Major League Baseball players get paid a lot in comparison to other jobs, but do they get paid too much? There may not be a perfect yes or no answer to this question but after looking at a few pointers one can make the decision.
Where does the team payroll come from?
Making money in baseball is about more than selling tickets and hot dogs. Each baseball team develops its business model for making money. Like all businesses, some teams do it very well and make a lot of money while others do not. A way teams make money is an MLB-sponsored line of credit which is when sponsors will give teams access to money as long as they get paid back. The biggest system is called revenue sharing and under this plan, all 30 teams put a certain percentage of their net revenues into a pool. Next, that pool is then split evenly between the teams.
What is the average salary of an MLB player?
Most people know that professional athletes including MLB players make a lot of money but most do not know exactly how much they make. In 2018 the minimum salary for an MLB player was 535 thousand per year. The average salary for an MLB player as of 2019 is 4.8 million. Players themselves make a lot but that is also dependent on how much money their team makes as a whole. The MLB team with the highest payroll in 2019 is the Boston Red Sox which has a payroll of 202,597,500 million while the lowest payroll was from the Tampa Bay Rays which has a payroll of 39,129,166 million.
What is the average salary for the working person?
The numbers that MLB teams and players make are astonishing but they are much higher than the typical working person. Even for one of the highest paying jobs which is a physician, whose median salary as of 2018 was 195,842 thousand. However, that is a more respected and upper-class job, the median wage in the fourth quarter of 2018 in America was $44,564. Service occupations were 28,028 while professional occupations were $64,220. Those numbers might seem reasonable; however, those are the averages not the lowest. The lowest paying job as of 2018 was crop workers who on average made between 10,000 and 12,499. To put that to scale the federal poverty line for an individual is 10,830. Some of these jobs are very important to the community, but they are paid so much less, at least in comparison to the amount MLB players make.
What is the difference in salaries and why is it so vast?
Above there are the average salaries and the difference between them is about $4,755,000. That difference is very large; however, this should not be a surprise. MLB players and teams go through many more steps to acquire their money. Along with their typical ways, advertising and sponsors play the largest role in making the difference in pay. Since MLB can be put into the entertainment category, things like television contracts boost their revenue by the millions. A normal service job would make much more money if it was televised like major league baseball. All the steps that these teams and players go through like doing charity events, interviews, wearing certain brands, and training a certain way or for a certain person might make one question if all this work deserves to be paid a lot.
Do they deserve their salaries?
In today’s society, the high salaries of professional athletes are on the front page of every mass media stream. Year after year their salaries continue to rise to astronomical numbers with no end in sight. The average American will never see in that kind of money in their lifetime. Most people argue that athletes do not deserve the excessive sum of money they are paid while others feel that they do deserve their high salaries. Although most believe that they do not deserve their pay, many factors are going into it. Among these factors, a few big factors are the amount of time pro-athletes put into perfecting their play and the risk they take playing. Those two factors alone make it very hard to be on either side of the question.
What is the chance/probability of playing in the MLB?
It is a little tricky to find the chance or probability of making it to the MLB because baseball tends to see many more levels of play, from fun games to highly competitive, due to fewer barriers to entry. The only semi-clear numbers to be found were from the NCAA in the U.S. for high school baseball players. So, keep in mind, these are the odds of a high school baseball player in the U.S. being drafted. There are bound to be tens of thousands of kids who do not make it as far as high school baseball also not including the kids who come from out of the country. According to the NCAA, about 1 out of every 200 high school students who play baseball will eventually be drafted into the MLB. Further, the odds of actually participating once drafted into the MLB are small as well. Only seven percent of the players drafted into the MLB will play in the MLB. Those odds should be taken into consideration when deciding if they deserve their pay or not.
About how much time is put into playing in the MLB?
Baseball lore is littered with one-game wonders from Moonlight Graham whose brief stint in the outfield for the New York Giants in 1905 was immortalized in “Field of Dreams” to Larry Yount, whose major league career amounted to warming up as the announced pitcher for the Houston Astros in 1971 when his elbow popped. After studying the 5989 position players who began their careers between 1902 and 1993 and who played 33,272 years of major league baseball, three demographers have come up with an answer. On average, a rookie can expect to play major league baseball for about 5.6 years. During those years of play, in season is very busy for the players. During the season, teams play 162 games in 186 days. In those 186 days, along with games almost every day it is not unusual for coaches to show up seven hours before a night game and players to show up five hours earlier to practice their play or go over strategies. All of that is just during the season, now the off-season is spent doing many more things than just training. It depends on their level of experience. Young less experienced players may be asked to play winter ball in the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, or Mexico. More senior players will take time off after the season to spend with their families. They may travel or simply hang out at home instead of living out of a suitcase. Most – if not all – are involved in charity work in their local community and/or nationally. They may take part in golf tournaments, bowling tournaments, or other fundraisers for their charity as well as doing events for the team.
They work out every week but don’t get serious about working out daily until December 1 or so unless there’s some physical issue they are trying to overcome. Now most people do not do things like charity events or fundraisers for their community or their people. That alone could have a big impact on how deserving these players are.
Are other professions more important than baseball but paid less?
Some professions are important but yet are underpaid. Surgeons get paid over 300,000 a year and 96 percent of them would say that their job makes the world a better place. Surgeons are very much needed in the world and they are paid very well for their jobs. However, not every important is paid as it should be. For example, teachers are very important especially when it comes to the growth of people, however, some of them end up having to leave the profession they felt so driven to go into because of the low pay. Some might consider this when deciding if MLB players deserve their pay or not. Those people would say that MLB is not needed it is just for entertainment but a profession like teaching is vital for the growth of a country and people and should be paid a lot more if people like entertainers or athletes get paid so much.
How much do MLB players donate on average?
Most know that pro athletes like MLB players donate portions of their pay to charities, but most do not know exactly how much they donate. From 2010 to 2012 the national and American major baseball leagues donated a total of 131,861,634 to charity. That is quite an extensive amount of money donated from players and teams to charities. This is also another very important aspect when considering if these players deserve their pay seeing as only 55.5 percent of Americans donate to charity.
Conclusion.
Baseball players get paid an astonishing amount of money each year to play the sport that most of them love. Whether they deserve these crazy amounts of money is a hard question to answer. After taking into consideration the points listed above, I believe one can conclude.
In order to understand the biomechanics of pitching, one must be able to define biomechanics kinesiology, and velocity. The purpose of biomechanics is to study mechanical laws relating to the movement of muscular activity. Biomechanics is sometimes known as a form of kinesiology since it is applied to physical activity, exercise, and sports. The definition for kinesiology is “the study of the acquisition of motor skills, the mechanical aspects of movement, and the body’s responses to physical activity (Webster’s Dictionary).” Velocity represents the maximum speed of a specific pitch from its release to home plate. California State University conducted a study of 378 male professional baseball pitchers that demonstrated three different ways of pitching, along with the possible shoulder and elbow injuries that occur. These injuries can be associated with ball velocity, pitch type, pitching kinematic and kinetic variables, and pitching delivery styles. “A pitcher’s velocity, consistency, and durability may be linked to kinematic and kinetic factors as well as the temporal association of segmental body motions (Seroyer, 2010).” Looking at the biomechanics of pitching, there are specific steps to follow such as the proper mechanics and pathomechanics that lead to consequences and the type of pitch.
There are three types of pitching techniques that are dependent on the pitcher, these include over-hand, 3-quarter, and sidearm. Over-hand pitching consists of body movements that begin when the lead foot is lifted and progresses to link the motion of the hips as they propel the ball forward. From the study, 21% of overhand pitchers experienced any of the possible elbow injuries. “Maximum humeral internal rotation velocity during [a pitch] may reach 7500 to 7700 degrees per second (Seroyer, 2010).” Three-quarters is a specific pitching style in which the pitcher’s arm is between the head and the waist level. This pitch has advantages such as allowing differences in the angle of the slope, the speed, and the use of a full strike zone. For a pitch to be labeled a sidearm, the ball must remain low and on a horizontal axis. “Sidearm pitching velocity is slower because of three forces working against the ball [known as] gravity, increased distance, and air resistance (Ellis, 2010).” The study mentioned determined that “73% of their sidearm pitchers [experienced] symptoms of an elbow injury (Escamilla, 2019).”
