Category: Behaviorism

Learning is a process that puts together emotional, environmental, and cognitive experiences and influences for enhancing, acquiring, and making changes in ones values, knowledge, skills, and views. The description of what happens is what constitutes the learning theories. Learning, therefore, has two values which include providing vocabulary and the conceptual framework for interpreting them and places to look for solutions in case of practical problems. This paper seeks to identify and describe two learning theories and the activities involved in the learning process (Tolman, 2000).

The learning theories can be grouped into the following categories: Behaviorism, which focuses on the observable behavior of human beings; cognitive, where learning is seen as a purely neurological and mental process; humanistic, in which emotions and effects have a role in learning; and social which recognizes that humans learn best when involved in group activities. Some of these theories developed from negative reactions of earlier theories while others developed as a result of taking the initial ones to a more sophisticated level. This paper will focus only on two learning theories chosen to aid the learners through the learning activities. That is the behaviorism learning theory and the cognitive learning theory (Jones, 2004).

The rationale for choosing the behaviorism learning theory lies in its foundation and principle of the stimulus-response act. All the behavior exhibited by learners can be explained without considering the state of consciousness. This learning theory is appropriate for learners because it assumes that the learner is passive essentially and only responds to the environmental stimuli. It is a good learning theory, especially where the learner starts from a clean state which is the case of our learners.

In order to ensure that the learning theory is being utilized fully, the tutor must see to it that the behavior of the learners is shaped via positive or negative reinforcement, whichever suits the purpose of learning. Both the negative and positive reinforcement has an increasing ability on the probability that the behavior antecedent will have to occur again.

Positive reinforcement indicates that there is an application of the stimulus while negative reinforcement has an indication of withholding the stimulus. Learning in this case of behaviorism theory is a change in the learners behavior. This learning theory is feasible to our learners in that it is built on the effects of the learners emotions which form part of great learning (Henle, 2003).

As a tutor, I also chose cognitivism as a learning theory to help our learners in their learning process. The rationale for choosing this learning theory is that it has its basis in the mind of the learner. It argues that the mind of the learner should remain open and understood. In this learning theory, a learner is viewed as one who processes information. The cognitivism learning theory is appropriate to learners because it majorly focuses on the mental activities of the learner.

It opens the learners mind. This learning theory is feasible in that it opens the human mind and views it as a valuable thing that is necessary in order to understand the manner in which people learn. So as to ensure the learning theory is utilized fully, the tutor helps the learners to explore their mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, and knowing. This learning theory is also best for the learners as it views knowledge as a symbolic or just schema of mental constructions. Here, learning is referred to as the change in the schemata of the learner. The cognitivism learning theory uses a metaphor of the mind, which in this case is the computer, where the information comes in, processed, and produces some outcomes (Tolman, 2000).

The activities involved in both the learning theories are similar and are a good example of the application of both theories. Some of the activities involved in these learning theories include the teacher directly involving the learners in the learning process and giving them group assignments as well as individual assignments. In a classroom set up, the teacher would do the following activities to ensure the two learning theories discussed above are utilized fully;

• The teacher greets the learners and introduces the topic of study.
• The teacher asks the learners what views they have concerning the topic of study and then comments on their opinions.
• The teacher involves the learners in the study through group participation and assignments.
• The teacher gives the learners class assignments and marks in class for evaluation of the whole lesson.
• The teacher finally gives a take-home assignment for further evaluations (Jones, 2004).

In summary, the mentioned activities will be taken as the steps that the tutor will take in order to ensure the learning theories are followed and utilized fully for an effective learning process.

References

Henle, M. (2003). Gestalt Psychology and Therapy. New York: Cengage Learning.

Jones, M. (2004). Pedagogical Seminary. London: Springer.

Tolman, E. (2000). Psychological Review. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Abstract

The aim of this report was to study the impact Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) has on a child’s ability to read, write, speak and listen and what strategies could be implemented to aid in reducing the effects. The report highlights the application of the Behaviourist Theory to the language intervention of a child diagnosed with APD. The report involved researching how a child’s language acquisition and development was affected by APD and how the application of the Behaviourist Theory’s strategies would evidently assist in reducing the implications faced. B.F Skinner’s Behaviourist Theory was found to be the most effective learning strategy to employ when attempting to improve the language acquisition of a child suffering from APD. Based on the findings in this research report, the Behaviourist Theory is an effective and rewarding method to implement in order to improve a child’s engagement in learning aspects of language and behaviour. Continued application of the Behaviourist Theory as a method of intervention on a child’s language skills will ensure the child, whether dealing with APD or not, is exposed to the chance of continual personal growth and development.

Introduction

There are various learning strategies that could be implemented to improve a child’s language acquisition. One approach to language growth is the Behaviourist Theory. According to Cox (2012, p. 1), all learning is a result of stimulus response and that people will learn when they are rewarded for their efforts. The Behaviourist Theory’s main focus is the learning outcomes when a child is subjected to positive and negative reinforcements. This theory is practiced in various learning areas, although a child suffering from Auditory Processing Disorder will benefit and grow the greatest by its use. This report will assess the effects of APD on the language acquisition and development of a child and analyse the role of the Behaviourist Theory in assisting the growth of literacy and communication skills of a child living with APD. From the results of this assessment, it will be clearly evident that by incorporating the characteristics of the Behaviourist Theory in attempt to improve the language acquisition and language development of a child with APD, is the most effective approach.

