not amount to ‘true knowledge’. When the same person finds out that X is dishonest, the premise of ‘justified true knowledge’ will subsequently be nullified.

Gettier uses parallel situations to access the premise of justified true belief. This method is quite effective because it enables Gettier to explore every possible outcome of a scenario that involves justified true belief. The author also offers a step-by-step analysis of what constitutes knowledge.

For example, the article contains two case-examples that pose hypothetical knowledge scenarios. In both scenarios, the author is able to prove that justifiable true belief does not provide substantial grounds for knowledge. Another argument that the author dwells upon although it is not given prominence involves changes in knowledge.

The article clearly proposes that propositions that are subject to future changes cannot be considered to be true. In retrospect, the author’s argument against justified true belief is another way of proving that true knowledge does not change.

The US has had a longstanding relationship with the Middle East for more than three centuries. However, the presence of the United States in the region revolves around three central themes as described by Oren, power, faith, and fantasy. The initiatives toward American interests became noticeable as soon as the US gained its independence from Britain. However, the concept of faith and religion emerged from Christians and Puritans from England seeking refuge in the US due to the fear of prosecution. Nevertheless, the ultimate aim of these groups was to spread the word of God and convert unbelievers to follow through the paths of Christianity. In the late 18^th century, the US founding fathers altered Christian teachings and suggested that God’s work would start in the US. Subsequently, these proceedings gave rise to the belief that the US was a chosen nation, assigned the role of fulfilling prophecies by restoring lost hope and liberating God’s people.

The US founding fathers based their arguments on their role for all humanity in the Old Testament, where God spoke to his people and set them apart from other nations. In Genesis 12:1, God addressed Abraham and his chosen people in their language, and promised to rescue them from their prosecutors. Moreover, He promised to relocate his followers from exile to a Holy Land where they would thrive (King James Bible, 2008). Therefore, Americans believed that helping Jews to settle in their promised land would make the US boom (Rubin, 2017). As a consequence, these beliefs gave rise to The Second Great Awakening and other movements, comprised of believers, political leaders, influential people, and clergymen, who advocated for the return of the Jews to their promised land. Following these developments, scholars and researchers situated this land to be in Palestine, encouraging them to claim the Judean Kingdom as their own, thus raising conflicts with the Ottoman Empire which was already occupying the region.

One of the most notable movements that transformed the American way of thinking is the Second Great Awakening, a religious revival during the early 1800s focused on spreading the Word of God by targeting individuals’ emotions and encouraging them to contemplate their deeds and life on earth. Similarly, the Burned-Over District that emerged in Western New York was known for its message of damnation and hellfire if individuals did not live by the will of God (Sharkey, 2017). Moreover, the Millerites were known for their conservative teachings and practices, while the Mormons constituted a movement that held strong beliefs following scriptures written in the Book of Mormon (Rubin, 2017). However, unlike other movements, Mormons practiced polygamy and moved to the west of the continent to avoid persecution.

As a result, the majority of individuals in the US did not know of the existence of the Ottoman Empire, Palestine, or its inhabitants. Instead, they only understood the region as a Holy promised land and the homeland of Christianity, which was given more priority than Islam and other religious denominations. However, the first missionary visit to Palestine in 1819 shifted individuals’ expectations as the assigned missionaries were met by fierce resistance, including from Christians already in the area (Ansari, 2018). Hence, they sent several letters back to the US about Ottomans governance, the region’s local governance, and the religious hostility in the area, thus reinforcing orientalists’ perceptions about the area as economically disputed, unpopulated, and oppressive, playing a role in shaping foreign policy and individuals’ attitudes about the Middle East.

The concept of faith and adherence to religious ideas shaped US views towards Middle Eastern nations and encouraged their foreign policy in the area as it attracted unwearied efforts from missionaries to improve the region. For example, apart from spreading the gospel, Christian missionaries created education institutions, especially in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon to spearhead advancements (Kaussler & Hastedt, 2017). Moreover, the belief that the US was the nation assigned the role of fulfilling God’s promise to his people and the whole of humanity encouraged them to contribute to the well-being of settlers and natives in the Middle East (Alçiçek, 2017). One of the most notable establishments was the Syrian Protestant College in 1886, which later changed its name to the American University of Beirut. Moreover, the development of Robert College (1863) also played a critical role in educating elites in the Middle East, thus putting them in a better position to manage their resources and achieve sovereignty (Meskell, 2020). Therefore, the faith of American colonists in their role in the Middle East substantially impacted their relationship with the region and foreign policy.

Nevertheless, American views did not only express faith as colonists showcased several instances of fantasy. The concept of fantasy is apparent in the mystical images, illusions, and beliefs most Americans held about the Middle East and its attributes. According to Rubin (2017), colonists in the US imagined the Middle East as an area filled with black-dressed nomads who were humble and righteous enough to allow them to pick a stranger from the desert and lead them to a safe tent. The mystical image most missionaries had of the region is characterized by flying carpets, which in a real sense is a fantasy. Nevertheless, a majority of Americans and missionaries traveled to the Middle East in search of these features (Kaussler & Hastedt, 2017). On arrival, their attitudes toward the region substantially changed with some individuals like John Ledgerd indicating in their memoirs that the region was full of admirable natives who subtly expressed their dislike of the Ottoman oppressive reign. Thus, although many Americans were astounded by the local tongue and bizarre dressing, they believed that the region would thrive and even become democratic if they had support and assistance from a powerful nation like the US.

References

Alçiçek, Y. (2017). Religious geopolitics in the middle east: The importance of Jerusalem for Abrahamic religions (Master’s thesis, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü).

Ansari, H. (2018). “The infidel within”: Muslims in Britain since 1800. Oxford University Press.

Kaussler, B., & Hastedt, G. P. (2017). US foreign policy towards the Middle East: The realpolitik of deceit. Routledge.

King James Bible. (2008). Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1769)

Meskell, L. (2020). Imperialism, internationalism, and archaeology in the un/making of the Middle East.American anthropologist, 122(3), 554-567. Web.

Rubin, J. (2017). Rulers, Religion, and Riches: Why the West got rich and the Middle East did not. Cambridge University Press.

Sharkey, H. J. (2017). History of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East (Vol. 6). Cambridge University Press.