Category: Behaviorism

Constructivism

Constructivism capacity that the data of know-how to be transferred to some other individual but can be built or created. It suggests that the learner is much more actively involved in joint organization with the teacher of creating. Based on commentary and scientific study. It is about how humans learn. The trainer makes positive she is aware of the freshmen’ behavior and the techniques of giving and guides the undertaking to tackle them and build on them. Constructivism is additionally frequently misconstrued as gaining knowledge of principles that compels students to ‘reinvent to wheel’ in fact, constructivism tops into triggers the students’ innate curiosity their present understanding and real-world experience, getting to know to hypothesize, trying out their theories and subsequently drawing a conclusion from their finding.

Advantages of constructivism

The pleasant way for you to absolutely understand what constructivism is and what its capability is in your classroom is by seeing examples of it at, work and talking to others about the problems. Be capable of sharing the thoughts with the learners. There should be a connection between the learner and the teacher. Learners study more and they experience when they are worried in class. They see the importance of learning. Education works satisfactorily when it concentrates on wondering and makes it effortless to understand to memorize the work so easily. It makes the learner think according to the problem given ‘Constructivism gives college students possession of what they learn, considering the fact that mastering is based on student’s questions and explorations, and frequently the college students have a hand in designing the assessments as well. Constructivist evaluation engages the students’ initiatives and personal investments in their journals, and research reports. bodily modules artistic representations. Engaging creative instincts develops student’s skills to express knowledge in a duration of variety ways. The learner can be in a position to query the trainer when they get the reply it is convenient to relate it to the actual world. This eliminates grade-centered dreams and rewards as properly as the comparisons of pupil statewide or district precise progress.

Disadvantages of constructivism

The drawback of constructivism the mental and the way of thinking is being used. The learner may be blocked via contextualizing getting to know in that, at least initially, they may not be able to structure abstractions and to pass know-how and ability in new situations. It can continually course throughout the first stage, confusion and even frustration. They do not always actively assemble meaning and construct a fabulous information structure. The educator will make contributions towards the development of the learners’ greater cognitive skills. The teaching philosophy is one of facilitation and interplay in order to allow for the building of own perception and meaning. There are additionally says education quintessential for positive instructing is sizable and regularly requires high-priced long-term expert development. This may additionally be unreasonable for faculty budgets as well as disruptive to the student’s learning. With an average number of students in one classroom, instructors are unable to customize the curriculum to every student, as their prior understanding will vary. The constructivist curriculum also eliminates grade-centered desires and rewards as properly as the evaluation of pupils statewide or district

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a viewpoint of studying that focuses on the modifications of individuals. The behaviorist idea of getting to know states that an exchange in the word behavior of the learner shows that studying took place(Cherry 2014). Behaviorism is centered upon the concept that our behavior is primarily based on what we circumstance our minds with. Also, our responses are shaped by means of our surroundings. Behaviorist says that the learner’s internal mental procedure ought to be considered due to the thinking of thinking (Cherry. 2014 ). The behaviorist idea of studying have contained implication in the arithmetic school room on how the learner studies and the cause of educating and shows the correct methods of how instructing be done. In the mathematic type the trainer would put into effect a lot of practice due to the fact the learner believes that ‘practice makes best and gaining knowledge of is via doing’ thus is the Behaviorist teacher. Learners in such classrooms will be given numerous workout routines to exercise till there is a level of understanding for each learner. This is how the instructor will discover the challenges that most freshmen have in the class. In addition the novices will use recitation as a tool for gaining knowledge in the groups of the Behaviorist instructor e.g. most primary colleges use recitation to educate multiplication tables, and most newbies just memorize the timetable besides even perception of the concepts.

The different implications of the Behaviorist theory in the mathematics class are primarily based on readiness. According to this law the learner should be emotionally and intellectually geared up for mastering to take location in this manner the trainer will usually have to get entry to the intellectual and emotional country of the newcomers and reply to it. Also, below this regulation, the teacher will make targets for every lesson clear to the learners. Since charge will be regarded out for the behaviorist learner, it will exhibit that the lesson took place and will have to frame the goals for the lesson. The instructor had the accountability to create an area for healthful opposition to inspire mastering in class. This is under the regulation of impact for instance to create ambition in students to do better their marks should be region on the word board so that they will desire to be placed there. In conclusion, the theory of behaviorism has many implications some are good, and some are terrible in mathematics class. They will have one-of-a-kind influences of getting to know when are each advantageous and may additionally be decided by using the gaining knowledge of the process. The instructor will have the duty to be aware of the implications of studying theories in the classroom.

Basics ethics of behavior

Professional behavior is a series of movements that are desirable in the workplace. Professionalism is not something that is supplied to yourself, however, that human beings offer you. It requires an instructor to remain honest, open devoted, and to corporate with inexperienced persons and colleagues. As a trainer, I must be conscious of them. I need to be aware of rookies’ and teachers’ thoughts, emotions, and needs of them. I should usually keep a respectful mindset to others, even during traumatic times. I will apologize to learners and teachers for the misunderstanding. Also, I will arrive early or on time for assembly by reviewing the agenda in advance. I will additionally contribute to discussions the place is suitable and arrive on time at classes. As I teach, I need to supply inexperienced persons chance to talk, ask them questions, and listen to their opinions about a certain topic. I will instruct truly in a language that they will understand. Even when they make mistakes, they should be corrected using exact tone as a substitute for being harsh. For company goals, I should usually know and recognize the overall performance of learners and the roles that I am playing in accomplishing goals. As a trainer, I have to continually look for approaches to improve learner’s performance. I must commit myself to learner’s success and try to motivate them to learn and work hard.

My look will be neat, and I will make certain that I meet the requirements of a school-teacher costume code. As a professional, colleagues and freshmen will continually expect me to get the job done. I must continually be reliable. Responding to promises on time demonstrates reliability. At the cease of the day, I will make sure that I am on the same web page as my beginners and colleagues, even if we are not rearing on a sure thing, I will admire the options of their reasons. I will additionally be properly on organizational skills. The working area must always be neat and organized. Taking solely vital documents and books for instructions and meetings. Also, I am accountable for my moves constantly taking obligations and working to resolve the issues. Be capable of overcoming the challenges I make without blaming other people. Also, I will use the unfortunate chances to appreciate the way I manage mistakes. The conflict between inexperienced persons occurs as their guardian trainer I have to continually solve their issues except for taking sides. Be supportive of learners’ problems that disturb them, so that they can overcome those troubles and focus on their studies. Always offers inexperienced persons work to see if they apprehend and they’re on track.

Introduction

Behaviorism may be defined as a theoretic foundation which is rooted in psychology and which has a deliberate emphasis on observable, as well as determinable behavior as its major unit of study (Luthans, Youssef, & Luthans, 2005).

It should be noted that behaviorism analytically explores the relationships that exists between the behaviors of an individual as well as environmental contingencies. It should also be noted that the study as well as behaviorism practice lays much emphasis on the prediction and management of behavior and therefore is especially applicable to organization research (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2006).

The behaviorism model is different from the common theories of cognitive psychology because behaviorism isn’t concentrated on internal affective or cognitive processes as well as incidental measures of attitudes, feelings or beliefs.

While approaches that are cognitive based try to not only understand but also to explain the complicated causes and also the complexity of the behavior of human beings, behaviorism has its basis on the foundation that human behavior is a generally the function of both the environmental contingencies and consequences (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2006).

The historical building blocks of Behaviorism

Behaviorism has four major historical building blocks. These main introductory contributions include the experiments of classical conditioning that were done by Pavlov (1849-1936), the law of effect which were done by Thorndike (1874-1949), Watson’s experiment on human conditioning (1878-1958), as well as conceptualization and work of operant conditioning which were done by Skinner (1904-1990).

It should be noted that in organizational studies, the behavioral application that is widely applied is that which is contained in the book of Luthans and Kreitner’s (1985) called the Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2006).

So as to critically observe behavior, a number of behaviorists are suggesting that the possibility of determining the stimulus as well as the response have to be very high. Stimulus identification as well as response usually acts as the determinant for behavior observation.