Summary

Max, age 9, is a primary school student suffering from APD. This means Max cannot process the meaning of sentences and struggles to express his thoughts to others. Therefore, it is particularly difficult for Max to communicate with his peers as he struggles to converse his thoughts in a way that others understand as he has limited vocabulary compared to them. Before seeking help, learning new words was troublesome for Max. This makes social situations challenging as he is unable to communicate effectively. This led Max to lash out at teachers or other students from frustration. Max’s main issue involved him confusing his tenses, repeating sentences when telling stories or answering questions and saying sentences that didn’t always make sense. This made his problem evident to his peers. Max’s difficultly to listen, follow directions and short attention span was a key indicator of this disorder. APD is not curable but is treatable. Since Max started working with a speech therapist once a week to improve his language acquisition through speech therapy and literacy interventions, Max has been acting out less frequently and becomes further involved in his learning. Max’s teacher incorporates the use of short, simple sentences, repeating and rephrasing sentences to communicate meaning to help with the improvement of his language acquisition. His teacher ensures that she gets Max’s attention before giving any instructions and incorporates visual stimulus to support any oral instructions she gives. After a year of therapy and work, Max is acting out less frequently and is more involved in his learning in the classroom. His grades have improved, and he becomes frustrated less often as his communication skills continue to improve.

Mode and Skills Development

APD effects the progression of a child’s essential literacy and communication skills such as reading, writing, speaking and listening (The Speech Language Advisory Council, 2012). Max obtains a sound understanding of language development, although there are language areas that Max needs to improve. With the use of pragmatic language skills, Max is able to use his literacy and communication skills more efficiently and effectively. Pragmatic language is non-verbal communication, where children learn to use this effectively in social contexts. Another section of this language development is children learning to take turns when conversing, staying on relevant topics in a conversation and stating their messages clearly using and conforming to the cultural rules of interaction (Berk, 2013). Max heavily relies on teachers and family members to use and exaggerate pragmatic language as a way of communicating. This can help Max understand what is being asked of him as well as assist him in communicating things that he may not otherwise be able to communicate verbally. Max must also possess Speech Register as another language skill. This skill demonstrates the appropriate use of language for various roles and situations and the ability to adjust one’s language to better suit social situations (Berk, 2013). Max has a basic understanding of speech register as he is able to identify and use different language devices when talking to his teacher compared to his friends, although his APD may cause misunderstanding or difficulty when conversing with these people.

Age

Max has continued to struggle his whole life to keep up with his peers in the area of language. All areas of language begin to develop at a slower rate for Max, due to his APD. This disorder has affected the age when Max should develop and begin to use grammatical language, such as; telegraphic speech, S.V.O structuring and auxiliary verbs (Morlet, 2014). Telegraphic speech starts to develop in children at 18 months to 2 years old (Fromkin, 2018), whereas Max did not begin to develop it until he was 3 – 4 years old, making him a late talker. By the time a child is 3.5 – 4 years of age they should begin to apply the fundamental subject-verb-object (S.V.O) structure to form grammatically correct sentences (Berk, 2013). S.V.O still has not yet been fully acquired by Max as he is still unable to make sense worthy sentences. At 3 – 3.5 years of age, children begin to add auxiliary verbs and become aware of the way they combine negatives into a sentence, for example, ‘There aren’t any more cookies’ which is a non-existent negative (Berk, 2013). Max may have some understanding of auxiliary verbs, however, cannot communicate auxiliary verbs to create negative sentences correctly or in a way that others can understand.

Strengths and Limitations

A child’s strengths and limitations when using language is majorly affected by his APD (Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning, 2003). In relation to Max, his strengths are revolved around Personal Development, Health and Physical Education (PDHPE) and playing as it requires little to no speech needed to be used. Although Max strives outside of the classroom, he still faces many limitations due to his APD. Communicating with others is limited as he may not speak clearly or correctly. APD causes children to often run words together, drop word endings and they will not emphasize the syllables when speaking (Schmidt, 2013). He may also confuse similar sounds, for example ‘free’ instead of ‘three’, a fair time after his peers have learned to correct themselves (Johnson, 2019). Children with APD often have difficulty developing reading, spelling and writing skills. Acquiring vowels and increasing phonemic awareness can be especially difficult. Understanding spoken instructions can be challenging for children with APD, which explains why Max tends to perform better in classes that do not rely heavily on listening (Johnson, 2019). Max experiences limitations when conforming to his social skills, as he has trouble telling stories or jokes to his peers. Children with APD may exclude themselves from conversations with peers as they find it hard to process what is being said and think of an appropriate response (Johnson, 2019).

Needs

To reduce the negative effects of APD, that Max experiences, his teachers and carers need to intervene in a number of ways. Max’s parents should incorporate techniques that are used in Max’s therapy sessions as well as; try to reduce the amount of background noise Max is subjected to when he is at home, ensure that Max is looking and paying attention to them when they are speaking and using simple and expressive sentences as well as speaking at a slightly slower rate when conversing with Max. APD can cause frustration for children when they are in a noisy setting and they are required to listen (Miller, 2019). Max’s parents may teach him to notice when he is in a noisy environment and move to a quieter setting when listening is necessary. These techniques will later be utilised within his school environment where teachers can implement even more techniques that will encourage Max’s language acquisition growth. Teachers are able to help by changing seating plans so that Max is able to sit at the front of the classroom or with his back to the window. Introducing Max to study support or computer-assisted programs designed for kids with APD, Max’s language improvement will occur a lot faster, resulting in higher grades and an improved self-esteem for Max (Morlet, 2014).