The first step in pitching is the windup phase. This phase must start off with a good position, which starts with lifting the front leg. Once maximum knee height is reached, the pitcher should be balanced, and the stride phase would begin. This stride phase consists of the front leg touching the ground with arms separated, swinging down, and then raising the arm back up. “A decrease in push-off rubber leads to a decrease in ball velocity (Fortenbaugh, 2009).” During this phase, the foot is positioned slightly inward and is planted towards the third base as contact is made with the ground. “A decrease in stride length and shoulder horizontal abduction decreases ball velocity (Fortenbaugh, 2009).” The next phase includes arm cocking, which means a pelvis rotation, followed by an upper trunk rotation. If the pitcher were to do too early of a pelvis rotation there will be a decrease in ball velocity. However, if they were to have a late pelvis rotation there will be an increase in shoulder and elbow kinetics. “Achieving such external rotation is strongly related to ball velocity (Fortenbaugh, 2009).” Maximum external rotation (MER) occurs during this phase. This rotation is achieved by externally rotating the shoulder 180 degrees with an elbow flexion of 90 degrees. Decreases in shoulder external rotation will lead to a drop-off in ball velocity, but excessive shoulder horizontal adduction and elbow flexion will increase shoulder kinetics. When releasing the ball, the elbow should be extended and then followed by shoulder internal rotation. “An increase of knee extension velocity, the ball velocity will be increased (Fortenbaugh, 2009).” If the pitcher has a decrease in forward trunk tilt, the velocity of the ball is decreased.
A study conducted by California State University, involving 378 male professional baseball pitchers, demonstrated the three different ways of pitching. “Based upon arm slot angle at ball release, [there were] 30 overhand, 156 three-quarter, and 21 sidearm pitchers” that were tested using a motion analysis system at 240 Hz. An overhand pitch must be under 40 degrees, a third quarter is between a 50-60-degree angle, and a sidearm pitch is more significant than a 70-degree arm slot angle. For each pitch trial, there were a total of 37 kinetic and kinematic parameters calculated. Kinetic parameters included “[a. forces applied by the trunk to the upper arm at the shoulder, b. torques applied by the truck to the upper arm about the shoulder, c. forces applied by the upper arm to the forearm at the elbow, and d. torques applied by the upper arm to the forearm about the elbow] (Escamilla, 2018).” Kinematic parameters include elbow flexion, shoulder external rotation, shoulder horizontal adduction, shoulder abduction, trunk lateral tilt, pelvis angular velocity, upper trunk angular velocity, stride length, foot angle, and position. “The timings of maximum pelvis angular velocity and maximum upper trunk angular velocity were represented on a normalized time scale, where 0% was the time at lead-foot contact and 100% was at ball release (Escamilla, 2018).” The results of this study included “there would be significant kinetic differences among the 3 arm slot groups was partially support as 2 of 7 variables were significantly different (Escamilla, 2018).” Fourteen of the 30 kinematic variables were significantly different. The ball velocity in meters per second was described for each group. For the overhand group (30 players), the ball velocity was 37.4. One hundred and fifty-six players took part in the 3-quarter group that had a velocity of 37.9. The last group, sidearm pitchers had the highest ball velocity at 38.0. “The p-value for the ball velocity was .28 (Escamilla, 2019).” Ultimately, there were “no significant differences were observed for age, body mass, body height, or ball velocity (Escamilla, 2019).”
References
Ellis, S. (n.d.). Pitching Sidearm In Baseball. Retrieved November 4, 2019, from https://www.pitchingtips.com/pitching-sidearm-in-baseball.html.
Escamilla, Rafael & Slowik, Jonathan & Diffendaffer, Alek & Fleisig, Glenn. (2018). Differences Among Overhand, Three-Quarter, and Sidearm Pitching Biomechanics in Professional Baseball Players. Journal of Applied Biomechanics. 34. 1-27. 10.1123/jab.2017-0211.
Fortenbaugh, D., Fleisig, G. S., & Andrews, J. R. (2009). Baseball pitching biomechanics in relation to injury risk and performance. Sports Health, 1(4), 314–320. doi:10.1177/1941738109338546
Kinesiology. (n.d.). Retrieved November 4, 2019, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kinesiology.
Pitching style – Three quarters. (2010, May 22). Retrieved November 4, 2019, from https://idavid07.wordpress.com/2010/05/15/pitching-style-three-quarters/.
Seroyer, S. T., Nho, S. J., Bach, B. R., Bush-Joseph, C. A., Nicholson, G. P., & Romeo, A. A. (2010). The kinetic chain in overhand pitching: its potential role for performance enhancement and injury prevention. Sports Health, 2(2), 135–146. doi:10.1177/1941738110362656
In order to understand the biomechanics of pitching, one must be able to define biomechanics kinesiology, and velocity. The purpose of biomechanics is to study mechanical laws relating to the movement of muscular activity. Biomechanics is sometimes known as a form of kinesiology since it is applied to physical activity, exercise, and sports. The definition for kinesiology is “the study of the acquisition of motor skills, the mechanical aspects of movement, and the body’s responses to physical activity (Webster’s Dictionary).” Velocity represents the maximum speed of a specific pitch from its release to home plate. California State University conducted a study of 378 male professional baseball pitchers that demonstrated three different ways of pitching, along with the possible shoulder and elbow injuries that occur. These injuries can be associated with ball velocity, pitch type, pitching kinematic and kinetic variables, and pitching delivery styles. “A pitcher’s velocity, consistency, and durability may be linked to kinematic and kinetic factors as well as the temporal association of segmental body motions (Seroyer, 2010).” Looking at the biomechanics of pitching, there are specific steps to follow such as the proper mechanics and pathomechanics that lead to consequences and the type of pitch.
There are three types of pitching techniques that are dependent on the pitcher, these include over-hand, 3-quarter, and sidearm. Over-hand pitching consists of body movements that begin when the lead foot is lifted and progresses to link the motion of the hips as they propel the ball forward. From the study, 21% of overhand pitchers experienced any of the possible elbow injuries. “Maximum humeral internal rotation velocity during [a pitch] may reach 7500 to 7700 degrees per second (Seroyer, 2010).” Three-quarters is a specific pitching style in which the pitcher’s arm is between the head and the waist level. This pitch has advantages such as allowing differences in the angle of the slope, the speed, and the use of a full strike zone. For a pitch to be labeled a sidearm, the ball must remain low and on a horizontal axis. “Sidearm pitching velocity is slower because of three forces working against the ball [known as] gravity, increased distance, and air resistance (Ellis, 2010).” The study mentioned determined that “73% of their sidearm pitchers [experienced] symptoms of an elbow injury (Escamilla, 2019).”
The first step in pitching is the windup phase. This phase must start off with a good position, which starts with lifting the front leg. Once maximum knee height is reached, the pitcher should be balanced, and the stride phase would begin. This stride phase consists of the front leg touching the ground with arms separated, swinging down, and then raising the arm back up. “A decrease in push-off rubber leads to a decrease in ball velocity (Fortenbaugh, 2009).” During this phase, the foot is positioned slightly inward and is planted towards the third base as contact is made with the ground. “A decrease in stride length and shoulder horizontal abduction decreases ball velocity (Fortenbaugh, 2009).” The next phase includes arm cocking, which means a pelvis rotation, followed by an upper trunk rotation. If the pitcher were to do too early of a pelvis rotation there will be a decrease in ball velocity. However, if they were to have a late pelvis rotation there will be an increase in shoulder and elbow kinetics. “Achieving such external rotation is strongly related to ball velocity (Fortenbaugh, 2009).” Maximum external rotation (MER) occurs during this phase. This rotation is achieved by externally rotating the shoulder 180 degrees with an elbow flexion of 90 degrees. Decreases in shoulder external rotation will lead to a drop-off in ball velocity, but excessive shoulder horizontal adduction and elbow flexion will increase shoulder kinetics. When releasing the ball, the elbow should be extended and then followed by shoulder internal rotation. “An increase of knee extension velocity, the ball velocity will be increased (Fortenbaugh, 2009).” If the pitcher has a decrease in forward trunk tilt, the velocity of the ball is decreased.
A study conducted by California State University, involving 378 male professional baseball pitchers, demonstrated the three different ways of pitching. “Based upon arm slot angle at ball release, [there were] 30 overhand, 156 three-quarter, and 21 sidearm pitchers” that were tested using a motion analysis system at 240 Hz. An overhand pitch must be under 40 degrees, a third quarter is between a 50-60-degree angle, and a sidearm pitch is more significant than a 70-degree arm slot angle. For each pitch trial, there were a total of 37 kinetic and kinematic parameters calculated. Kinetic parameters included “[a. forces applied by the trunk to the upper arm at the shoulder, b. torques applied by the truck to the upper arm about the shoulder, c. forces applied by the upper arm to the forearm at the elbow, and d. torques applied by the upper arm to the forearm about the elbow] (Escamilla, 2018).” Kinematic parameters include elbow flexion, shoulder external rotation, shoulder horizontal adduction, shoulder abduction, trunk lateral tilt, pelvis angular velocity, upper trunk angular velocity, stride length, foot angle, and position. “The timings of maximum pelvis angular velocity and maximum upper trunk angular velocity were represented on a normalized time scale, where 0% was the time at lead-foot contact and 100% was at ball release (Escamilla, 2018).” The results of this study included “there would be significant kinetic differences among the 3 arm slot groups was partially support as 2 of 7 variables were significantly different (Escamilla, 2018).” Fourteen of the 30 kinematic variables were significantly different. The ball velocity in meters per second was described for each group. For the overhand group (30 players), the ball velocity was 37.4. One hundred and fifty-six players took part in the 3-quarter group that had a velocity of 37.9. The last group, sidearm pitchers had the highest ball velocity at 38.0. “The p-value for the ball velocity was .28 (Escamilla, 2019).” Ultimately, there were “no significant differences were observed for age, body mass, body height, or ball velocity (Escamilla, 2019).”