It is believed that if the identification as well as the response of stimulus is possible, it will also be possible to study, understand and also to modify behavior. Due to this, behaviorism is sometimes called stimulus-response psychology since it majorly emphasizes on the study of external environmental conditions of individuals which make the individuals’ behavior to be in certain ways.

Behaviorists have the belief that the behavior of human may best be understood through the study of particular behaviors. Similarly, behaviorists have the thought that the traits of human beings like character, integrity as well as personality are usually not determined internally by the individuals, but these traits results as a result of the individuals behaving in some ways.

The traits are also established via behavior patterns that are usually developed via environmental conditioning. They also have the belief that a careful study of the development of behavior is capable of providing a clear understanding the creation, control and prediction of desirable conditions as well as behaviors.

The concepts of behaviorist are connected to the numerous beliefs of many philosophical systems. It should be noted that behaviorism and realism are similar because both of them have faith in the significance of factual as well as observable aspects. Realists and behaviorists also have the belief that factual, as well as observable aspects are capable of providing a foundation on which guidelines as well as laws of universal importance may be established. The theory of materialism is also connected to behaviorism.

The belief of materialist that the explanation of everything as far as motion and matter are concerned is possible is comparable to the approach of behaviorists which sees humans in physiological or biological perspective. Though both materialists and behaviorists have the belief that the behavior of man in a specific ways is based on physical makeup, the behaviorists lays much emphasis on the outcomes that the environment has on the behavior of man (Standridge, 2002).

Ivan Pavlov’s view on Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov, who was one of the early behaviorists who first attained scientific recognition due to the research he did concerning digestive glands. Nevertheless, he has been remembered because of the research he conducted concerning reflex action among animals and humans.

He has also been remembered because of devising several experiments on conditioning. Pavlov who is also said to be the father of the famous conditioning theory, highly influenced behaviorist movement through his researches concerning conditioned reflexes, both in animals and in humans (Standridge, 2002).

In his research concerning conditioned reflexes, he organized a dog so as to measure the “psychic secretion” quantity or the quantity of saliva which it secreted. Pavlov used the term “Psychic secretion” to refer to gastric juices which were secreted when food stimulated the mouth. He started by determining the physic secretion’s quantity in reaction to food. He made an observation that upon giving the dog food, the quantity of psychic secretion increased.

As this experiment moved on, a stimulus that was neutral, which at first was not having any influence on psychic secretion’s amount, was repeatedly added as the dog was feeding. After a regular presentation of the stimulus food, the food substance was eliminated and the stimulus alone was presented. Later, Pavlov established that when the stimulus only was presented; psychic secretion’s level increased. With food, stimulus, that was at first ineffective, later produced very robust psychic secretion.

This is what Pavlov called conditional reflex or conditional response. The experiments that were conducted by Pavlov were known as “classical conditioning or the “laws of conditioning”. It should be noted that Classical conditioning is basically the behaviors that are learnt due to experience (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2006).

John Watson’s view on Behaviorism

John Watson is also a highly powerful early behaviorist who is also referred to as one of behaviorism founders. He was in disagreement with the movements of functionalism as well as structuralism. Watson was influenced by the theories of Pavlov. He viewed psychology as a division of natural science which ought not to have studied mental consciousness and processes.

Watson wrote a number of books which advocated for behaviorism and which were also in contradiction to introspective philosophy. This philosophy stated that psychologists were capable of gathering data and information from the consciousness or minds of individuals. Watson was of the idea that psychologists ought to study behaviors which are directly observable, and not the mental consciousness and processes (Staddon, 2001).

The radical views of Watson concerning behaviorism became his weakness as well as his strength. He had the clarity, energy, as well as force which were needed for success in the promotion of his ideas. Conversely, he deviated from the conviction which he had that the amalgamation of environment and heredity formed the foundation of the behavior of human beings to the fundamental opinion that every behavior was due to the environment of the individuals.

He moved so far and suggested that emotions, thought, as well as instinct were merely inner bodily adjustments patterns. He also made a proposal that every emotion progressed via the conditioning of some innate emotions— anger, love as well as fear, and also that nothing shouldn’t have been called natural instinct (Powell, Symbaluk, & Macdonald, 2005).

It should also be noted that Watson also had the belief that the major stimulus which determined behavior was the environment. Again, he had the belief that if he was capable of controlling the environment or surrounding of kids, he was capable of molding the child to become the type of person that he needed.

The infants at Johns Hopkins Hospital were studied by Watson and he made a remark that if given any child having a very healthy body, molding the child to become any type of expert that he chose could have been very easy. It should be noted that behaviorists are in agreement with the statement of Watson that it is capable to alter, modify and also to control behavior by using reinforcement (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2006).

Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s view on behaviorism

Skinner, like Watson had the belief that it is possible to control behavior through reinforcement. In a book written by him (Beyond Freedom and Dignity), he generates a lot of controversy through his statement that the freedom of human beings is merely a myth. Burrhus was of the argument that any human cannot be free; but rather, they are the products of the environment to which they are subject. He also stated that they are subject to the environmental forces that are in existence and which shape and mold them.

References

Newby, T. J., Stepich, D. A., Lehman, J. D., & Russell, J. D. (2006). Educational Technology for Teaching and Learning (3rd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Luthans, F., Youssef, C., & Luthans, B. (2005). Behaviorism. In Nicholson, N., Audia, P., & Pillutla, M. (Eds.). The Blackwell encyclopedia dictionary of organizational behavior. London: Blackwell.

Powell, R. A., Symbaluk, D. G., & Macdonald, S. E. (2005). Introduction to learning and behavior. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.

Staddon, J. (2001). The New Behaviorism: Mind, Mechanism, and Society. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.

Standridge, M. (2002). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Web.

Human beings are quite complex and understanding the real cause of their behavior can be a daunting task for a layman. In a bid to understand the dynamics of human actions, psychological studies were introduced in institutions of higher learning to shed light on the intricacies surrounding human thoughts.

Several psychologists emerged in the early nineteenth century and put forward theories that tried to elucidate human psychology. Among the notable psychologists who tried to understand human behavior is B.F Skinner. Skinner used the operant conditioning chamber to come up with his theory. Though operant conditioning can be applied in classroom and in real life situations, the two scenarios have some differences as well as similarities.

Skinner developed a theory he called radical behaviorism which is the viewpoint of the study of human behavior. The theory postulates that human behavior is heavily dependent on environmental factors. According to this view, interaction with different environments yields ground for the acquisition of new behavior (Moore, 2008). The major point of reasoning in Skinner’s behaviorist approach of psychology is the importance of behavior reinforcement.

He suggests that there are positive and negative reinforcements of behavior (Russell & Jarvis, 2003). Positive reinforcement is the fortification of behavior by the injection of an event like praising someone for a task well done. Negative reinforcement on the other hand is the fortification of behavior by circumventing an event like quitting a job hunt so as to get food stamps and unemployment benefits (Moore, 2008).

Skinner used the operant conditioning chamber, which automatically detects occurrence of behavioral response, to study the behavior of animals. This was achieved by training animals that certain behaviors led to specific rewards. Rodents were placed in the Skinner box and different conditions were implemented which included levers that brought food. Animals would step on the levers severally expecting food.

In other instances, punishment was used to restrain unwanted behavior (Plotnik & Kouyoumjian, 2010). In these scenarios, Skinner box is divided into two parts; one which undergoes temperature changes while the other has constant temperature. If an animal placed in the box goes to the part which undergoes temperature changes, the temperature will increase and make the animal to move away. The animal will be reluctant to go back even when temperature will not change.

Skinner’s operant conditioning is applied by teachers and instructors in classrooms as well as in real life situations. It is, however, good to note that operant conditioning has similarities in its application. Both in classrooms and in real life situations, rewards are awarded whenever a desired behavior is recognized.

Students are expected to act in a particular way and they are promised of rewards if they conduct themselves in the prescribed way. Similarly, in real life situation, people behave in a given way because they expect to get positive outcomes or rewards (Plotnik & Kouyoumjian, 2010). These rewards can be monetary gifts, promotions or even high marks. On the same note, operant conditioning uses stimulus to induce people to behave in a given manner both in classroom and in real life.