Behaviourist Theory

Behaviourist Theory Development and Research

When the Behaviourist theory was created in 1938, the idea was considered revolutionary due to its organised experimental approach to psychology studies. Skinner became interested with the way in which environmental experiences and learning causes modifications of particular behaviours, such as learning a language (Harvard University, 2016). He later created the ‘Operant Conditioning Pigeon Chamber’ and other experimental devices which allowed him to carry out measured and precise experiments. Skinner’s theory’s main concepts are in the form of either positive reinforcements or negative reinforcements. The experiments Skinner underwent discovered how behaviours could be increased or learnt with rewards or decreased or stopped with the application of punishments (Harvard University, 2016). The Behaviourist Theory highlights that people learn by receiving rewards when they exhibit a particular behaviour. This theory reinforces the idea that language is learnt by imitation, practice, feedback or reinforcement of achievements (Fellowes & Oakley, 2010). Criticism over the validity of the Behaviourist theory has included statements such as; inadequate explanations for the rate at which children learn language, no explanation for the ability of an individual to completely understand language and all of its elements and finally, the unexplained role of whether reward is essential for language growth (Fellowes & Oakley, 2010).

Relevance of Behaviourist Theory to Participant Language Acquisition

Skinner’s Behaviourist Theory analyses a child’s ability to learn, grow or perform after being positively or negatively reinforced (Mcleod, 2018). The Behaviourist Theory holds strong relations with Max’s ability to grow and build his language acquisition. APD requires a child to receive specific care and feedback in order for them to have the ability to form grammatically correct sentences and understand what is being said to them. This is why the Behaviourist Theory and children with APD work hand in hand. By rewarding Max, this will intervene with his language acquisition by building and strengthening his language weaknesses. If Max was to be positively reinforced when he does not lash out, this could potentially control his anger in social situations. On the other hand, if Max was to be negatively reinforced when he lashes out, he may react to this negatively and cause a spiral effect of negative behaviour (Prince, 2013). While negative reinforcement towards his learning, may cause Max to try harder and achieve new goals in language acquisition. Another aspect of the Behaviourist Theory that can aid in Max’s APD is repetition. By incorporating repetition in his therapy sessions, classroom and at home, Max has the opportunity to continue to improve his language skills (Kang, 2016).

Evidence of Behaviourist Theory in Action in Relevance to Participant’s Language Development

Applying the fundamentals of the Behaviourist Theory to children effected by APD, like Max, they will learn to work hard to be rewarded for positive behaviour and to reflect when they are punished for negative behaviour. Positive reinforcement will be implicated in situations where a child achieves new goals, learns new words by mimicking and attends speech intervention to positively enhance their language development (Prince, 2013). Negative reinforcement will be introduced when a child like Max, does not attempt to improve their language acquisition or when they lash out in social situations (Ackerman, 2019). To greatly improve a child’s language acquisition by applying the positive aspects of Behaviourist Theory strategies, a sticker chart method could be implemented. The child would receive a sticker every time they achieve something that assists with their language development. Once they receive ten stickers, they are given a prize or positive reinforcement as a reward. This will encourage the child to try their best when doing homework and in intervention lessons. Negative reinforcement strategies that have the potential to be implemented on children with APD, could be as simple as introducing punishments such as; time out for at home situations, and detention or rubbish duties if the child is placed within an educational environment. However, these negative reinforcements may rebound causing the child to become more aggravated towards their peers if they are being punished for; not trying hard enough as this may cause the child to become unmotivated towards improving their language acquisition or if the child is lashing out, similar to which Max does (Ackerman, 2019). This clearly demonstrates the evidential strengths and limitations the Behaviourist Theory holds in relation to a child’s ability to build their language skills when dealing with APD.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the incorporation of the factors included in the Behaviourist Theory is the utmost efficient method when aiming to enhance the language acquisition and language development of a child living with APD. After assessing the effects of APD on the language acquisition and development of a child and analysing the role of the Behaviourist Theory in assisting the growth of literacy and communication skills of a child living with APD, it is evident how these two subjects work together effectively. “According to the behaviourist perspective, learning is very much shaped by the environment and by personal experience; thus, nurture rather than nature plays the dominate role in language learning” (Fellowes & Oakley, 2010, p. 32). Max and any other child diagnosed with APD would greatly benefit their language development by enhancing B.F Skinners theoretical perspectives in both social and professional aspects of life.