References
Ellis, S. (n.d.). Pitching Sidearm In Baseball. Retrieved November 4, 2019, from https://www.pitchingtips.com/pitching-sidearm-in-baseball.html.
Escamilla, Rafael & Slowik, Jonathan & Diffendaffer, Alek & Fleisig, Glenn. (2018). Differences Among Overhand, Three-Quarter, and Sidearm Pitching Biomechanics in Professional Baseball Players. Journal of Applied Biomechanics. 34. 1-27. 10.1123/jab.2017-0211.
Fortenbaugh, D., Fleisig, G. S., & Andrews, J. R. (2009). Baseball pitching biomechanics in relation to injury risk and performance. Sports Health, 1(4), 314–320. doi:10.1177/1941738109338546
Kinesiology. (n.d.). Retrieved November 4, 2019, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kinesiology.
Pitching style – Three quarters. (2010, May 22). Retrieved November 4, 2019, from https://idavid07.wordpress.com/2010/05/15/pitching-style-three-quarters/.
Seroyer, S. T., Nho, S. J., Bach, B. R., Bush-Joseph, C. A., Nicholson, G. P., & Romeo, A. A. (2010). The kinetic chain in overhand pitching: its potential role for performance enhancement and injury prevention. Sports Health, 2(2), 135–146. doi:10.1177/1941738110362656
The purpose of this research study is to investigate the advantages of using technologically advanced, or high priced, baseball bats in the Little League Baseball. The study will examine the benefits or advantages of using technologically advanced baseball bats, mostly made of Aluminum, over the wooden bat that has been traditionally in use.
Introduction
In recent years, the subject of baseball bat performance has led to debates among players, regulating bodies, and even scientists and researchers. These debates arise due to the use of new technologies in making bats leading to baseball bats that perform exceedingly better than the traditional wooden bats. Research carried out in field studies and in simulated laboratory tests have concluded that technological advancement s have indeed improved the efficiency of bats, especially those made of Aluminum (Nathan et al, pp.).
These studies have also provided information on how best to improve bat performance regarding bat-ball collision (Russell, para. 1). These findings have led to debates on whether or not Aluminum bats should be used for playing baseball as they give unfair advantage to those who use them.
Aluminum Bats
Aluminum bats have a number of advantages over wooden bats. Since it is harder than wood, the weight of aluminum bat can be varied more than wooden bats (Science Buddy). They are also less elastic than wood, implying that the bat loses less energy through rebound.
Lastly aluminum bats do have sweet spots that are relatively larger hence easement of the ability to frequently hit balls (Oracle).
Composite Bats
Another important type of bat is the composite baseball bat, these types of bats are identical to Aluminum bats, but have a graphite wall on the inside. The bats are easy to swing, and provide relatively greater trampoline effect. They also have very low damping speeds, in addition to less bending stiffness (Kolenich. Para. 2).
Statistical evidence from the NCAA, the body that regulates collegiate baseball in the US, clearly indicates that technological advancements have led to improved performance in baseball. These improvements have been realized in areas such as batting averages, home runs per game, and strike out per nine innings from 1970 to 2010 (NCAA). These findings are shown below.
Fig. 1. Batting Averages Fig. 2. Home Runs per Game Fig. 3. Strike Outs per Nine Innings Terms, Concepts, and Questions Relating to the Study To complete the study, I will investigate the following aspects of the game of baseball: Physics of baseball; Ball-bat collisions; Sweet spot of a baseball bat; The grip of a baseball bat.
Research Questions
The research will aim to answer several questions relating to the variables in the game of baseball. For example, is the distance better with a specific bat, does technology improve the feel/ grip of the bat. Are composite bats better than Aluminum bats? Does weight affect the speed of the bats? The results of the study will be useful to baseball coaches, baseball associations, and the players.
Method
This study is targeting the little league baseball since it is vital that adoption of technological advancements in baseball should begin from the lowest levels and as the players move to the major leagues, they get used to the techniques, rather than introducing them to technologies after they have become seniors.
For this purpose, I will conduct my research mostly by following my son’s little league team, interviewing coaches, researching the internet, and actually buying a bat made using the latest technologies for my son to use for the research work. The schedule of my research work will follow the Dickinson Little League in Dickinson Texas.
Works Cited
Kolenich, Eric. Check swing: Composite bats’ place in baseball is getting a closer look. Richmond Times Dispatch. 2009. Web.
Nathan, Alan M., et al. A Comparative Study of Baseball Bat Performance. 2010. Web.
Many countries do not prioritize baseball as a major game simply because it as famous as other games such as soccer, American football and basketball. The reason for this is not particularly hard to discern. This is because very few have a complete knowledge of the rules of playing the game. Baseball is a bat and ball game considered and played as a national game in America. The game has created a lot of interest amongst the Americans because of the intense competition it creates between the opposing sides during the game. It is a game played between two teams of nine players each. Fielding and batting are the known two teams playing the game where by the fielders are meant to defend the ball from the batting team.
During the game, the ball is to be hit hard by the batting team and the “hitter” to stop at a base before proceeding to other bases. Once one has become a player in this game, his/her first objective is to be a perfect hitter. Various teams have been facing great challenges and have significantly created weaknesses. Even though the weaknesses might be considered as minor, their effects in the capacity of a team to win a game may be drastically reduced because of the amount of holes created in the team’s offense or defense. This may be due to lack of appropriate skills that normally demand intense dedication to develop. “Here are some drills to help with one such small weakness, hitting. When a team’s hitting is weak, it is important to do baseball hitting drills to help players become stronger in this area” (Goldman and Kahrl, 2010).
Hitting Skills
To develop the hitting skills in this game, it is imperative that a player develops full knowledge in the biomechanics of baseball swing. Studies on the biomechanics swing of this game have been done in recent years with the aim of developing it. According to Albert (2003). “The biomechanics of the baseball swing can be described four phases: Stance, Recoil, Swing, and Follow through”. In the biomechanics swing of stance.
Hitting skills constitute the most complicated skill when a player is not well informed in biomechanical of baseball skills because of the complexities that arise due to ball handling and the ability to hit at right positions and within accurate angles. Coach Jims developed several drills to enhance achieving the perfection of this skill.” Power Hand Drill” one of the biomechanical baseball skill brought by Coach Jims for enhancement. According to Goldman and Kahrl (2010),
“A hitter’s powers come from the bottom or pull hand. This drill develops bottom hand strength. Have batter using only one arm at a time, take stance, inward turn, stride and full cut at balls off of a tee. Take about 20 cuts at a time with each arm, making sure to keep the barrel higher than the hands, and follow through.”
The game demands more energy at the bottom arm in order to balance with the energy at the top arms for stability of the body.
In addition to the above biomechanical baseball skills, “for the hitter to appropriately practice the hitting in Multiple Location Contact Drill, three location pitches must be given and the batter has to learn how to use hips and turn on the pitch pulling it in a recommendable manner” (Shamoo, Silberstein and Germeroth, 2000). The ball is hit by the batter exactly at the center of the pitch and is mandatory that he must not fail to take the ball to the opposite side of the pitch.
Behind Soft-Toss Drill
Tension and rigidity always being experienced by most of the batters at the very moment they enter the batter’s box. Tension and rigidity are two confusing factors that can never transfer or release true power of a batter into the bat. This is one of the biomechanical baseball skills which have to be applied in order to successfully eradicate rigidity and tension in baseball game. When a batter swings and hit the ball at the same time in this situation, the power is locked and cannot be released with a force.
According to Shamoo, Silberstein and Germeroth (2000) “by being relaxed before this point you are allowing all your powers to flow into the bat in this focused burst of intense.” Therefore “Behind Soft Toss Drill” as biomechanical baseball skills, is another very important skill in the baseball game because it focuses on reinforcement of the importance of being inside the baseball. The coach is set to perform with one hitter at ago. The coach therefore has to position himself up four feet directly behind the baseball by either kneeling or sitting down. The coach possesses a bucket of ball in readiness to soft toss and on the other hand, the hitter positions himself in the box changing only the position of his head. This drill as a mechanical baseball skill of course is not being done in a long-toss manner but only changes the angle of flight from the side to the back.