Moreover, environment plays a very crucial role in reinforcing behavior in both cases. Either in classroom or in real life situation, operant conditioning explains behavior as a product of prevailing environmental conditions. Operant behavior does not believe that people consciously behave in a particular manner.

In both situations, experience is crucial in ensuring that people maintain a given character trait (Moore, 2008). People are expected to repeat a given behavior until it becomes part of their habit. Consequently, both in classrooms and in real life situation, the principle of reinforcement is crucial.

It is important to note that both in classroom and in real life situation, only the observable events are focused on. According to the theory of radical behaviorism, people’s conscious plays no role in determination of behavior. Consequently, non-observable actions including thinking and perception are not taken into consideration when behavior is shaped.

In this regard, operant conditioning aims at using some stimuli to ensure that expected results are achieved both in classroom and in real life. The main point in both scenarios is that behavior is not static and it can be modified if right channels are used (Plotnik & Kouyoumjian, 2010). As the principle of behavior shaping states, behavior is taken as a factor that can be controlled.

Furthermore, in both scenarios the assumption is that human beings respond to conditioning thus they will be ready to learn when conditioned properly. Therefore, environment is vital in conditioning people to exhibit specific behaviors that are desired. Moreover, it is believed in both situations that every behavior that human beings exhibit is explainable by the use of natural laws.

However, when operant conditioning is applied in classroom scenario and in real life situation, there are some differences that are revealed. To begin with, in a classroom scenario people are given specific behaviors which they are supposed to undertake.

On the contrary, in a real life situation, people are not given specific behaviors that they should adhere to (Russell & Jarvis, 2003). Instead, people are left free to behave in any way that their environment will condition them to behave. In this regard, people in a real life situation have a lot of options to take in terms of character traits unlike in a classroom scenario.

Moreover, it is possible to control some factors in a classroom condition so that the expected behavior may be achieved. For example, teachers can restrict students from coming to school in home clothes in a bid to ensure that everybody wears uniform. Teachers will then promise to reward any student who will be smartly dressed.

This will ensure that all students will be in uniform and smartly dressed. On the other hand, in real life situation, it is impossible to control any factor. Consequently, behavior is influenced by a multitude of factors (Moore, 2008). It is important to note that some factors will be indirectly influencing behavior. As a result, it is difficult to tell before hand how a given person will have in a given situation.

On the same note, while in a classroom scenario operant conditioning is applied to a single or a small number of character traits, this is not the case with real life situation. In unregulated environment, people tend to behave in any manner that they prefer. Consequently, when studying people’s behavior in a real life situation, many character traits come into view and one has to choose which ones to focus on.

Moreover, it is possible to issue regular tests in classrooms to evaluate the degree of conformity or understanding. On the other hand, it is quite difficult to measure whether given behaviors have been reinforced in real life scenarios (Plotnik & Kouyoumjian, 2010). Furthermore, in a classroom everybody is expected to behave in a more or less the similar way. However, in real life scenario everybody behaves in his or her own way.

Furthermore, in a classroom scenario, expected behavior is clearly defined and necessary measures are put in place to ensure that desired outcome is achieved. The measures taken include dividing the program into stages, where a student is expected to pass the first stage before proceeding to the second one, and the use of Personalized System of Instruction (PSI).

On the same note, there are materials to guide students on what is expected and how they can achieve it (Russell & Jarvis, 2003). On the contrary, in real life situation there are no materials to guide people on what is expected especially when it is not in an organizational setting.

References

Moore, J. (2008). Conceptual Foundations of Radical Behaviorism. New York: Sloan Publishers.

Plotnik, R. & Kouyoumjian, H. (2010). Introduction to Psychology. Stanford: Cengage Learning.

Russell, J. & Jarvis, M. (2003). Angles on Applied Psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Publishers.

In this book, the concept of a person being a behaviorist is critically observed. The influences of the behaviorist’s environment on the observations made by the same person are also under scrutiny.

This is because the behaviorist is also a part of the society and cultural structure. In addition, the ideal perception of a behaviorist while making important observations is discussed.

All conclusions made by a behaviorist are based on the characteristics that are physically observed alone, and do not include influences of beliefs and culture (Hallman 108).

A behaviorist has to observe the actions of an individual or a group of individuals in a relationship among themselves or other people. Behaviorism is closely related to study of organisms’ response to each other’s action.

This means that the behaviorist has to observe the behavior of two organisms while he or she is a subject to influences of experience in the society.

This experience significantly influences the manner in which behavior of the individual under observation is understood (Hallman109). The behaviorist has to make observations free of the influence of culture.

Since the behaviorist is obviously under influence of culture that has nurtured him or her, objectivity is required to accomplish the task of observation. Behavior of an organism has to be observed within a specific cultural context.

The study of human behavior involves objective observation without invoking the theory of the supernatural or the unknown. A human being is an organism in a behaviorist’s perception.

This way, the behaviorist is able to observe free of cross-cultural influence (Hallman 108). To a behaviorist, a human being is an organism that reacts to the changes in its environment, and is not guided by any other external influence other than biological factors (Hallman 110).

Why Does Mead Claim That A Multiple Personality Is In A Certain Sense Normal?

Mead’s theory of self explores the concept of personality. He explains that people do not have a single personality. To mead, multiple personality is a common phenomenon among members of the society.

Multiple personality means that a person will assume the personality he or she thinks is the best for a particular situation at any moment.

A person’s behavior is modified by the impression he or she wants to make on other people with whom he or she interacts.

Depending on the impression an individual wants to make on another, one will assume different versions of self. Self means the personality of the individual whose behaviour is under scrutiny of the party on whom the impression is being made.

Since every individual wants to make different impressions on different people, every person will subconsciously assume a different personality while he or she is under observation from the party of interest.

This assumption of different selves is not an action aimed at deceiving the other party, but is a subconscious action where one seeks to modify other people’s perception of their character.

The personality that is assumed by a person depends on the role of the particular individual in the relationship that he or she wants to make an impression on (Hallman 113).

Individuals in a society often observe multiple personality where the behaviour of another person towards them seems different from the behaviour of the same person towards a different party to whom there is a different relationship.

The person under observation does not intend to be observed by the two parties at the same time, but certain preferable people are the target of the present behaviour (Hallman 115).

This multiple personality is normal since individuals will always seek to modify the reaction of the environment to their behavior. People with whom they have different relationships will observe a single individual as having different personalities.

Works Cited

Hallman, Max O.. Traversing philosophical boundaries. 4th ed. Australia: Wadsworth Pub Co, 2011. Print.

In his article “The Nature of Mind” David Armstrong starts out with showing that Behaviorism is an implausible account of the nature of mind. In his account of Behaviorism the behavior and the mind are one and causally inseparable (Armstrong 297). The mind and behavior are identical so the mind is not merely the cause of behavior but rather it is the behavior. To be more specific, Armstrong posits that Behaviorists regard the mind to be an array of behavior; one cannot speak of a mind in the absence of behavior.

The main objection that Armstrong has to the Behaviorists’ account of mind is that there can exist and there actually exists thought without behavior (Armstrong 298); behavior is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for thought or the mind.

Ryle attempts to address this objection by bringing in the notion of a disposition to behave i.e. a latent state that will cause behavior once the right conditions and circumstances are met. The concept of disposition to behave, however, fails to address the problem with the Behaviorists’ account of the mind as the dispositions are merely analyses of mental states into conditional statements of what one’s behavior would be under the right circumstances.

Behaviorism is a reductionist view of the mental process as it views all mental processes as equivalent to behavior yet there are mental processes that cannot be explained from the perspective of the Behaviorists e.g. the taste of chocolate. Such a rudimentary mental process cannot be conveyed using the Behaviorists’ account of a mental process yet it is a legitimate mental process (Block 262). This inability to explain simple and irreducible mental processes is a major weakness of the Behaviorists’ account of the mind.

The other major weakness of Behaviorism is its failure to account for consciousness. Behaviorism relies on an expressed or outward account of mental processes and as such fails to give an accurate deduction of the mind (Fodor 56).