References

1. Ackerman, C. (2019, July 4). 12 Examples of Positive Punishment & Negative Reinforcement. Retrieved from Positive Psychology: https://positivepsychology.com/positive-punishment/
2. Berk, L. (2013). Child Development (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
3. Cox, R. (2012). Exploring language and learning. In R. Cox (Ed.), Primary English Teaching: An Introduction to Language, Literacy and Learning (pp. 1-5). Moorabbin, Victoria: Hawker Brownlow Education.
4. Fellowes, J., & Oakley, G. (2010). Language, literacy and early childhood education. South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
5. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., Hyams, N., Amberber, M., Cox, F., Thornton, (2018). An Introduction to
6. Language: Australia and New Zealand (9th ed.). Australia: Wandsworth / Cengage Learning
7. Harvard University. (2016, September 30). Skinner and Behaviorism. Retrieved from Harvard University: https://braintour.harvard.edu/archives/portfolio-items/skinner-and-behaviorism
8. Johnson, K. (2019). Understanding Auditory Processing Disorder. Retrieved from Undrestood: https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/auditory-processing-disorder/understanding-auditory-processing-disorder#item4
9. Kang, S. (2016). Spaced Repetition Promotes Efficient and Effective Learning. Retrieved from Semantic scholar: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/52d7/5ac6080842077877219003dbfbcbea36020f.pdf
10. Mcleod, S. (2018, January 21). Skinner- Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from Simply Psychology: https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
11. Miller, C. (2019). Help for Kids With Auditory Processing Disorder. Retrieved from Child Mind Institute: https://childmind.org/article/help-for-kids-with-auditory-processing-disorder/
12. Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning. (2003). Introduction to Auditory Processing Disorders. Retrieved from Minnesota Department of Children, Families and Learning: http://www.asec.net/Archives/APD.pdf
13. Morlet, T. (2014, September). Auditory Processing Disorder. Retrieved from Kids Health: https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/central-auditory.html
14. Prince, K. (2013, February 5). The Difference between Positive/Negative Reinforcement and Positive/Negative Punishment. Retrieved from bcotb: https://bcotb.com/the-difference-between-positivenegative-reinforcement-and-positivenegative-punishment/
15. Schmidt, M. (2013). Three Aspects of APD. In M. Schmidt, A Life With Auditory Processing Disorder (pp. 1-6). Lulu Press, Inc.
16. The Speech Language Advisory Council. (2012). Auditory Processing Deficits: A Team Approach to Screening, Assessment & Intervention Practices. Retrieved from Colorado Department of Education: https://www.cde.state.co.us/sites/default/files/documents/cdesped/download/pdf/apdguidelines.pdf

Behaviorist Theory

Skinner’s standpoint was that the learning procedure must be founded on preparing like redundancy, drill and repetition so as to be effective. He likewise asserted that youngsters learned by doing. He further expressed that understudies would react as indicated by the incitement they got. As indicated by the results, which could either be sure or negative, kids would rehash a specific conduct. Skinner believed extraordinarily in uplifting feedback and felt that it could be successful in controlling conduct. For instance, if the educator gives a treat or a pencil to an understudy who has addressed effectively, at that point that understudy will be inspired to answer addresses constantly.

Innatist Perspective of Second Language Acquisition

These scholars trust that kids are brought into the world with exceptional intrinsic capacities and can find for themselves the princi-ples that are covered up in any language framework. This natural instrument enables kids to discover the implications of words, the structures of sentences and different subtleties. Youngsters just need somebody to talk a language to them always and the inherent capacities that are in them will naturally do the interpreting for them. For instance, kids can separate that the letter ‘C’ can have a ‘k’ sound just as a ‘s’ sound, for example, C for ‘cake’ and C for ‘city’.

Interactionism View of Second Language Acquisition

This hypothesis expresses that there must be an understandable contribution for language learning. It is trying for students as they need to discover the importance. For instance, if a student does not comprehend an idea, the others will utilize different informative systems to enable the other student to determine at the point. Talking all the more gradually, rehashing words or improving the sub-stance are instances of this hypothesis. Besides, if a student commits an error, the others can address it, hence the student gets an input and gradually get familiar with the right ideas. At the point when students require elucidation, they inspire enough time to comprehend the new dialect shapes that they may not know about. For instance, in a classroom circumstance where understudies are students of English as a second language, they are absolutely similar to newborn children. The educator is the grown-up who starts all communication.

This encourages the understudies to get comfortable with the English language and convey. The instructor should give them a chance to explore different avenues regarding the language regardless of whether they commit errors since they will gradually find the correct words throughout the years.

I think it is important to consider worldview when studying developmental theories because. Everyone has a different worldview and each person resonates with a different developmental theory. Personally, myself I believe in God and that god created the earth for us to inhabit and populate. I believe in the Bible and everything that it says but my neighbor they may not believe in the same worldview as I do. I think that you must learn what your worldview is before you start looking into developmental theories or you’re not going understand what they all mean. You need to ask yourself what exactly you believe your worldview is and find that out about yourself.

Behaviorism

John B. Watson who was often thought to be the father of behaviorism. Behaviorism assumes a reader is essentially passive responding to stimuli. That learner starts off with a clean slate and then their behavior is shaped from positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Both reinforcements increase the probability that the specific behavior will or won’t happen again. (David, L paragraph 2) There are two types of Behavioral Conditioning they are Classical and Operant Conditioning, Classical Conditioning consists of a neutral stimulus and a natural stimulus and Operant consists of learning through reinforcements and punishments. (Cherry, Kendra Paragraph 4) Behaviorism is mostly concerned with observable behaviors rather than internal behaviors like thinking and your emotions. (McLeod, S. A. Paragraph 2)

Behaviorism and My Worldview

I think that behaviorism and my worldview about god aligns together because there are several times in the bible that conditioning is present. Jesus denied all the times that the devil tried to get him to commit sin Jesus went to the scriptures and his respectfulness to the scriptures. I thought that made them so much alike because it was Jesus obeying scriptures that kept him from sinning. I think that was a good point that links them together. Jesus outsmarted the devil by making sure he was keeping to his scriptures so he wouldn’t sin.