In this particular context, acquisition of all the biomechanical skills a hitter is able to turn his head round by the moment the coach tosses the ball in an ordinary soft-toss drill. The correct measures of delivery must be taken for the position of the ball by the hitter because he must be ineligible to deliver the ball from the middle of the plate to the outside corner. The usual swing as required during the baseball game is then taken by the hitter trying to drive each pitch to the back opposite corner of the pitch. The swing is necessary in order to allow their hands be away from their bodies in effort to pull the ball to fully exercising their drill skills in this game. This drill correctly gives guidelines on how to stay inside the ball while at the same time providing a quick feedback on each swing.
In effort to illustrate this further, Goldman & Kahrl (2010) states that
Always have the players hit balls up the middle, meaning the toe should be set up off the front foot(unless they are working on driving the ball the other way or pulling the ball, which is a little more advanced. If they set up to the tee incorrectly, they will develop bad habits. Also, always have player start with their eyes up (meaning they are not looking at the ball to start…they should make their eyes track back to the ball)
Bungi Cord Drill
This is another mechanical baseball skill of the hitting skills which give attention in helping hitters to feel the impact of allowing the front elbow down in the swing. Being a quite complicated system which has movement stressing several kinds of elements inside the joint, elbow is majorly made to perform tensile pulling during baseball game. Just like in “Behind soft-toss drill,” the coach deals with individual hitters. A “bungi cord” should be of two feet long with a hook on each end on use. By the time a batter is placing his arm inside the bucket, he also loops the cord around his torso. As a matter of facts, Snagging is necessary in this drill to effectively hold the arm in place without rigidity of the load-up. The “Bungi Cord Drill” requires no ball at all but it is authentic that the hitter is to powerfully and effectively take swings with a bat. By following the right instruction, the”Bungi” is removed after several repetitions while the hitter taking his usual swing until he feels he is in full control of his movement.
Drop Drill Hitting
Whiffle golf balls, a wooden stick or a temporally home plate are the required equipments in Drop Drill Hitting as one of the biomechanical baseball skills by the use of a regulation bat or a stick, cut to the length of a bat. A player takes a hitting stance then the feeder makes a safe distance from the hitter. “The distance should therefore be of about 6-8 feet away from the fence” (Albert, 2003). This skill is excellently applied to assist with batting speed in baseball players.
In attempt to record best performance in Drop Drill Hitting, a number of professional have presented varying statements on the biomechanics of the body during the drill. For instance, it is important to make sure that the “clubface isn’t always closed at the top, with the face angled to the sky” (Goldman & Kahrl, 2010). In addition according to Albert (2003) “it is important to make the club’s toe point to the ground at the top by rotating his arms on the way back with the face more open”. It can therefore be ascertained that in performing such simple yet complicated body actions, a perfect balance is achieved.
Albert (2003) illustrates that “performing the drills only once is not satisfactory but should be performed consistently until the punter does them by habit”. It has been established that by performing this repeatedly, a learner manages to achieve success in body biomechanics. Another notable biomechanical baseball kills which has development within this area and aims at finding a perfect body balance is the “drill 1Skill” (Leg Lineup).This illustration was purposely meant to properly line up punting leg with drop arm. It is important to note the fundamental facts and procedures in this exercise so that perfect body balance is achieved. In this regard, Albert (2003) states that “You should move your drop arm into a drop position until your hand hit your thigh as the first procedure in this exercise and suppose it doesn’t, adjust your hand arm position and replace the ball for a drop.”
Probably, this is the most positive step in biomechanical baseball skills to do and to start your drop off correctly. It is therefore mandatory to do this at the beginning of each and every practice session. The position of arm is perhaps best described by Shamoo, Silberstein and Germeroth, (2000), in stating that
“Your drop arm should line up with your punting leg so the ball is dropped directly over your punting foot. This will effectively help you to swing your leg straight up into the ball rather than attempting to swing your leg to a ball that is dropped from different points.” There is a need and the importance in taking note of your drop position to be certain that your arm and the ball lines up directly over your punting leg. To perfectly test this, you have to get a partner to take away the ball in order to move your arm straight down towards your punting leg. Once you have the correct position of the drop, have a good look at and memorize where that location is in reference to the rest of your body after being certain that you are in the right position.
Game Improvement
According to Shamoo, Silberstein and Germeroth, (2000) “There are probably many mental images of the biomechanical baseball skills and softball swing because there are coaches who teach hitting mechanics in different ways.” It is important to note that while there are differences in style that remain relevant in their applications, one fundamental point stands to be true – “all great power hitters use similar rotational mechanics and weaker hitters do not” (Batspeed, 2010). It therefore true that to improve on the skills of the hitters, they must be trained to become power hitters. This involves a complete knowledge on the techniques of hitting the ball in various positions while at the same time maintaining a perfect body balance.
Furthermore, the above discussions of biomechanical baseball skills have projected that battling mechanics are primarily based on linear mechanics. “By linear, I refer to the concept that bat speed is derived from the batters forward weight shift and extension of his hands and that batters are instructed to direct their energies in a fairly straight line back in the direction of the pitcher” Shamoo, Silberstein and Germeroth (2000).Most of the terms used in baseball are from the concepts of linear mechanics. It is therefore imperative that to improve the beautiful game of baseball, concerted research on the link between linear and rotational mechanics would be necessary. In addition to the above, a deeper understanding on the role of both mechanics of a body would definitely play a fundamental role in enhancing the beauty and improving the game.
While the above discussions portray critical steps that are needed to improve the game, there are more options that still remain large and should be exploited. These include the development of cognitive ability of a player. This is because of the fact that, maintaining a perfect balance and staying attentive during the game does not only demand the application of skills but id also a test on the cognitive ability of a player. The role of cognitive ability in this game is well illustrated by Fernandez (2006) in stating that “My main interest has been how to expand the limits of human attention, information processing and response capabilities which are critical in complex, real-time decision-making, high-demand tasks such as flying a military jet or playing professional basketball.” This therefore means that to improve the game of baseball, players must have advanced levels in cognitive abilities that surround their capacity to stay attentive and process information at fast speed.
The training programs that are employed by coaches should be improved for the game to improve. This must involve training programs that takes into consideration all aspects of the basic physiologic factors and aims at building them. These involve underlining the overload, progressive, frequency, specificity and active rest principles of training. Such codes in baseball training will definitely raise the levels of endurance and flexibilities of players and thus improve their performance and the performance of overall game of baseball.
Conclusion
While this paper has achieved much in attempts to analysis the biomechanics of baseball and how this game can be improved, there are still various options that can still be explored. However, I do believe that this paper will serve as a guideline in understanding the aspects of this beautiful and interesting game.
References
Albert, J. (2003). Teaching statistics using baseball. London: MAA.
The proponents of introduction baseball league to community often argue that the economic benefits of the league are huge. However academic economists have cited a number of non viable statistical relationships amongst the varied measures of baseball league and economic growth. However this research is perhaps better placed in capturing the impact of baseball league because it is not subject to the different errors that are said to be experienced in the assessment of economic development made by advocates of the league (Kern, 2000, pp.78).
The advantages of introducing baseball league to area can be recognized from two perspectives; the quality of life benefits and the economic development benefits. The benefits of economic development can be measured in terms of changes in the economic results such as incomes, jobs and profits. Benefits relating to quality of life can be considered in terms of intangible social advantages that impact how the community looks at itself, the pattern in which community members behave and the contentment derived by community members (Kern, 2000 pp. 72).
Benefits related to the baseball league in the locality have now become close to and synonymous with the advantages associated with having a business. It is known that the main baseball leagues do not have a large number of franchises because of which there is intense competition amongst large cities that can support professional franchises. The strongest argument as to why baseball league should be introduced is that the community values the teams that thrive in the locality and hence they have a basis in rewarding them.
Additionally a baseball league implies that more young people will play games and may eventually become a strong reason for more talented players to join the teams in the future. Even if the baseball league is introduced there is no assurance that fans will be attracted to the games nor is there any guarantee that the teams will become more competent (Baade, 2005, pp 14).
Economic benefits primarily relate to profits derived by owners of the teams because they save a lot of money after paying players their dues. The new league will create new jobs and enhanced incomes. Extra jobs will be created in constructing a new facility, in operating the league and in other related businesses. There will be a jump in the number of restaurants and hotels that start operating from the vicinity of the area where it is played and those that are already there will have a significant jump in the number of customers that visit them. Personal income levels of the community will also increase with the increase in the number of available jobs. Tax revenues in terms of sales tax and income tax collections will shoot up as a consequence of the enhanced spending patterns in the vicinity of the playing ground as also because of the higher personal incomes (Zimbalist and Noll, 1997, pp 19).