Introspection and self-awareness are examples of mental processes which are essential to human beings that cannot be accounted for using Behaviorism as there is no possible way to translate the two into behavior or dispositions to behave.

Given these shortcomings, Behaviorism is a weak and objectionable account of the mind.

Works Cited

Armstrong, Martin. A Materialist Theory of the Mind. London: Routledge, 1968. Print.

Block, Ned. Are Absent Qualia Impossible? The Philosophical Review, 89 (1980): 257 -274.

Fodor, Jerry. The Mind Doesn’t Work that Way. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000. Print.

Introduction

Child development refers to changes that take place in human beings from childbirth to adolescent stage, involving emotional, biological, as well as biological transformations, while progressing from a stage of dependence to independence (Kail, 2011). Blades et al. (2011) points out that a meaningful and satisfactory life is a product of competence in two major areas.

These include the capacity to develop persevering interpersonal associations and the ability to be productive. It is expected that by early adulthood, children should have attained the ability to develop relationships that are stable, mutually supportive, as well as cooperative with fellow human beings. The developmental features that lead to positive results in people are manifest in 10-12 years of age (Blades et al., 2011).

Many theories have been postulated to explain the process of child development, and this paper seeks to tackle three major theories: Cognitive, socio health and behaviorist theory. Theories on development provide an understanding on how children grow and how they acquire knowledge. These theories can be handy in making decisions and understanding of the strategies to promote the development of a child (Blades et al., 2011).

Cognitive Theory

This theory seeks to explain how one’s thoughts and perceptions develop, and how these thoughts affect the way one understands and interacts with the surrounding. Generally, the cognitive theory explains that children build up skills and abilities in a predictable series. Jean Piaget first postulated the cognitive theory in the 1980s.

Cognitive development involves distinct stages: Qualitative change holds that children of varied ages think in varied ways. The other stage is broad applicability, which argues that thoughts at each particular stage encompass topic and content areas.

Thirdly, there is the brief transition stage, which states that there is no substantial necessity to have higher-stage transitions. The invariant sequence stage argues that at all times, the series of stages in human beings are constant (Sternberg & Zang, 2001).

Children think differently depending on age difference; children increasingly develop the capacity to tackle more intricate and abstract ideas as they age. Younger children, for instance, are bound to have trouble in understanding figurative language. In the early years of school, children undergo fast developments in conceptual and language aspects as they learn to read and write.

Cognitively, therefore, they tend to be more literalistic as they gradually acquire the capacity to think abstractly. Children between four to nine years possess high energies and will have trouble concentrating on senseless or uninteresting things as far as they are concerned (Blades et al., 2011).

However, through the adolescent stage, they begin to interpret problems that are more sophisticated. In advanced years, children experience qualitative transformations as they tend towards abstract thinking, systematic, hypothetic, as well as deductive thinking. By the time children get to adulthood, they have fully acquired the capacity to manifest full, adult and abstract reasoning (Holland, 2008).

Meaning is actively constructed in the development of children. Cognitive theorists have unanimously agreed that children do not passively acquire knowledge, but they actively take part in its acquisition. In other words, information will not simply percolate into the brain of a child.

Children are always actively digesting new ideas, classifying them, interconnecting, and relating them to other information already familiar, and asking questions to come up with and make interpretations of their surroundings (Sternberg & Zang, 2001).

By handling objects physically, children discern relationships that exist between them. Therefore, it is not surprising that children would like to experiment virtually anything, regardless of the knowledge they have passively acquired before about it (Holland, 2008).

A child usually builds on the knowledge acquired previously. Cognitive theorists have argued that little, if any, knowledge is built on blank minds (Holland, 2008). Thus, later cognitive development can be influenced from schooling, which will build on prior skills like recognition of visual objects, knowledge of sounds and speech (literacy) and quantity estimation, individuation of objects, as well as learning of number words (numeracy) (Sternberg & Zang, 2001).

Children mentally arrange what they perceive in the surrounding. In case of new information, children adapt it to include these perceptions in their thoughts. An imbalance occurs when information fails to fit, which can be countered by assimilation or accommodation. In assimilation, new knowledge is added to existing one while, in accommodation, what is known is adjusted to fit the new one.

The cognitive development of a child is better promoted by encounters with challenging thoughts. Thus, the more a child is exposed to more challenging thoughts, the better the cognitive development (Holland, 2008).

Mental health treatment

Therapy based on the cognitive theory can be used in management of mental health of children; cognitive therapy has been used particularly in the treatment of depression. This treatment is not only active, but also structured, time-bound and problem-focused.

It is based on the fact that depression is sustained by information processing, as well as dysfunctional beliefs that are negatively biased. The treatment aids patients to learn and imagine more adaptively, thus improving motivation and behavior (Beck, 2011).

The approach entails guiding patients through numerous learning experiences that are structured. In the first place, the patient is taught how to track his negative beliefs and mental imaginations. This helps in pinpointing the link between the established mental images and thoughts and the characteristic behavior and body functioning.

Patients also learn how to recognize and validate the cognitive characteristics. They as well acquire training on how to change dysfunctional beliefs. The cognitive therapist goes further to subdivide the problems into manageable issues as a way of helping the client cope well with the problem. Moreover, the client is taught how to make decisions by evaluation the possible benefits and costs of making a given decision (Beck, 2011).

A cognitive therapist evaluates the symptoms of a depressed patient as the first therapeutic step. Thereafter, an agenda is set up, followed by a revisit of the last session. The issues that arise are discussed, and the patient is given new homework. Finally, the session is concluded and the therapist awaits feedback from the patient. Patients need about eight therapy sessions (Beck, 2011).

Socio Theory

The social theory of child development states that social interaction comes before development; consciousness and cognition result from socialization and social behavior. The theory focuses on the relationship between individuals, as well as the sociocultural context where these individuals are interacting and sharing experiences (Fararo, 2001).

Vygotsky coined this theory that has been largely expounded since then. Culture presents individuals with features such as speech to help individuals cope with their social environment. This is how a child picks up the cultural features and uses them as avenues to voice their needs (Blades et al., 2011).

Since each developmental stage is unique, and presents different circumstances to the child, the child ends up forming new relations with the presenting social situation. This happens at every stage of development. This is representative of all the dynamic transformations taking place in development at a particular age. This indicates the path along which the child will develop newer personality features by deriving them from social reality (Winegar & Valsiner, 1992).

Every phase of development presents the child with an opportunity to understand how needs are met in life. To be able to meet the needs of the developmental stage, the child is forced to use his/her abilities to meet the given needs. Therefore, the main force that drives social development is the predicament that rises as a result of a gap between the child’s needs and the currents way of meeting the needs socially (Fararo, 2001).

As the social development of the child progresses, contradiction sets in; while the needs of this child have been met hitherto by the existing situation, new needs crop up that presuppose the new role of the kid and a corresponding social situation change.

The development is in fact actualized by the struggle to take this new role (Fararo, 2001). In a stable developmental stage, central neoformation (mode of interaction with the social environment of a child) differentiates progressively and drives restructuring of behavior of the child, eventually creating a social circumstance of development.

During critical developmental times, the central neoformation compels a break from old relationships and provides a foundation for new ones; negativism may set in at this period (Winegar & Valsiner, 1992).

Mental health treatment

Behaviors are learnt; therefore, treatment is founded on unlearning the behavior considered inappropriate and replacing it with new desirable behaviors. Based on classical conditioning, there are behaviorist therapies that can be employed to treat phobias. In this case, it involves the patient training to associate their stimulus of phobia with relaxation.

The therapy follows the following procedure: First, the patient is trained the technique of muscle relaxation and breathing exercises. The patient then is made to create a hierarchy of fear, beginning from the stimuli causing each anxiety up to images that provoke fear. Thirdly, the patient is made to work their way up from least unpleasant and applying the relaxation technique progressively, and only proceed when they feel comfortable (Holzman & Mendez, 2003).

The Behaviorist Theory

Behaviorism is a theory that focuses on the behaviors that are observable in the development of a child. The theory is based on the argument that the brain is accustomed to respond in a particular way; it is a behavior that is learnt and keeps repeating itself. The theory originated from John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner expounded the theory later. The theory is broken down to classic and operant/behavioral areas (Grace 2013).