In my Future Work

I think that this will help me in my future coursework because. Most of the stuff I read and researched about gave me a better understanding of what some of these developmental theories and worldviews really meant. I will this to help keep me motivated in everything that I do from day to day and to truly put more thought in what I am doing. I never would have thought reading about behaviorism would give me thoughts about my worldview and things I haven’t experienced yet. A lot of the reading I done helped me understand this a lot better and I hope to have the chance to learn some more about worldview and the different developmental theories.

Works Cited

1. David L, ‘Behaviorism,’ in Learning Theories, January 31, 2007, https://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html.
2. Cherry, K. (2019, September 24). Why Behaviorism Is One of Psychology’s Most Fascinating Branches. Retrieved October 22, 2019, from https://www.verywellmind.com/behavioral-psychology-4157183.
3. McLeod, S. A. (2017, Feb 05). Behaviorist approach. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html

Behaviorism is a psychological school of thought most prominent during the early 20th century up until the late 20th century. The paradigm as a whole defined psychology as the study of behavior rather than the study of consciousness which was once assumed as central to the field. Behaviorism can be defined as “the theory that human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns” (Behaviorism, 2019). Behaviorists’ were only focused on observable stimulus-response behaviors that are learned through interactions with the environment (McLeod, 2017). While John Watson is coined as the father of Behaviorism, researchers were conducting behaviorist like experiments that would become integral to the subfield of Behaviorism. Behaviorists’ asserted that all learning for all organisms occurred through interactions with their environment and that inherited factors were not important in this process. They theorized two distinct mechanisms of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning is a theory of associative learning developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov. While studying the digestive system of dogs, he observed that dogs would begin to salivate to stimuli associated with food without the actual presence of food. This perplexed Pavlov and lead him to conduct further experimentation to determine what caused the dogs to engage in this behavior. Pavlov’s experiments yielded evidence that suggested classical conditioning occurred in three stages: before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning. During the first stage, before conditioning, a stimulus in the environment produces a natural response in the organism. This initial stimulus is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the natural response to the stimulus is called the unconditioned response (UCR). This stage also involves a neutral stimulus (NS) that elicits no response from the individual. The second stage, during conditioning, involves continually pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus. After repeated exposure, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) when it begins to produce the same response that the unconditioned stimulus does. In the third stage, after conditioning, the newly created conditioned stimulus yields an automatic response that is the same as the original unconditioned response called a conditioned response (CR). The only difference between an unconditioned response and a conditioned response is what elicits the response to occur (either an unconditioned stimulus or a neutral stimulus). Pavlov determined that it was by this process that the dogs in his lab had learned to salivate to seemingly neutral stimuli and how other organisms learn to perform new behaviors. Classical conditioning affirms that learning occurs when a previously neutral stimulus elicits the same physiological/behavioral response as the unconditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning is a theory of learning developed by a psychologist named B.F. Skinner in 1938. It involves the use of rewards and punishments as a way to modify future behaviors. “Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence” (McLeod, 2018). Skinner identified three different responses that can occur following a behavior. The first response(s) are called neutral operants which are responses from the environment that do not have any impact on the likelihood of a given behavior occurring again. The second response(s) are called reinforcers that are responses from the environment that increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. The third response(s) are called punishers which are responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring. Reinforcement and punishment can be either positive or negative in nature. If the response is positive that means that something is added to the environment. If the response is negative that means that something has been taken away from the environment. Skinner was able to observe the effects of rewards and punishments through his experiments with animals in a ‘Skinner box’ also called puzzle boxes. Operant conditioning affirms that learning occurs through the modification of a behavior through the use of reinforcement and punishment. Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning were key tenants to the paradigm of Behaviorism.

During Behaviorism’s reign of power in the field of psychology, psychological interventions and therapies were derived from the concepts of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Research was being conducted on the two mechanisms of behavioral learning even before the subfield of Behaviorism was established (Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Thorndike’s Law of Effects which later became known as Skinner’s operant conditioning). It wasn’t until John Watson acknowledged Behaviorism as a psychological paradigm that the field of psychology evolved into the study of behavior and the complete rejection of consciousness. The presence of Behaviorism can still be felt in the field of psychology today with the emergence of Applied Behavioral Analysis.

Work Cited

1. Behaviorism: Definition of Behaviorism. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2019, from https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/behaviorism.
2. Mcleod, S. (n.d.). Skinner – Operant Conditioning. Retrieved December 5, 2019, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html.
3. Mcleod, S. (2017, February 5). Behaviorist Approach. Retrieved December 5, 2019, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html.
4. Mcleod, S. (2018, August 21). Classical Conditioning. Retrieved December 5, 2019, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html.

I am a strong believer that our behavior comes from a place of learning, understanding, and or influence. In childhood our surroundings affect the way act not only in our youth but our adulthood, if a parent treats their children with violence or if the child witnesses this type of behavior from a certain age they are more likely to true aggressive due to the experiences they face at such a young age. Our behavior can also be influences by the people we associate ourselves with, as teenagers we are very easily impressed or manipulated into acting in such way that will be accepted by our peers. We want to come off as cool or appear easy going when with our friends that it can be very easy to act out in such ways just to feel included. Our behavior is not only influenced by how are parents raise us but also by who we entangle relationships throughout our teenage and young adult life.