A major reason for the quality of life benefits will be the consumer surplus arising due to increased attendance at the league. In this context, consumer surplus is defined as the difference between what a spectator is willing to pay for a place in the stadium and the kind of satisfaction and utility that he or she derives from the same. The local sports franchise can provide benefits for sports fans that have not attended a single game. Such fans can follow the footsteps of the franchisee on platforms such as the media and have discussions about the franchisee with colleagues, relatives and friends (Baade, 2005 pp 8).
Statement of the Problem
There are benefits to baseball league in an area. This research addresses both its pros and cons. baseball league has been said to benefit economic development, along with reducing operating costs for local fans that have to travel long distances to go and watch the game. There is also some concern about the potential harm that baseball league would have on young people, as well as the potential economic impact on the hospitality and tourism industries. The key is to formulate a framework within which baseball league can be evaluated to determine their potential benefits to the community.
Although this task of evaluation would seem like an easy one, it contains multiple hidden facets that complicate the process. With this in mind, it must be acknowledged that any evaluation of the potential benefits of baseball league would be lacking; it is nearly impossible to measure the hidden benefits of not have the league. But it is something that must be acknowledged in order to fairly consider whether to introduce it (Baade, 2005 pp 10).
The last step of an evaluation of the potential of baseball league would be to determine the potential of its implementation. No matter how attractive an idea might be in theory, it still must pass the various hurdles in its way before it can become practice.
Research Question
Introducing baseball league certainly holds potential as a positive economic and social transformation in an area. However, determining whether such a move is desirable, beneficial, or even necessary requires diligent research and questioning. As discussed above, this form of research requires a detailed and comprehensive approach, delving into all aspects of baseball league.
Is baseball league a beneficial to the community and government?
How would baseball league improve economic performance of the locality?
What sociological benefits does baseball league provide in an area?
What is the social viability of baseball league?
Would be playing it some areas be cost-effective?
The potential for economic gains through the baseball league is one of the main arguments of those who favor such league. Indeed, such a benefit would be greatly appreciated by a community that sees its results. Yet a detailed examination of the potential benefits and drawbacks that baseball league would have in this area is necessary to gain a full understanding of their viability.
Methodology
So as to properly discuss the issues arising, reliable statistical data and surveys was needed to be acquired. Such data and surveys came from government sources, private service provider companies, and independent research companies, academic, professional and individual sources (Creswell, 2009; Hennink, Hutter and Bailey, 2010).
Significance of the Study
Proponents of baseball league assert that such a league could help community to improve its economic development. Indeed, there have been some positive results that stem from baseball league in some areas. However, opponents of baseball league contend that these results are false. This study will be beneficial to both parties by shading light on the issues under contention about the league.
This study is significant to a number of players for various reasons. Government officials and school administrators will use it to design training grounds for the sport. The local community could use the report to identify benefit of the sport and support it introduction. The young people will understand the benefits of the sport. The point here is that the target audience for the paper is probably those in the government, yearning sportsmen, local community and financiers or supporters.
Summary of weakness of the existing literature review
The existing literature does not highlight the benefits to the local communities in detail. It does not use any statistics to capture the benefits that have accrued from baseball in the past. The contents of the existing literature review use a lot of work sheets and logs of activities of baseball but not benefits. In my opinion, the findings from the works carried out by researchers could have been incorporated rather than the granular details that the existing literature provides
Reference List
Baade, R. A. (2005). Professional Sports as Catalysts for Metropolitan Economic Development. Journal of Urban Affairs, 18(2); p. 1-18.
Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approach. Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage Publications.
Hennink, M., Hutter, I., & Bailey A.(2010). Qualitative Research Methods. Thousand Oaks,CA Sage Pubns.
Kern, W. S. (2000). The Economics of Sport: Winners and Losers. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.
Sekaran, U., & Bougie R. (2010), Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Zimbalist, A. & Noll R. G. (1997). Sports, Jobs and Taxes: The Economic Impact of Sports Teams and Stadiums. Washington D.C: Brookings Institution Press.
Sault Ste. Marie Baseball is a not-for-profit organization that plans to enter the Canadian Baseball arena. The team will be for players aged 15-35 and will come from Sault Ste. Marie who will play at Sinclair Yards, on Black Dirt road. The organization will liaise with the other existing baseball teams to build up one strong Canadian baseball team. The organization will exclusively be run by volunteers, sponsorship, and registrations. The organization operates a total of three fields where Sault Ste. Marie Baseball offers baseball games throughout the summer season (Gmelch & Nathan, 2017). Sinclair yards measure 75’ x 75’ with adequate facilities, including change rooms, indoor washrooms, pop machines, covered picnic table, conference room, concession stand, and an office.
The state of art stadium stands as one of the most memorable places in Sault Ste. Marie city. The organization is under Baseball Canada, which oversees the Canadian baseball league. Baseball Canada is the governing body of baseball in Canada. Founded in 1964, Baseball Canada is based in Ottawa and forms a membership with the Canadian Olympic Committee and the International Baseball Foundation (Gmelch & Nathan, 2017). There are two leagues which consist of major and minor leagues. Sault Ste. Marie community members have many competencies which could be used to build on engagement to an endlessly dynamic environment, striving to reach a diverse range of youths across all aspects of daily life. Sault Ste. Marie Baseball will target such members of the community who can participate in myriad activities to actively participate in the team. Currently, there is only one major team, the Toronto Blue Jays, founded in 1977 (Gmelch & Nathan, 2017). The minor league has Vancouver Canadians and Winnipeg Goldeyes, which is based in Manitoba.
Sault Ste. Marie Baseball
The team’s name “Sault Ste. Marie Baseball” has a special connection to the city and the league. Sault Ste. Marie is strategically located in the heart of great lakes and a climate that creates ideal conditions for a wide spectrum of activities all year round. It provides a good foundation for the youth to showcase their talents in baseball. The team, therefore, draws its strength from the city name, which has sprouted talents across varied sports activities. Whilst the team is named after the city, most of its players and fans will come from the city and localities. In addition, most activities are fan-controlled, meaning that Sault Ste. Marie fans have a great influence on the actions of the team. The name gives the city a meaning to boast with its great ventures as an added recreational activity. Teams have also been known to be brand ambassadors of their locations globally. The name hence sales Sault Ste. Marie across different destinations, which in effect attracts tourists. It is through this attraction of tourists that the city will gain foreign exchange and simultaneously grant the team more sponsors.
Branding Guide
Team logo serves a critical role in attracting fans and investors. The choice of colors should be wisely evaluated as they act as the brand representative in all activities since there are two logos, the primary and secondary, which are slightly different. The primary logo serves as the minimum viable product (MVP) and it has to be used most frequently (Wheeler, 2017). On the other hand, the secondary logo will be used when the primary logo seems not ideal in a situation or a chosen context. Myriad things will be considered when laying the brand, including the target group, the positioning, and segmentation, among other market factors.
Color Coding
Color is an important part of any brand as it psychologically impacts the target groups. Color would therefore be prolific in expressing the character of a brand. For instance, organizations such as Tesco have two primary colors, white to represent the “Everyday” and black represent the “Finest.” The everyday value will therefore have a white background, while the finest brand will reflect a black background. These color ranges are specifically chosen to differentiate between the two products for a similar brand. Consumers become accustomed to a brand’s colors and they can associate it to a particular product or service even when the name of the logo is absent (Wheeler, 2017). Other examples include the Facebook logo that has blue and white color codes. For our selected brand, Sault Ste. Marie Baseball, the chosen color coding is green, red, gold, and white. The visuals for Sault Ste. Marie Baseball will be two interlocking bulls. These two bulls will be the brand signature for the Sault Ste. Marie Baseball team. Wheeler (2017, p. 50) notes that this signature acts as a structured relationship between the logotype, tagline, and brandmark.
The Primary Logo
Having color codes that fit the town would be a good choice as it remains as a blueprint of Sault Ste. Marie. Such color codes would include green, red, gold, and white. It will feature an outer ring with stars at the top. The inside of the ring will be two bulls interlocking. The bulls will be colored red, while the inside ring foreground will be colored green. The middle ground will feature a stadium colored red, and the background feature hills mounted with white snow. The color codes will fit with the city’s aesthetic value. The font to be used will be 32, which glooms from afar. Sault Ste. Marie Baseball logo is unique and shall sell the team across Canada to the global championship. It will be the first logo to include the two interlocking bulls. Just as two bulls fight for a target, so do baseball teams fight for trophies. The bulls represent the strength in the team and that they are go-getters who never tire until they get their bull’s eye.
Figure 1: Impression of Sault Ste. Marie Baseball Logo.
Secondary Logo
The secondary logo will feature the same colors as the primary logo, but the features will be slightly different. However, some features such as the two outer rings are absent, as well as the date of the club. This one shall be used in cases where the primary logo does not fit in the context. Similar font as the one used in the primary logo is to be used for the secondary logo.