It is commonly known that the behavior of a person is influenced by its consequences. This theory further cements that repeated efforts are not necessary in this process, but an instant response to a familiar stimulus is necessary.

Therefore, a child’s behavior can be modified by reinforcement that may be negative or positive; in this case, the child is passive. Studies have indicated that a child learns verbal behavior from the verbal community. Verbal processes can be used to create a sense of who we are by behavioral actions like control by stimulus (Blades et al., 2011).

Rewarding behavior appears to breed positive results; normally people give rewards for behaviors that are desirable. Sometimes people reward both negative and positive behavior; for instance, if a child performs well he is rewarded and if he complains in a supermarket, he is given a sweet to stop crying. This makes a child learn that the outcome is the same through her behavior.

The child’s behavior ends up being consolidated. Just knowing what is bound to happen because of a particular behavior is enough to make people behave in a certain way, even without experiencing. Nevertheless, many lessons are learnt through experience.

Children are likely to enjoy engaging in rewarding behaviors, and they enjoy the freedom of doing such things. On the other hand, they may behave in a particular way because they have had a negative experience. They will feel enslaved, when in reality their freedom still exists (Grace, 2013).

Modification of behavior entails the change of the repercussions of a particular behavior and/or applying new repercussions to direct actions. Offering incentives to encourage good behavior modifies a child’s behavior. Adults should avoid giving incentives unnecessarily or praising overly. A specific praise is more effective. In handling behaviors, it is important to have regular and realistic consequences since learning is spurred (Grace, 2013).

Mental health treatment

Developing positive associations with others is very crucial in an individual’s mental health. Social therapy is used to aid children acquire strategies of creating friendships as they get older. This is important in reducing a sense of loneliness, stresses, as well as a sense of isolation. Children are naturally eager to seek companionship, and social therapy takes advantage of this need.

This intervention is group-centered, but also considers the role of an individual in that particular group. The therapy is particularly used to manage psychological issues/ anxiety by controlling emotions and creating links to others. This is done by the patient taking part in group therapeutic settings. Social therapy focuses on the health and welfare of an integral part of a group.

The therapy involves training children to learn via interactions with other people, promoting positive social associations, assisting children develop confidence, creating sustainable social surrounding for children, and empowering children to make contributions to the group.

Social therapy can be conducted in many ways, but a therapist first learns predisposing behaviors, breaks them down to manageable levels, arranges intricate behavior and emotions in a particular order to tackle them singly, identifies behaviors that work and those that do not, and finally implements and trains the alternative behaviors (Sprandlin, 2003).

Similarities in the theories

All the theories attempt to describe the development of behavior in human beings. The theories seem to agree that development is influenced by stimuli. The theories share the belief that learning ought to be objective and be founded on the findings of empirical research.

All the theories recognize the responses that individuals make towards stimuli. Finally, the theories are founded on feedback and generally describe the effect that the environment has on an individual (Weegar & Pacis, 2012).

Differences in the theories

Behaviorism and social theories are more concerned with more visible behavior, while cognitive theory is based less on visible behavior and focuses more on the thought process behind behavior, which the other two do not explain (Harland, 2012). The cognitive theory tries to explain behavior development from a purely biological perspective, while the others blend perspectives.

The three theories also differ on the question of whether mental representations (as argued by the cognitive theory) have a role in development of behavior. The behaviorist theory and the social theory bring out the learner as a passive participant in the learning process. The cognitive theory, on the other hand, presents the learner as an active participant (Weegar & Pacis, 2012).

References

Beck, J. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy- basic principles of cognitive therapy. Guilford Press psychCentral Professional. Web.

Blades, M., Smith, P. K., & Cowie, H. (2011). Understanding children’s development. New York, NY: Wiley-Blackwell.

Fararo, T. J. (2001). Social action systems: Foundation and synthesis in sociological theory. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Grace, E. (2013). B.F. Skinner’s behavioral theory. Kid’s development. Web.

Harland, B. (2012). Difference between social learning and behaviorism. Web.

Holland, P. C. (2008). Cognitive versus stimulus-response theories of learning. Learning & Behavior, 36(3), 227-241.

Holzman, L., & Mendez, R. (Eds.) (2003). Psychological investigations: a clinician’s guide to social therapy. New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge.

Kail, R. V. (2011). Children and their development (6th Edition) (Mydevelopmentlab Series). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall

Sprandlin, S. E. (2003). Don’t let your emotions run your life: How dialectical behavior therapy can put you in control. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc.

Sternberg, R. J., & Zhang, L. (2001). Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Weegar, M. A., Pacis, D. (2012). A comparison of two theories of learning –Behaviorism and constructivism as applied to face-to-face and online learning. San Diego, CA: National University.

Winegar, L. T., & Valsiner, J. (1992). Children’s development within social context: metatheory and theory – vol. 1. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Introduction to behaviorism

In the 60s, the disciplines of psychology and philosophy witnessed the development of behaviorism concepts. Although technically disapproved by some scholars, this school of thought was supported by other scholars like Gilbert Ryle, John B. Watson, Skinner and others. Behaviorists laid emphasis on the outward and physical aspects of thought. To them, inward experiential was a phenomenon that would be dismissed all through. Within this school of thought were several subsets that were developed in order to make up for the weaknesses that were exhibited in the prior versions. Among these subsets is logical behaviorism (Hauser, par.1).

Concepts of logical behaviorism

Logical behaviorism as a subset of the school of thought argues that talks concerning the ‘mental’ is just but the explanation of the physical behavior of a person or animal in question. This is to say that the mental states of a body can only be explained through the use of physical characteristics that the body exhibits. This school of thought is characterized by its insistence on the physicality of all the phenomena. They argue that every event, object and internal and external processes are practically physical. Just like the identity and functionalism theories, the theory of logical behaviorism purports that for an appropriate scientific explanation of the mind, physical terms make the basis of explanation. For instance, when behaviorists try to explain the concept of pain, they argue that it is impossible to explain the real meaning of pain, excitement or anger without using the physical characteristics of the subject. For example, for one to say that John is happy, he will use no other criterion to identify John’s mental state without using his physical characteristics. This is to say that the observance evidence confirms John’s state of mind. With a contorted face and groans, one will reach a conclusion that John is in pain. On the other hand, one will reach a conclusion that John is excited by observing his smiling face or jubilant mood. Other than this, nothing can explain that state that John is in if not the physical characteristics (Zuriff 36).

Objections of the school of thought

However, this school of thought has been marred by objections which have capitalized on the weaknesses of their concepts. One of these objections is founded on logical behaviorists’ argument that the mental states can only be explained through the physical characteristics of the person experiencing them. Considering the issue of pain, Putnam as quoted by Hauser argues that this explanation is inadequate. He gives the example of a community of super-spartans who are not supposed exhibit physical characteristics of pain and should by all means suppress all expressional behaviors of pain that come involuntarily. All adults in this community, despite the degree of pain, cannot expose characteristics like grinding teeth, crying, screaming, etc. In addition, they do not show any physical characteristics of a person who is enduring some pain (Hauser 2006). This example of the super Spartans shows that the logical behaviorists’ explanation cannot define the issue of pain adequately. In this case, the behaviorists will hence say that there is no pain in the adult Spartans when in real sense they experience pain and suffering just like the rest of the world does. Only, they have learnt to suppress their pains without exhibiting any physical characteristic that would betray their mental state.