Our actions are never unconscious, some think that people act before thinking but I just don’t think that to be true. We all premeditate a situation before acting, even in fear we consider every possibility and we act from what we have learned can be a positive outcome, even a bad decision is premeditated before it takes place. Believing this is the only reason I do not agree with the Psychodynamic theory, I do not agree with the belief that behavior springs from nowhere or just like that, I guess it just doesn’t make any sense to me how can one just act out of impulse without any reason backing up that behavior. For the reasons explained above I would have to say I am in agreement with the Behaviorist and Cognitive theories.

What is the Behaviorist Theory? Behaviorism or also known as behavioral psychology is the believe that all human behaviors are obtained through the interactions with our environment. According to some psychologists, behavior can be studied in an orderly and visible manner regardless of one’s mental state. In other words, only behavior should be considered- emotions, and moods are to subjective to be considered. Strong believers in this theory think that anyone can perform any task through training, despite a person’s genetic background, personality, or beliefs.

Behaviorism was first established back in 1913 with the publication of John B. Watson’s paper called “Psychology and the Behaviorist View in it.” To put it in his words, John B. Watson once said, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” In other words, all behaviors are a result of our experiences not our nature. From the years 1920 to the mid-50s, behaviorism became one of- if not the main- thought in psychology. Some people think that the reason this theory grew in popularity is because the of the longing to establish psychology as an objective science.

B.F. Skinner unlike Watson focused more on the scientific explanation rather than the methods, Skinner believed in Radical Behaviorism which is the belief that observable behavior was more of a manifestation of indistinguishable mental processes. His take on behaviorism was to understand the association between an animal’s behavior and its environment.

Behaviorist psychologist have confidence that humans’ behaviors come from conditioning, which links a stimulus to the environment- like a sound, or smell, and how the human responds to that sound or smell. Studies in behaviorism demonstrated differences between two types of conditioning: Classical and Operant. Classical conditioning is the process in which a human or animal learn to associate two unrelated stimuli with one another. A good example of this is the “Little Albert” study conducted by psychologist J.B. Watson in which he trained a little boy to be afraid of a white rat through the act of sound, every time the boy was presented with the rat Watson created a loud noise to scare off the child until he no longer wanted to be near the animal from the fear of the sound that came every time he got near it.

Operant conditioning is the act in which an animal or human learn behavior through consequences. There are three types of reinforcement to this conditioning: Positive, Negative, and Punishment. An example of an experiment on operant conditioning is one by psychologist B.F. Skinner named “Skinner Boxes”. Skinner places a rat inside a box next to a lever that when it was pressed it would deliver food for the animal, once the rat realized this he began to run straight trough the lever in order to obtain the reward it came with stepping on it, after a while Skinner then placed the rat in a box with an electrified floor, when the rat stepped on the lever it would be shocked in response, and once again when it realized the outcome he strayed from the lever all completely.

As time went on Behaviorism lost power to cognitive psychology in the mid-20th century, which compares the mind to a an information processing system.

This assignment is going to compare and contrast behaviorism and the humanistic theory and find the differences in two different theories out of the four main theories. Also, there is an understanding on what the theories are and how they are used in present day.

Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions. While humanistic is looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization. Rather than concentrating on dysfunction, humanistic psychology strives to help people fulfil their potential and maximize their well-being.

Behaviorism is the school of thought that focuses on the external behavior of individuals, whereas humanism focuses on the individual as a whole. Humanism, on the other hand, is rather subjective and does not have a very scientific basis as behaviorism.

Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorism is thought to not have much free will. This is because if the person to animal is not doing what is required there will be a loud noise or sharp shock. This is proven in John B. Watson’s Little Albert experiment and Edward Thorndike’s experiments, who discovered operant conditioning. However humanistic psychologists focus on conscious experience rather than behavior, and on free will rather than determinism. Free will allows us to take responsibility for our actions in order to improve, it is vital for human progression.

The humanistic approach rejects the other approaches says they are to focused on the negative side of psychology. Humanism looks at what we need to live and thrive and looks at the individual person and what is specific to them.

Behaviorism can be objectively observed. Although it was still acknowledged that thoughts and feelings exist, they were not considered part of the science of behavior.

Behaviorists believe that if you force or strongly influence someone with reward and punishments, they will see their benefits of that behavior and believe that is better to behave like that, for example, driving at the speed limit. According to critics, behaviorism in the twenty first century it does not seem to be working just as it did in the theories of Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike and Watson. In my evaluation, I can see the down fall. When people go in criminal activity and go in to prison. There seems to be too many rewards like having a TV and PlayStation. When people get realized they seem to do more criminal activity and don’t care about the consequences. This is because there does not seem to be any punishment apart from not been free to go where they want. People sometimes struggle with money and what to go in prison because it is free living. For behaviorism to work, there would need to be more negative reinforcement to make is so people would be scared to not behave the way society would expect. Classic conditioning should be used though out the prison service, when Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike and Watson completed and proved their theories.