Goal of Campaign
The main aim of the campaign would be the introduction and inauguration of Sault Ste. Marie Baseball. Campaigns aimed at the inaugural season are important in promoting the fame of a club and also winning investors. Most fan clubs are run by sponsorships and well-wishers in which they can only be sought via inaugural season. The target will be to invite as many investors as possible who will facilitate the success of the club. Sponsors, in this case, will involve corporations such as Coca-Cola and breweries companies, among other big companies that can be able to sponsor all club activities. The inaugural season will also aid the club in signing in potential players who will be key stakeholders for the team. It will be a moment to harness the youthful talents of Sault Ste. Marie. The campaign will therefore guide all investors to the inaugural season of Sault Ste. Marie Baseball, where targeted youth members shall be invited to sign-up contracts.
Target Audience
The target group is vital before starting any process of a promotional campaign. The color codes, logos, and fonts are greatly influenced by the intended market. Like brand value, the target group help in brand positioning. For instance, the image used in the logo targets young adults aged 15-35 years of age. It represents the kind of vigor and energy this target group has for sporting activities. The campaign will target homogenous players ranging from captains to full-time players. Sault Ste. Marie will be the appropriate target for the talents. The youths of Sault Ste. Marie are expected to gain a lot of skills from Sault Ste. Marie Baseball.
Youths have a wide array of choices for their diverse interests, with options ranging from part-time players to full-time players. Additionally, there will be recreational programs that will target the Sault Ste. Marie community members. Sault Ste. Marie community members have many competencies which could be used to build on engagement to an endlessly dynamic environment, striving to reach a diverse range of youths across all aspects of daily life. Sault Ste. Marie Baseball will target such members of the community who can participate in myriad activities to actively participate in the team. There shall be youth-led initiatives that are expected to pop in response to host challenges and opportunities but shall be taken as later criteria.
Methods to Reach Audience and Communication Strategy
With the current advanced technology, the use of audio-visual media would be appropriate means to reach the target audience. Social media will be an appropriate communication strategy to reach the youth. The elderly would be targeted via the use of posters that will be strategically placed in junctions and shopping malls, among other areas perceived to have masses. The use of guerilla campaigns coupled with social media would reach a mass audience fast. As noted, the campaign targets the youths among other community members. The majority of the target members are aged between 15 and 17 years of age. This population group spent significant time on social media platforms, including Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, among other sites. Launching Facebook page names after the club, “Sault Ste. Marie Fans,” will be a good way of sourcing such youths. Nowadays, almost everyone is stuck on their phones, and hence the use of Facebook can reach a massive audience within a short period.
Social media graphics, including the team’s logo, will be used to create social media accounts. These will include Facebook profile, Twitter handle, and YouTube channels. Similarly, the posters will have a background depicting the logo. To effectively engage YouTube, creating channels that go live with recruited members already in the field will capture the attention of many fans. Since the club also targets other community members for wellness and as supporters. The use of a guerilla campaign with images placed at strategic locations of the city will be a big move towards capturing their attention. Elderly members of the community aged between 30-60 years may not play but act as sponsors. Such groups have disposable income, which they can use to facilitate activities of a club, specifically a fans club. These communication strategies are expected to reach a wide audience at a fast rate to announce the campaign. An approach to companies like “Coca-Cola” will be a good move for sponsorship. Coca-Cola has for a long time been at the forefront in the sports arena. As a synonymous brand, Coca-Cola will be a great breakthrough of the campaign.
Theme and Tagline
“Become part of the new change that transforms the community.”
The above theme is pertinent to the mission and goals of Salt Ste. Marie Baseball to bring glory to Sault Ste. Marie city. It reflects the way the team shall rejuvenate the community by harnessing the young talents and transforming them into superstars.
Analytics to Track Campaign Financial Consideration
Chief Financial Officers (CFOs) face challenges to accomplish more with stressed assets. Trapped in the crosswinds of persistent spending limitations and expanded responsibility, CFOs are obliged with stale staff levels, out-of-date information frameworks, and modernized frameworks that amplify information issues. These difficulties are expected in the current mission and consequently the need to have information investigation and computerization to help discharge these pressing factors by smoothing out the spending interaction with more noteworthy productivity. The use of analytics with monetary and operational information will furnish the mission chiefs with bits of knowledge to impact the operationalization of the estimates.
Data analytics are successful in smoothing out the spending plan measure utilizing mechanized information combination, reconciliation, and rebuilding. The budget will be aligned with marketing needs, including the display ads to promote the campaign and sponsored social media posts to generate followers on the Facebook pages created. Desirable analytics to track the campaign’s finances would include the media involved in advertisements, the material used, the number of people involved in the campaign, and means of transport sourced. These analytics will be carefully managed as they depict the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). Financial considerations will include the inauguration season, as it will be the first time the team is going public. Assessment measures for the plan involve checking the budget against other known launches taking into consideration the Canadian dollar inflation. For resource allocation, logistics will be given key consideration. The staffing plan will be based on the number of people in the campaign.
References
Gmelch, G., & Nathan, D. A. (Eds.). (2017). Baseball beyond our borders: An international pastime. U of Nebraska Press.
Wheeler, A. (2017). Designing brand identity: an essential guide for the whole branding team (5th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Jack Roosevelt Robinson was an American baseball player, the first black player in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the 20th century. He ended a period when African-American baseball players were only allowed to play in Negro leagues (Williams 21). Robinson reached significant heights in baseball, becoming the first recipient of the MLB Rookie of the Year Award (1947), becoming the National League’s Most Valuable Player (1949), and being inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. In 1997, by the decision of Major League Baseball officials, he was assigned No. 42 in all league clubs (Williams 23). Thus, it is essential to establish an athlete’s profile and the importance of race for his success.
Information on Childhood and the Influence of Race
Jackie Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, in the American state of Georgia. He was raised in a large family of sharecroppers, Jerry and Mellie Robinson (Williams 32). When the future baseball star was one year old, the first tragedy happened in his biography – his father left the family. As a result, the mother raised the children alone, working as a maid and cook. Later she managed to save money to buy her own house on a small plot of land (Williams 32). Since it was not easy for Mally to provide for her children, they were deprived of many opportunities. Thus, from his childhood, Jack Roosevelt Robinson felt that people with black skin did not have enough resources to live with dignity. Therefore, he had a dream to demonstrate that skin color does not become essential if people have talent in a specific field.
As a teenager, Jackie began to develop an interest in various sports. Robinson was most interested in baseball, basketball, tennis, rugby and track and field. At the age of 17, he won the Pacific Coast Negro tennis competition, and he also played for the high school basketball team (Williams 47). In 1938, Robinson won the regional baseball championship, becoming the tournament’s most valuable player. Simultaneously, he received a number of athletic awards.
That same year he openly criticized the arrest of his black friend, for which he received a two-year suspended sentence. It was at that point in his biography that Jackie’s active struggle against racism and discrimination of all kinds began. It is also important to note that in the summer of 1944, an incident led to the end of his military service (Williams 64). As he was riding on an Army bus with an African American woman, the driver, thinking that Robinson’s companion was white, ordered him to sit in the back of the cabin, to which Jackie responded by refusing. For this concession, Robinson was arrested and reported to his military superiors (Williams 67). Consequently, a case was fabricated against him, but at a jury trial, he was acquitted. After his discharge, he returned to sports, deciding to concentrate on baseball.
It is also worth noting that the athlete gave an interview where he described his own career and talked about the racial issue. Jack Roosevelt Robinson said, “I don’t consider myself a particularly temperamental person, except for one thing about racial prejudice” (Williams 71). The athlete said that discrimination on the basis of race motivated him to prove that such biased judgments do not correspond to reality. Thus, the racial issue was an incentive to achieve victories in sports.
Conclusion
Thus, Robinson has been fighting for equality all his life. This is because he grew up in a poor family where his mother worked hard so that the children could get the care they needed. Besides, there were situations in the athlete’s life when whites humiliated blacks, but such cases motivated Robinson to pay more attention to baseball. The reason is that this sport allowed him to demonstrate that black people also deserve recognition and respect.
Work Cited
Williams, Heather. Jackie Robinson. Cherry Lake, 2018.
Like football in England, baseball has always drawn nationwide attention in Taiwan, especially after the victory of the gold medal in the 2006 Quarter Asia Games. But when it comes to the professional market, the low attendance rate shows the dilemma of the league operation. As a monopoly in the professional sports market, the Chinese Professional Baseball League(CPBL) did have its glory days in the past 17 years. The total attendance reached its peak in 1995 and then declined in the following years. There are several reasons to explain this phenomenon but they can not change the fact that the league is suffering from economic loss and fan support. One major reason is the lack of faith in the game. The most obvious example is the “Black Eagle Scandal” which occurred in 1996. Half of the China Times Eagles players were involved in throwing the games (unfair play) under the threats of gamblers. This scandal deeply damaged the belief of baseball fans and the uncertainty of the game, which is the key element of sports. In the year 2004, CPBL seemed to recover from that dishonorable incident and tried to rebuild its image for fans. Unfortunately, similar scandals happened during the year 2005. This time baseball fans used their actions to show their anger with the low attendance in the Stadium. Meanwhile, with the globalization impact and some outstanding performances of Taiwanese baseball players in Major League Baseball (MLB) recently, baseball fans have begun to change their attention to the foreign baseball market and so have several sponsors. Many potential young players choose to go to America instead of starting their careers in Taiwan. A radical restructuring of the league is required if Taiwan baseball is to prosper in the future. Much research has been done to discuss the operation strategy for CPBL, but only the free agency system has been never touched. This represents a gap in the literature and needs to been discovered.