The intentional circle

The intentional circle marks another objection of this school of thought. Those advocating against the theory argue that predispositions play an important role in determining a person’s behavior. A good example is shown by Chisholm and Geach as quoted by Hauser (2006) who argue on the lines that a person will only decide to wear heavy clothing if he believes beyond reasonable doubt that it is going to be cold. This decision to put on heavy clothes will not just come up as a result of the weather being cold, but the intension to stay warm. As a result, staying warm becomes the major reason as to why the person wore heavy clothing. However, an observer would say that the person wore warm clothes because he was sure that it was going to be cold. In real sense, the intension of the person could be different. However sure he might be that it is going to be cold, one may refuse to put on warm clothing because he does not want to be warm. Putting this on the basic logical behaviorists’ argument of pain, one would say that it is inaccurate to define someone’s behavior physically without putting into consideration other environmental factors that could influence the person’s decision. An individual might feel pain and have a disposition to behave normally. Such an individual will show the normal characteristics of pain. However, one might have the predisposition not to show the pain as in the case of the Super-Spartans. On the other hand, one might not have any pain but decide to expose characteristics of a person in pain. This means that physical characteristics are not the best ways of explaining the mental state of an individual. In conclusion, a mental state can only exhibit certain physical characteristics in relation to other mental states. A single state cannot, on its own, develop certain specified characteristics. This is what logical behaviorists failed to put into consideration. According to them, a specified mental state will automatically result to specified physical characteristics without being affected by other states.

Support of the concepts

Considering the given objections, how can the logical behaviorists support their arguments? On their part, they argue that Spartans do not behave as expected. It is evident that Spartans do not exhibit the characteristics of pain despite being in pain. But this is a learned response that they develop over a long period of time. Therefore, it is true that pain will be expressed physically. Only learned behavior can make a person act otherwise. As a good explanation, if an individual is disposed to behave normally, his true mental state will be expressed through the physical characteristics. For example, if the Spartans were disposed to behave naturally and not to cover up their true mental states through years of practice, the physical characteristics could truly exhibit their true nature of pain. Similarly, this could apply to the case of the X-worlders. In their case, they are not only supposed not to exhibit any characteristics of pain, but they are also not supposed to mention the word. This means that in their world, pain does not exist at all. They are trained from childhood not to acknowledge the existence of pain (Hauser 2006). Therefore, using the logical behaviorists approach would mean that pain never exists at all in the X-worlders, a supposition that is not true. As human beings, they must experience pain. This brings us to the same argument. These are learned responses. The X-worlders, just like the super Spartans, are trained to suppress the true physical characteristics of pain. However, if disposed to behave normally and avoid suppression of their true feelings, they would show physical characteristics hence justifying the logical behaviorists’ conception that pain can only be identified and explained through the physical characteristics of the individual.

Works Cited

Hauser, Larry.” Behaviorism”. Internet Encyclopedia of Psychology. 2006. Web.

Zuriff, Gerald. Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.

Introduction

For effective training, different strategies are used to ensure that pertinent information is conveyed from the tutor or the instructor to the students or trainees. For effective communication, the training needs to be carried out in a well designed process taking onto consideration various factors. A number of training designs are currently used. These training kits need to be designed following the major theories of training and educations. This work will evaluate a training practices developed for the healthcare organization particularly those dealing with reproductive health and family planning. The training practice was developed by conference held in the US. The training program was developed with a view of improving performance by training medical staff: this encompasses; getting stakeholder agreement, conducting performance needs, identifying the root cause for the training, selecting the methods of interventions, implementing the intervention, monitoring and evaluation the performance after training (Sullivan, 2002).

Theories Used

There are three main underpinning theories in training; these theories are elaborated as follows:

1. Behaviorism: This theory is based on the fact that a new behavior pattern is repeated until it becomes the norm. The theory is based on behavior which can be observed and measured. The theory ignores the thought process in the mind
2. Cognitivism: The theory is based on the processes that occur when a behavior is formed. The theory holds that changes in behavior patterns can be observed and used as indicators of what is going through the learners mind. The theory stresses on the role of feedback from the learners such as the correctness of their responses.
3. Constructivism: This theory is based on the fact that learners can create their own perspectives through what they experience. This theory is useful in helping a learner solve issue in ambiguous situations

Theories Inherent in the Training Design

Behaviorism

This theory is best demonstrated in the training design through skill development. During the training, skill development and assessment will be done. This requires an acquired behavior.

Follow up and transfer: the training design emphasize on the need for follow-up on what the trainees have learned “On-The-Job-Performance”

Cognitivism

This theory is widely used in this leading training design. Some aspects include:

• Schema: New information is compared with existing structure such as the training aids
• Meaningful effects: Used in form of training aids, preparation of audio visuals, case studies and role plays.
• Practice effects: practicing improves the training. Used in this training design in the form of the trainees working with patients, working with other clients and simulations. Skills are also demonstrated by assessing trainees with clients and patients (lanchard & Thacker, 2010)
• Transfer effects: Involves incorporating the effects of prior learning into current learning; for example, the strengthening of in-service education by using pre-service education
• Advance organizers: prepare the leaner on the material they are about to learn; they include the use of manuals for training
• Use of guest speakers: the guest speakers enhance the learning process through cognitive methods
• Interactive presentation: They aid in training the workers

Constructivism

These are learning attribute which help learners create their own perceptions. In this training design; the theory is applied in the following areas;

• Problem solving: This comes in form of questions directed to the trainees
• Individual learning: The individuals practice alone and make decisions
• Distance learning: The learners learn and practice on their own
• Barnstorming: The learners generate new ideas
• Discussions: They trigger independent thinking

References

lanchard, P., & Thacker, J. (2010). Effective Training (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sullivan, R. (2002).Top 10 in Training: Reflections from the Best Practices in Training Conference. Web.

The Theories Defined

• All behavior learned by positive reinforcement;
• People learn by modeling, observation, and imitation.

All behavior can be learned if positively reinforced.

There is no punishment, only taking away desired reward.

Social learning: people learn from each other.

By observation, imitation and modeling (McAdams, 2006).

McAdams, D. (2006). The person: A new introduction to personality psychology. (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

The Roots of Behaviorism

• The “blank slate” claim.
• There is no inherent personality, talent.
• No will, intent or personal responsibility.
• Learn anything and be anyone.
• Only external stimuli matter.

1. Locke’s tabula rasa and utilitarianism.
2. Watson’s behaviorism.
3. Pavlov’s conditioned stimulus.
4. There is no inherent personality.
5. Neither are there inborn differences in talent.
6. Thoroughly “proven” in laboratory animals.
7. No will, intent or personal responsibility.

Skinner’s Totally Pliable Laboratory Animals

• In a Skinner Box.
• Animals can learn or avoid anything.
• With positive reinforcement.
• Or adversive stimulus.
• High learning rates, obsessively so.

1. Rats in the Skinner Box.
2. Positive reinforcement: food and water.
3. Adversive stimulus: electric shock.
4. Repeatedly exhibit behavior, to the point of obsession.
5. Explained by either external stimulus.
6. Or physiological change.

The Trouble with People…

• Skinner made the jump from rats to his own daughter;
• Classical conditioning = simple learning;
• Pleasure/Pain alone cannot explain child development;
• Behavior is extinguished if positive reinforcement no longer delivered?
• Forgetting that intermittent reinforcement is the most durable;
• Moral mandate more effective than:
  • “Discriminant stimuli”;
  • “Generalization”;
  • Society’s ultimate good brings the most pleasure.

Classical conditioning explains only simple learning.

Because child development combines cognitive, affective and motor development over a very long time.

At least for rats and pigeons. And possibly recidivist criminals.

Contrary to how the Epicureans invoked greater good, humans more likely swayed by instant gratification, the pleasure of the moment.

The Essence of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

• Attention, memory and motivation.
• Reinforcement.
• Constant interaction among cognitive, behavioral, environmental influences.

1. Accommodates attention, memory and motivation.
2. Reinforcement = absorbing the consequences for others.
3. Constant interaction among cognitive, behavioral, environmental influences.
4. This explains both interpersonal and intergenerational violence.
5. As well as uncontrolled learning from the Internet, for both violence and pornography.

Social Modeling Requires

• Attention modified by:
  • Attributes of external influence (1);
  • One’s characteristics (2);
  • Retaining what caught your attention (3);
  • Reproducing the absorbed image (4);
  • Strongly motivated to replicate (5);

1. Distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value.
2. E.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement.
3. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal.
4. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
5. Having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model).

Social Learning and Behaviorism

• Behavior responds to the environment.
• And modifies the environment.
• Personality and psychological processes mediate the behavior-environment interaction.

1. Behavior not explained solely by externals.
2. The environment and external stimuli.
3. Behavior also modifies the environment.
4. For example, adolescent rebellion and aggression.
5. Personality and psychological processes mediate the behavior-environment interaction.