From the humanist perspective, in order to have a healthy society, we need to be responsible for all the people in our society. When people leave prison or finish community service, their behavior should be transformed so that they can be welcomed back into society. True rehabilitation helps someone give up crime; it makes them want to be, and become, someone who behaves legally and contributes to society. This is all part of helping someone reach self-actualization, which means a person is truly happy. Humanistic therapy also focuses more on helping the individual as a whole, rather than treating a specific diagnosis.

When using the humanistic approach in health and social care setting, the theory stresses that, first and foremost, every person is a human being. Therefore, in humanistic health and social care, the uniqueness and special nature of each individual is stressed. Health care workers not only care for their patients, but care about them. This was turned into person canted approach and is used in all health and care setting all over the world. The behaviorist approach is used in a health and social care setting to do similar things as the health care services. The main aim of this is to change and shape the individual’s behavior to understand that there is a way in overcoming the difficult behavior.

In conclusion, when evaluating both theories, there are similarities and differences. Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. The humanistic approach rejects the other approaches, arguing that they focus too much on the negative side of psychology. Humanism looks at what we need to live and thrive and looks at the individual person and what is specific to them. Personally, their theories do not seem to be effective as time has gone on and the human rights act has been up dated.

Behavioral approaches to learning are rooted in the minds of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. With his stimulus-response model, Watson claims that a particular stimulus evokes observable responses in human behavior. Meanwhile, Skinner’s operant conditioning maintains that pleasant things have an invigorating effect on human behavior, so we repeat desirable behaviors and eliminate undesirable ones. want. By applying them in the classroom, teachers may find it easier to understand the magnitude of student behavior and encourage them to reach their full potential. According to several experts from ‘Building an Educational Philosophy’, educators emphasize the importance of preparing the learning environment for students to achieve learning goals. A child’s environment is an important factor in developing an interest in learning. It includes both material and immaterial aspects. The material aspect demands order and creativity, while the immaterial aspect emphasizes the development of positive behavior and preferences.

An organized learning environment contributes to easy learning and enables students to perform at their best. In this view, the physical environment of the classroom should be well organized and free of obstructions to allow for an organized learning process. An example of behaviorism in the classroom is when a teacher rewards the class or certain students with a special party or weekend treat for their good behavior throughout the week. The same concept is used with penalties. Teachers can withdraw some privileges if a student misbehaves. As an education student, it is important for me to know the types of approaches or theories involved in teaching and learning.

In this case, certain approaches have been built into the teaching and learning process. All approaches are implemented in the teaching process to achieve positive effects for students and teachers themselves. The use of this method itself is to improve or increase student learning. Although some theories still use common methods, students are unwilling to participate in the learning process. Therefore, the role of the teacher is to apply an approach appropriate to the student’s conditions to arouse the student’s interest in learning.

In this case, I would like to discuss behaviorism which is explained in detail through the history of behaviorism, its definition, characteristics, principles, etc. behaviorism, strengths and weaknesses of behaviorism, and the use of this method itself to improve or increase student learning. Although some theories still use common methods, students are unwilling to participate in the learning process. Therefore, the role of a future teacher is to apply an appropriate approach according to the condition of the student so that the student can enjoy learning.

Introduction:

Learning theories are important in learning because they allow for students and educators to communicate so that students have the best understanding of a topic as possible. Cognitive dissonance is when learners try to work together to have consistent beliefs, and alter their behavior or attitude so that it reduces “dissonance”. In his theory of cognitive dissonance, Festinger (1957) portrayed cognitive consistency as a mental need that is as essential as eating to survive.

Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that once someone has a positive or negative experience with distance education, their mind is made up about distance education even when evidence of improvements in the delivery or pedagogy of distance education technologies is present. “Cognitive Dissonance can be conceived both as a concept related to the tendency to avoid internal contradictions in certain situations, and as a higher order theory about information processing in the human mind” (Dias, 2009). In A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Festinger proposed that human beings strive to have internal mental consistency to function in the real world. A person who experiences internal inconsistency would strive to fix their cognitive dissonance.

Overview:

Educators are gifted at understanding what is presently thought about the procedures of learning and about individual students, instructors are better prepared to give encounters and circumstances that are bound to prompt successful procurement of information, ideas and abilities.

When someone tells a lie and feels uncomfortable about it because they are an “honest person”, that is an example of cognitive dissonance. It occurs when one’s ideas, beliefs, or behaviors contradict each other.

There are many factors that come into play when determining what the amount of dissonance that an individual will experience. One of these factors is the amount of value on a particular belief or faith that a person weighs on it. If religion is important to you, more value is placed on decisions or thoughts that differ from the religion’s guidelines. Another factor would be the inconsistency of fact and beliefs of an individual.

Psychology Aspect:

The theory of cognitive dissonance helps explain why people sometimes go to great lengths to account for thoughts, words, and behaviors that seem to clash—when one learns new information that challenges a deeply held belief, for example, or acts in a way that seems to undercut one’s self-image.

By bringing attention to the inconsistencies in our minds, cognitive dissonance can be an opportunity for growth. Exactly how we choose to resolve the dissonance and the feelings of discomfort can be a reflection of our mental health.