At this difficult moment, some people argue that there should be a free agency system in CPBL if they hope to retain those young players and operate themselves as a long-term business. Usually, CPBL players sign a 1-year contract with their team by the limitation of the “reserve clause” and the payrolls are decided by the team owner only. Players do not have the right to transfer unless their team releases them. However, teams will do the release only if players are getting old or determined to be uncompetitive. Their careers are dominated by the team and there are no trade unions that might be able to protect their rights. Some players involved in the scandal confessed that the low pay during their short player career was the major reason for them to accept the temptation from gamblers. Taking the bribe is wrong but we can understand those player’s motivations if we step further to know their situation. Though we can not assume that high pay will guarantee high performance on the field, players should have the right to negotiate their salaries and decide their future team. CPBL is the only league without a free agency system in Asia Professional Baseball. It has become a hot issue in the press for months and I believe this will be a good chance to evaluate the feasibility of free agency in CPBL through my research.
Objectives
To review the development and history of the free agency system in MLB.
To analyze the relationship between payroll and player performance after the implementation of a free agency system in MLB.
To evaluate the mechanisms of the MLB players market and the impact on competitive balance.
To compare the other Asian professional baseball league’s responses with the impact of MLB globalization.
To generate the different perspectives of the feasibility of free agency system in CPBL through in-depth interviews.
To provide suggestions and practical recommendations for CPBL.
Literature Review
History and Development of Free Agency in Major League Baseball
Before 1976 baseball players in the major leagues were subject to the reserve clause. This contract provision granted team owners the rights to a player’s services, thus, giving owners monopoly power over players. In 1976 this provision was eliminated, giving free agents the right to negotiate with any team. Applications of migration theory to free agency in major league baseball (MLB) have found that income is a significant factor in determining the migratory decision (Cymrot, 2006; Cymrot and Dunlevy, 1987). Since large-city teams are generally able to pay the most for players, it has been argued that the change in property rights that occurred with the free agency will lead to a concentration of the best talent in these teams.
MLB has been in development since the mid-1970s, which was a result of an antitrust law, which was formulated during that period. The history of the institution of free agency in MLB is well documented. In brief, without the benefit of antitrust law, the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) engaged labor laws to obtain free agency. In 1975, the MLBPA challenged the perpetual renewal interpretation of the reserve clause through arbitration as agreed upon by the policies stipulated in the 1968 collective bargaining agreement (CBA). The arbitrators ruling in favor of the players forced the negotiation of a new CBA. Although the new agreement did not allow a completely free market, players with six years or more of major league service could become free agents at the expiration of their contracts. Despite several minor changes in the compensation requirements to teams losing free agents, the six-year provision has remained unchanged in all subsequent MLB collective bargaining agreements. The CBA also included a provision for final offer salary arbitration to settle contractual disputes for players with two to three years of MLB service. Salary arbitration has also remained part of all subsequent agreements.
Numerous studies on MLB free agency have confirmed that the relationship between free agency and higher salaries exists in practice as well. For example, Scully (1974) demonstrated that the reserve clause system held player salaries significantly below their marginal revenue products (MRP). Post–free agency studies that find a significant increase in salaries are consistent with the predictions of economic theory. Specifically, Hadley & Gustafson (1991), Kahn (1993), Quirk & Fort (1992), Scully (1989), Sommers & Quinton (1982), and Zimbalist (1992) are among those providing empirical verification. Because arbitrators use free agent salaries for comparisons, free agency has also increased salaries much closer to MRP levels for arbitration-eligible players (Zimbalist, 1992).
Previous refinements of the second part of the Scully approach generally include the product of market size and team performance as an independent variable in a regression estimate of a revenue function. This allows for the possibility that a larger market team might enjoy a revenue function with a greater intercept (in a plot of revenues against wins) and a steeper slope. As a result, larger market teams would attach a greater value to a player of given marginal productivity (in wins) than would smaller market teams—and, ceteris paribus rationally would bid more for available talent. (Quirk and Fort, P.387-416, 1997)
Recent extensions of theory and empirical tests yielded fewer conclusive results. Several studies show that competitive balance has slightly improved in MLB post-free agency (Fort & Maxcy, 2003; Quirk & Fort, 1992; Vrooman, 1996). Maxcy (2002) found when comparing the average SDWP and SRCC in the twenty-five years after free agency to the preceding twenty-five years that there is a significant improvement in competitive balance. Nevertheless, when controlling for other factors, including the draft, collusion, and league expansion, the positive effects of free agency were not statistically significant. Humphreysʼs (2002) decade-by-decade analysis found league-wide competitive balance ratio (CBR) measures to have peaked in the 1980s and have declined marginally since the mid-1990s.
Free agent performance in MLB
The implementation of free agency is positive to the player’s performance. Vrooman (1996) explained that the increased movement of free agents toward large markets was responsible for improving the competitive balance. For example, talent-rich small-market teams are broken up by a free agency and reduced to mediocrity, as poorly performing large-market teams are the most inclined to purchase free agents. (Cymrot, P.545-556, 2006) The result is improved measurements of competitive balance that may be detrimental to the overall product. Although the overall effect on competitive balance may be secondary, other studies found that free agency has altered the movement and distribution of talent.
Maxcy (2002) extended the Coasian analysis by proposing that the invariance proposition does not hold if transactions costs and income effects fluctuate when labor market rules are altered, and this is likely the scenario given the changes to MLB’s free agency market. Specifically, he found when tracking player transfers that productive players were significantly more likely to switch teams and leave winning teams since the implementation of free agency. Marburger (2002) hypothesized that free agency would increase the number of within-league or division (intra-conference) transactions. Specifically, the number of player transfers by free agent transactions was significantly greater than transfers by the sale of contracts before free agency.
The impact of free agency on competitive balance in MLB
According to the Coase theorem, the implementation of free agency will not affect competitive balance, so the free agency system should be encouraged. The improved measures of competitive balance in MLB since the 1970s may also be explained by other institutional changes implemented by the league. The traditional view of the reserve clause in major league baseball is that it was instituted by owners as a way of preventing rich teams from acquiring the best players, thereby maintaining competitive balance in the league. Rottenberg (1956), however, proved this assertion false when he debated that as long as player trades (or sales) are authorized, the allocation of talent ought to be the same despite the consequences of who holds the property rights to the players’ labour services. In light of this “invariance proposition” which is an illustration of the Coase Theorem (Coase, 1960), the only effect of the reserve clause should be distributional: Owners rather than players capture the return on the players’ abilities.
Previously unaccompanied in stature as America’s premier professional team-sport league, MLB has faced increasing competition from other professional sports, particularly the NFL, since the 1960s. Consequently, the more competitive market may have influenced MLB to improve its competitive balance. For example, although fundamental to the NFL and NBA, MLB finally instituted an amateur draft in 1965. Although an improvement in competitive balance through the implementation of a draft contradicts the invariance principle, Daly & Moore (1981) and subsequent scholars noted a marked improvement in competitive balance consistent with this 1965 modification. Organizationally, MLB subdivided each of its two leagues into two divisions in 1969 and then three divisions in 1994. With each change, including playoff expansions from two to four, then to eight teams, incentives for teams regarding talent procurement also changed.
Rottenberg (1956) and Quirk (1992) have interpreted Coase’s Theorem to suggest that free agency would not affect the final distribution of playing talent because a player more valuable on another team should end up there regardless of who owns the property right. Under monopoly, the team owner is the seller and would trade the player to the highest bidder; while under competition, the player is the seller and would migrate to the highest bidder. In both cases, this highest bid would come from the team on which the player’s marginal revenue product (MRP) is greatest. The only difference is who receives the surplus-the player under free agency or the owner under the reserve clause. For example, assume player Ruth is worth $1million on his current team B, whilst he is worth $3 million on team Y. Under monopoly, the owner of team B would be $2 million better off if Ruth was traded to team Y. Under competition, team Y would be able to offer $2 million more for Ruth’s services. In either case, Ruth would end up on team Y. (Drewes, 2005)
In most applications of Coase’s Theorem, there is a transfer of property rights over the use of a resource between two parties. But in the case of free agency, property rights are transferred to the resource itself. Under free agency, the resource (i.e., the player) has preferences that will affect the trade agreement; while under monopoly, it is possible that these preferences will not be taken into account.