The Implications for American Environmentalism

• Can’t generalize from pigeons and rats.
• If man product solely of environment.
• He is not ultimately responsible.
• Logical end-result: close all jails, release sex offenders back to the community.

1. Human cognition no different from pigeons and rats (Richelle, 1995).
2. Man is product solely of the reinforcements he received while growing up.
3. Or the social learning he is exposed to.
4. He is not ultimately responsible.
5. There are no hard-and-fast moral rules.
6. Only situational ethics.

Richelle, M. (1995). B.F. Skinner: A reappraisal. East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.

Troubling Questions about Skinner’s Walden Two

• Who is to say what is desirable?
• You can’t wait for desired behavior
• Turns out emotions also exist (Skinner)
• How control the stimuli that impinge on man?
• What about the overriding moral imperative?

1. Who defines what is socially desirable?
2. Is there a moral imperative after all? (Rand, 1984).
3. Wait for desired behavior or teach it?
4. You can’t wait, you must teach (e.g. sex education).
5. Why bother then with emotional control?
6. Is communal control possible in the age of vast communication possibilities?

Rand, A. (1984). The stimulus and the response: Who needs it? In, Philosophy: Who needs it? New York: Signet Books. Chapter 13.

Human Consciousness Overrides Pleasure and Social Pressure

• Man aspires to be more than hedonist.
• Or pliant social animal.
• There are moral absolutes.
• And legal ones desired by the community.

1. Man aspires to be more than hedonist.
2. Or pliant social animal.
3. Judaeo-Christian religion: “Thou shalt not kill”.
4. Even if your enemy be pagan “infidel”.
5. Even if aborting the fetus relieves you of consequences.
6. The law: No drugs, period. DUI kills, don’t do it.

Beyond Social Learning

• Social models not good enough.
• Biased media and the Net full of shoddy models.
• Neither behaviorism nor social learning fully explain.
• Man’s craving to be altruistic.
• Across all strata.

If “duty, honor and country” depends on social context alone

Why is it a universal truth?

Are war resisters the right model? Or a product of media bias?

Where is the behaviorist and social value in helping the disadvantaged?

If spirituality and religion do not matter, why volunteer for missionary duty?

Answer: To be human is to be altruistic

Beyond the limitations of income, gender, personality, talent and context.

“Love is worth waiting for”

• Why have adolescents responded?
• Despite peer pressure and tacit consent?
• Don’t behaviorism and social learning say, “Pleasure now!”?
• But there is postponed gratification
• Humans are not rats and pigeons
• To be a person is to own freedom and dignity

Why does this strike a compelling chord?

Isn’t peer pressure all-powerful?

Don’t parents and school authorities tacitly condone adolescent sex? (Society for Adolescent Medicine, 2006).

Behaviorists say, it is coercive to withhold contraceptive information.

Don’t behaviorism and social learning agree, “Pleasure now!”?

Answer: neither theory accommodates postponed gratification.

Making hard choices = cements the ability to stay on the path to maturity.

Humans are not animal instinct and social learning solely.

We own the freedom and dignity behaviorism and social learning deny.

Society for Adolescent Medicine (2006). Abstinence-only education policies and programs: A position paper. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38: 83-87.

Behaviorism is one of the psychological theories which help to explain human behavior and actions, motives and internal and external drivers. Behaviorism underlies a particular science of behavior rather than that science itself. This theory involves philosophy of science, a philosophy of mind, an empirical background theory. Behaviorism is not the science of behavior developed by behaviorists but the framework underlying that science.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) is an American psychologist who created radical behaviorism. His theory is based on verbal behavior factors applied to different settings and environments. His main works are Beyond Freedom and Dignity Verbal Behavior and science and Human Behavior. Skinner studied psychology at Harvard University and received PhD in 1931 (Slater 8). Critics admit that he was influenced by B. Russell and his study An Outline of Philosophy. In this book, Russell analyzes and depicts behavioral patterns and psychology of J. B. Watson. Also, Skinner was interested in works by physiologist Cozier (Slater 10). During his college years, Skinner developed “the rate of response” theory, a core of psychological research. Further, Skinner suggests how a verbal community can train speakers to respond discriminatively to private stimuli. Skinner theorizes that in teaching verbal responses to private stimuli, the verbal community makes use of public stimuli tied to the private stimulation.

The verbal responses constituting the language of first-person reports are thus not a purely phenomenal vocabulary-they must have some tie, however tenuous, to public stimuli. It is therefore possible for a verbal community to train its members to speak about private stimuli (Slater 12). He does not trust first person reports of private events and does not use them as observation reports. His reasons for rejecting introspection are thus based, in part, on an unproven empirical hypothesis and constitute a fifth behaviorist objection to introspection.. In practice, Skinner does agree with the behaviorist exclusion of introspection from scientific methods of observation. Skinner explains behavior as a function of environment. He developed operant conditioning chamber tool which helps to investigate and analyze behavior in certain conditions. Skinner’s theoretical concepts consist of intervening variables, such as drive, and private events, consisting of covert stimuli and responses. Theory, for Skinner, consists of economical descriptions of functional relations which subsume a number of behavioral regularities. Skinner’s approach, radical behaviorism, does not require truth by consensus. He admits that at certain points in the history of science and for certain subject matters, these methods may be appropriate, but not for psychology whose subject matter, behavior, shows lawfulness at the level of observables (Slater 15).

The value of this approach for childhood education is that it can help researchers to explain and understand emotions, thinking and perceptions as factors of investigation. Skinner relies on inductive approach and sees data as the core of any research (Hetherington et al 23). Because Skinner objects to both intervening variables and hypothetical constructs, he objects to theories containing theoretical concepts. Moreover, Skinner also claims that psychological theories in general are neither necessary nor desirable. Skinner supposes that theory has a detrimental influence on the development of psychology. He is particularly concerned with the methods, especially hypothetico-deductive techniques, prescribed for the scientist to follow in formulating theory.

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Soviet development psychologist working on child development theories and education. He developed cultural-historical psychology and worked on detectology. His main works are Psychology of Art (1925) and Thought and Language (1934). Developmental psychology aimed to explain and analyze stages of child’s development and maturity process. It studies psychological changes take place in children and adults during different stages of development and ages.

In contrast with other important early Soviet psychologists, who had either physiological or philosophical backgrounds, Vygotsky was initially a literary critic and school teacher. His psychological theory was apparently much influenced by his analysis of Hamlet, the subject of his master’s thesis in 1916, and his study of linguistic philosophers such as Mikhail Bakhtin (Oakley 10). Vygostky graduated Moscow University in 1917 and worked at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow. One of Vygotsky’s main propositions, that internalized signs become the psychological tools that serve as intermediaries between the external world and actions, was quite in line with the idea espoused by many writers and thinkers of the 1920s (Oakley 12).

Vygotsky placed more emphasis on the internalization of signs as psychological tools that made it possible for the developing human being to operate within, and be part of, the cultural context than on early practical infant activity insofar as psychological development is concerned. His main theories are mediation and internalization, philosophy of science and methodology of research, high mental functions and zone of proximal development (Oakley 14). Vygotsky claimed that the internalization of signs (as psychological tools) represents a primary process in the formation of a person’s psychological structure, emphasizing the role of speech; Rubinstein emphasized the structuring power of practical activity including preverbal activities.

The personality principle affirms that psychological states and processes do not function or exist independent of the total person and that it is always a person who perceives, thinks or feels. Vygotsky proposed that the theoretical and empirical contents–that is, the conceptual and factual material–and the means of the organization and study of that material, all of which constituted the “corpus” of psychology, be differentiated. The means was the scientific method itself, which, at that time, was considered to be dialectics in its Hegelian variation that Marx had “put back on its feet from standing on its head” (Oakley 16). His view of signs as indirect stimuli interposed between stimuli and responses, in the classic behavioristic models, however, added nothing to the understanding of the problem. The most serious deficiency in Vygotsky’s theory, in my opinion, is his failure to explain how signs relate to “lower natural psychic” functions (Oakley 19). The cultural and historical conception was the attempt to study experimentally the changes in the psyche influenced by historical changes in culture (using the central Asian region) ended in failure again, due to ideological criticism.