Analysis:

Cognitive dissonance would fall under the paradigm behaviorism in education. Behaviorism is the learning theory where behavior helps a student to learn. An example would be praise and rewards in a classroom setting. Positive reinforcement helps students who learn best with behaviorism so that they can feel comfortable in an academic environment. Cognitive dissonance allows students to provide a reason for their actions to prevent acting out. The incorporation of cognitive dissonance into models of basic learning-processes to foster the students’ self-awareness of psychological conflicts among their personal beliefs, ideals, and values and the reality of contradictory facts and information, requires the students to defend their personal beliefs. Afterwards, the students are trained to objectively perceive new facts and information to resolve the psychological stress of the conflict between reality and the student’s value system. Moreover, educational software that applies the derived principles facilitates the students’ ability to successfully handle the questions posed in a complex subject.

Learning Paradigm:

Learning Theory describes how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.

Cognitivism replaced behaviorism in the 1960s as the common learning theory. Cognitivism centers around the inward mental exercises. Human personality is significant and vital for seeing how individuals learn. Mental procedures, for example, thinking, memory, knowing, and critical thinking should be investigated. Information can be viewed as composition or emblematic mental developments. Learning is characterized as change in a student’s schemata.

Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in behavior is too narrow, and study the learner rather than their environment—and in particular the complexities of human memory. Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner’s ability to learn relies largely on what they already know and understand, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction. Behaviorism was primarily founded by John Watson in 1913. “Behaviorism refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. (Simply Psychology).

Behaviorism is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual’s history, including especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual’s current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental events.

According to the World Health Organization ‘health’ is described as “a state of complete mental, physical and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease”. The word ‘illness’ is defined by the Cambridge English dictionary as being “a disease or period of sickness that affects the body or mind”. These definitions will be used to explain health and illness through a psychological perspective and distinguish how addiction has impacts on a person’s day-to-day life.

Addiction is a social and psychological disorder exaggerated by a compulsive engagement. Addiction is the compulsive and psychological need for wanting to use substances such as cocaine and alcohol. These substances are symptomatic by tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. Addiction can affect an individual’s health and wellbeing, for example, a person can become depressed, which can make it hard for the individual too make relationships with other people, especially friends and family. Anxiety can also stem from this, and this can stop a person from getting or even keeping a job, as it can make people become very unsociable and feel lonely. These individuals who are suffering from these mental health illnesses will drink alcohol and take drugs to forget how they are feeling within themselves. Addiction as a whole is classed as an illness, this is because some of the symptoms are long-lasting, such as heart attacks and poor coordination. When individuals start taking drugs and drinking alcohol in their adolescent years, their effects will not be as serious as a longer-term user. These symptoms are things such as euphoria or an increased sex drive. If the individual then continues to take the substances, he risks becoming addicted. If people don’t become addicted over the years, they will find in the adult life that they will develop symptoms such as muscle cramping, collapsed veins, becoming dependent and developing withdrawal symptoms, if they have not had the ‘buzz’ that they need. They will then think they cannot function without it, and the person may also get flashbacks.

Addiction from the behavioral perspective can mean that a certain smell, like after shave or perfume, can become a trigger for someone’s relapse or the cause of an individual’s misuse of drugs or alcohol. It also can mean that when individuals are younger and they see their friends drinking or taking drugs, they can be peer pressured into taking part as their behavior will influence the person. This can then be a risk as the young person may become dependent. Relapsing can also occur when the individual is still ‘hanging around’ with a person or a group of people that are taking drugs or drinking alcohol on many occasions. Addiction can become all-consuming, and a person will organize his life around drink and drugs. Theorist B.F. Skinner says that behaviorism is often referred to as stimulus and response psychology. It is also an apparent conditioning account for observant behavior (responses) in terms of environmental events (stimuli). Only in classical conditioning is the stimulus seen as triggering a response. Individuals who abuse drugs more than necessary are twice as likely to struggle with mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression. People who continue to abuse drugs and alcohol are likely to develop illnesses such as kidney failure and liver failure, which are life threatening.

Addiction from the humanistic perspective views other people on another level of consciousness, the likes of what we understand is very different to what a person who is suffering from addiction is thinking. The humanistic approach is giving someone a chance to say how they are feeling or thinking without an immediate response. It also explains that everyone has free will, and makes it clear that people should stop and think: ‘What is it like to be that person’. Humanistic therapy is highly acceptable to patients. Humanistic psychology suggests that addiction is an individual’s response to boredom, loneliness and other struggles. Theorist Abraham H. Maslow said: “While awareness of being alive is the most basic of human experiences, we do live in a world of our own creation. We have a unique perception, and it is our perception of external reality which shapes our lives not external reality itself. Our main factor is our sense of self and constantly in the process of forming and reforming”. The humanistic approach says that addiction is caused by boredom and loneliness, which then comes down to having mental health disorders, which this then addiction can lead to things such as brain damage, ulcers and strokes. There are therapies put in place so a person can be heard. The two perspectives agree with each other as the humanistic approach is about how the person thinks with their consciousness, and so does the behavioral approach. This is because the behavioral approach says that someone’s or a person’s behavior can become a conscious trigger.

In conclusion, the research I have obtained links addiction to behavioral and humanistic perspectives, as it seems that addiction has a lot to do with someone’s conscious mind, this affects how a person is able to get better. I also think my theories have linked this as the humanistic approach believes we create our own perspective, whereas the behavioral approach says the memories we have gained from our life trigger addiction, this comes down to the perspective we have had on things going forward in life. I believe the humanistic approach has a better way of explaining this.