His theories and methods allow childhood educators to understand development processes and stages of development. Humans require another kind of mental development: historical developmental laws. The tool, according to Karl Marx, offered the rational means to go beyond animal instinct; it expressed a human relation of activity to object. Tools develop through work, a key concept in dialectical materialism because of its relation to alienation. Work for others can be alienating if the profit is not distributed justly (Stassen 23).

For educators working with children, it is crucial to understand learning processes and psychological development of children at different age. Thus, psychology deals with concepts important to the professional and private spheres: activity, group, and “the collective.” However, the acknowledgment of statistical and mathematical methods occurred without extensive application of them. Both theorists, Skinner and Vygotsky have explained psychological practice and its impact on children and their behavior. Practice in everyday education and social life reveals the complexity of ideology’s influence on culture. But practice also refers to actual psychological investigative practice. The reception of the psychological practice and theories of Skinner and Vygotsky reflects practice in both senses. Attachment theory and radical behaviorist theory entered into education (Hetherington et al 29).

Many theoretical concepts are unproblematic because they represent mere transformations within the behavioral data language. “Rate of response” is an example of a concept which integrates over multiple observations but is not the equivalent of the set of them. Similarly, the “average number of subjects turning right,” when not a whole number, represents a datum that cannot possibly be observed. Behaviorism represents the assumptions, values, and presuppositions implicit in this science (Slater 21). Behaviorism represents a certain set of values. It recommends goals for behavioral science and suggests standards for evaluating scientific activity. Values are even more salient with respect to applied behavioral science in which behaviorism promotes applications congruent with particular social aims. The boundaries of the behavioral data language are not sharply defined by both theorists (Hetherington et al 21).

Wherever they are drawn, the study of behavior must exceed them to establish a science. It must transcend the immediate momentary observation to impose or discover coherence in its subject matter. Vygotsky, during the 1920s, focused his efforts on the so-called higher psychic functions, including thought, speech, selective attention, concept formation, and logical memory. It is clear that he was little concerned with investigating the nature and role of feelings and will, both of which are also higher psychic phenomena. He also was not concerned with lower psychic processes. These concepts allow educators to analyze behavior of children and their motives, and, as the most important, develop unique strategies and tools to guide and teach children. Vygotsky’s theory offers insights into the psychological development of individuals by stressing the basic role played by signs in the ontogenetic self-mastering of “natural psychic processes” (Stassen 7).

His observation that there are changes in the intermediate roles of signs during the course of ontogenetic development is especially important even though there are other ways of interpreting this process–for instance, that the signs, as bearers of social knowledge, mutually interpenetrate with existing knowledge (Hetherington et al 83). Specific prescription for moving toward a more conceptually integrated psychology, and thus eliminating the crisis in psychology, is to propose that consciousness and activity are unified. This principle, while important, refers only to the social aspect of the human being and not to the psyche as a whole. Children education would benefit if progress are made in establishing a fundamental science of society. The concepts sign, activity, and communication are crucial for educators because they help to find an individualistic approach to every child and understand his inner self. Development is best viewed as a personality system consisting of the intellectual, emotional-sensual, and volitional traits of character. These theories allow educators view children as social beings and society as a system of personalities.

Draft

Behaviorism is not the science of behavior developed by behaviorists but the framework underlying that science. Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) is an American psychologist who created radical behaviorism. Behaviorism represents a certain set of values. It recommends goals for behavioral science and suggests standards for evaluating scientific activity. Values are even more salient with respect to applied behavioral science in which behaviorism promotes applications congruent with particular social aims. The boundaries of the behavioral data language are not sharply defined by both theorists (Hetherington et al 21).

His theory is based on verbal behavior factors applied to different settings and environments. He was influenced by B. Russell and his study An Outline of Philosophy. During his college years, Skinner developed “the rate of response” theory, a core of psychological research. Further, Skinner suggests how a verbal community can train speakers to respond discriminatively to private stimuli. The verbal responses constituting the language of first-person reports are thus not a purely phenomenal vocabulary-they must have some tie, however tenuous, to public stimuli. It is therefore possible for a verbal community to train its members to speak about private stimuli (Slater 12). Theory, for Skinner, consists of economical descriptions of functional relations which subsume a number of behavioral regularities. Skinner’s approach, radical behaviorism, does not require truth by consensus. He admits that at certain points in the history of science and for certain subject matters, these methods may be appropriate, but not for psychology whose subject matter, behavior, shows lawfulness at the level of observables (Slater 15). Skinner supposes that theory has a detrimental influence on the development of psychology. He is particularly concerned with the methods, especially hypothetico-deductive techniques, prescribed for the scientist to follow in formulating theory.

This approach can help researchers to explain and understand emotions, thinking and perceptions as factors of investigation. Skinner relies on inductive approach and sees data as the core of any research (Hetherington et al 23). Because Skinner objects to both intervening variables and hypothetical constructs, he objects to theories containing theoretical concepts. Moreover, Skinner also claims that psychological theories in general are neither necessary nor desirable. Wherever they are drawn, the study of behavior must exceed them to establish a science. It must transcend the immediate momentary observation to impose or discover coherence in its subject matter.

Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a development psychologist working on child development theories and education. His main works are Psychology of Art (1925) and Thought and Language (1934). In contrast with other important early Soviet psychologists, who had either physiological or philosophical backgrounds, Vygotsky was initially a literary critic and school teacher. His psychological theory was apparently much influenced by his analysis of Hamlet, the subject of his master’s thesis in 1916, and his study of linguistic philosophers such as Mikhail Bakhtin. Vygostky graduated Moscow University in 1917 and worked at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow. Vygotsky placed emphasis on the internalization of signs as psychological tools that made it possible for the developing human being to operate within, and be part of, the cultural context than on early practical infant activity insofar as psychological development is concerned.

His main theories are mediation and internalization, philosophy of science and methodology of research, high mental functions and zone of proximal development. Vygotsky proposed that the theoretical and empirical contents–that is, the conceptual and factual material–and the means of the organization and study of that material, all of which constituted the “corpus” of psychology, be differentiated. The means was the scientific method itself, which, at that time, was considered to be dialectics in its Hegelian variation that Marx had “put back on its feet from standing on its head” (Oakley 16). His view of signs as indirect stimuli interposed between stimuli and responses, in the classic behavioristic models, however, added nothing to the understanding of the problem. The most serious deficiency in Vygotsky’s theory, in my opinion, is his failure to explain how signs relate to “lower natural psychic” functions (Oakley 19). The cultural and historical conception was the attempt to study experimentally the changes in the psyche influenced by historical changes in culture (using the central Asian region) ended in failure again, due to ideological criticism.

Vygotsky, during the 1920s, focused his efforts on the so-called higher psychic functions, including thought, speech, selective attention, concept formation, and logical memory. It is clear that he was little concerned with investigating the nature and role of feelings and will, both of which are also higher psychic phenomena. He also was not concerned with lower psychic processes. These concepts allow educators to analyze behavior of children and their motives, and, as the most important, develop unique strategies and tools to guide and teach children. Vygotsky’s theory offers insights into the psychological development of individuals by stressing the basic role played by signs in the ontogenetic self-mastering of “natural psychic processes” (Stassen 7). His theories and methods allow childhood educators to understand development processes and stages of development. Humans require another kind of mental development: historical developmental laws. The tool, according to Karl Marx, offered the rational means to go beyond animal instinct; it expressed a human relation of activity to object. The concepts sign, activity, and communication are crucial for educators because they help to find an individualistic approach to every child and understand his inner self. Development is best viewed as a personality system consisting of the intellectual, emotional-sensual, and volitional traits of character. These theories allow educators view children as social beings and society as a system of personalities.

Works Cited

Hetherington, E.M., Parke, R.D., Gauvain, M., Locke, V. Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages, 2005.

Oakley, L. Cognitive Development. Routledge, 2004.

Stassen, K. The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence. 2002.

Slater, L. Opening Skinner’s Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century. W W Norton & Co Ltd; Auflage, 2004.