To summarize the MLB literature, empirical tests conclusively illustrate that free agency resulted in a significant redistribution of revenues from owners to players. In addition, although measures of competitive balance in MLB have improved, because of other market forces and institutional changes, the invariance principle cannot be refuted on this basis. Notwithstanding, there is evidence that free agency has altered the rate and type of player transfers, thus affecting the game. (Sandy et al., 376-378, 2007)
The payroll and clubs revenue, revenue-sharing system, and luxury taxes
The relationship between payroll and club revenue is somehow positive but still needs the other mechanisms to restrict each club and make the whole league run healthily. As large market teams, able to pay high salaries to most of their players, can avoid wage disparity and are the more successful teams, ceteris paribus. On the other hand, a small market team that hires a ‘ringer’ at a salary above the team’s average salary necessarily increases wage disparity. The negative externalities caused by the increased wage disparity might outweigh the marginal impact of the ‘ringer.'(Miceli, P.213-222, 2004)
As large market teams bid for the best players in the league, salaries paid to high-skilled labor will continue to increase, forcing teams to spend more to field competitive teams. Indeed, no team participated in the 1998 playoffs without spending at least $30 million in player salaries. While some small-market teams occasionally play in the post-season, e.g., the 1998 San Diego Padres and the 1997 Florida Marlins, these teams face two distinct pressures to divest their high-wage players.
Indeed, the San Diego Padres lost money during the 1998 season even though they played in the World Series. Further pressure to divest highly paid players comes through the wage-disparity effect. (Jozsa, P.209-216, 2004) This offers support for the antagonism between large and small-market teams in baseball. As large-market teams find it easier to afford the higher salaries, payroll and clubs revenue, revenue-sharing systems, and luxury taxes for the best players in the league command, they maintain their relative competitiveness. (Downward and Dawson, P.88-109, 2000) On the other hand, small-market teams, who might affordably hire only one or two high-skilled, high-wage players, face the trade-off between higher marginal productivity and the negative impact on productivity introduced through increased wage disparity.( Krautmann and Oppenheimer, pp. 459-469, 1994)
It is not clear how MLB can solve this problem consistent with a relatively free labor market. Policies such as salary caps, further restrictions on drafts and free agency, luxury taxes, and revenue sharing do not address intrateam salary disparity. Indeed, anecdotal evidence from the National Football League indicates that payroll and clubs revenue, revenue-sharing system, and luxury taxes on salary caps did not reduce, and may have enhanced, wage disparity. The labor dispute that postponed the start of the 1998–1999 National Basketball Association season was caused by disagreements over player salaries even though the NBA operates under a salary cap.
Methodology
One of the most important aspects of the feasibility evaluation of free agency in the Chinese Professional Baseball League that could be set up in Taiwan is the perception of the experts and the people who are involved in this industry regarding the game. As a result, the in-depth interview with some of the stalwarts would effectively help the cause. It is obvious that the popularity of baseball is rising in Taiwan but it should be noted that to establish a long term strategy for operation in a full-length professional league one needs to be sure of the success ratio because a huge amount of wealth would be poured into this industry and logically enough the stakeholders would like to be sure about the profitable outcome.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a process that includes an interpretative paradigm under the measures of theoretical assumptions and the entire approach is based on sustainability that is dependent on people’s experience in terms of communication. It can also be mentioned that the total approach is based on the fact that reality is created on social formulations. It can also be mentioned that the basic target of qualitative research is instrumented towards a social context under normal circumstances where it would be possible to interpret, decode and describe the significances of a phenomenon. The entire process is operational under the parameter of interpretative paradigm that can minimize illusion and share subjectivity under contextualization, authenticity, and complexity of the investigation.
The basic advantages of qualitative measures are multifold. Firstly, it presents a completely realistic approach that the statistical analysis and numerical data used in research based on quantitative research cannot provide. Another advantage of qualitative measures is that it is more flexible in terms of collected information interpretation, subsequent analysis, and data collection. It also presents a holistic point of view of the investigation. Furthermore, this approach of research allows the subjects to be comfortable thus be more accurate as research is carried on by the subject’s terms. (Dos, 84-85).
Interviews
Thus the most important objective of the interviews regarding this feasibility report concerning the professional baseball league would be building an impact regarding the profitability of this league for the stakeholder. (Cunningham, 24-5) For this important names from the field of administration and the game should be included. This would feature qualitative interviews of personnel and personalities that are well known to the arena of baseball and whose comments would certainly provide the difference between having and not having the league as these personalities would people who are regarded very highly in this context of evaluating the long term strategy for operation in a professional baseball league in Taiwan.
This would certainly include the Secretary of CPBL, Club Managers, Baseball experts (Scholar), senior commentator (Journalist or Anchorman), and Baseball players. The involvement of the Secretary of CPBL is a logical conclusion as this is the main executive who would be able to render the impetus of the league with his valued opinions. Thus the Secretary of CPBL would be a person who possesses complete knowledge of the details of the professional league and would be extremely helpful for the project.
Interviews of the Club managers would be very helpful as they are the person who directly understands the ground reality of the nature and feasibility of the game in Taiwan. (Dollard, 116-7) Baseball scholars and experts are also important for the basic strategy development these are the people who would be able to provide the theoretical framework of the entire project. Interviews of the senior commentators, Journalists, and Anchormen are very important because not only are these people well respected and their words highly valued, these are the people who can influence the structure of the league with their experience and insights. (Drake, 153-55) Lastly, interviews would also be taken from baseball players because they are the key objective of the entire scenario and these are the people who would present the game and would be instrumental in making the game worth watching. (Border, 375)
However, it should also be noted that there are certain limitations regarding the methodology of the interview aspect. History has shown that it is not always people revealing a context in a survey or interview that holds much truth in the long run in the general sense. (Bell, 271-3) This is one variable that can corrupt any well-formulated strategically set formulations. But this again is a possibility and not the general rule. In any case, it should be noted that all steps would be taken with utmost care so that such variables are not allowed to upset the basic feasibility test beyond a certain permissible limit. (Manning, 279) If all these parameters are well implemented there could be no reason why a long term strategy for operation in a full-length professional baseball league cannot be established
An outline of draft themes for the interview
Background of the professional baseball experience.
Evaluate the existing operation strategy of CPBL.
Compare the foreign experience of the free agency system from American and Japanese baseball.
Discuss the MLB effect in Asia and the win-win strategy for both MLB and CPBL market.
Evaluate the feasibility of free agency system in CPBL.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The findings point to the deep-rooted problem that is related to ethics, financial condition, payment given to the players, conditions they play in, the treatment the sport gets, and certain other social and mental conditions. This chapter provides a conclusion for the findings that were presented in the section and a set of recommendations.
Conclusion
The findings suggest that baseball, as practiced in Taiwan, is fragmented, inadequately managed, no professional management techniques, and most importantly, the sport lacks finance. There is a certain level of domination by the larger clubs who tend to get a major part of the revenue that the game has generated. The skewed distribution of funds creates bitter acrimony among the privileged clubs and the lesser clubs that receive far lesser revenue. The infrastructure for the game also needs some improvement with the construction of proper stadiums and other infrastructure. Baseball in Taiwan seems to be losing its mass appeal and popularity and the fall can be attributed to several reasons such as the scandals of bribery and embezzlement, lack of grass-root participation, lack of revenue generation, and equitable distribution, inequalities in the pay structure, and so on.
A certain lack of maturity is evident among the players and the team management and it is clear that they lack direction and guidance. It must be noted that while the game has been played for more than 100 years in the US and close for 70 years in Japan but hardly for 17 years in Taiwan. There are several other sports in Taiwan and these offer competition to baseball. However, it must be noted that some of the best practices of the game can be easily used to shorten the learning curve, but no efforts have been put in this direction. By using the best practices of large US teams such as the Yankees and others, baseball in Taiwan can certainly reinvent itself, bring in revenue and become profitable. The conclusion also suggests that there is a lack of enforcement and discipline among teams with bitter infighting but then again, this is a malaise that has resulted because of insufficient revenue, which makes the team managers and directors protect their turf for petty financial and vested interests. Baseball is not taken seriously and the game is organized more like neighborhood teams rather than as MBL teams.
Liang (2007) has also argued that talented players are leaving Taiwan and taking up assignments abroad and gives the example of Wang Chien-Ming who is a pitcher with the Yankees club in New York Good talent flows from the region because of lack of appropriate opportunities. To revitalize the game, bring in more revenue and make the game popular, certain recommendations have been provided in this chapter. These cover recommendations to increase the gate collections, increasing the advertisement and sponsorship, reducing pay inequalities among the players. Measures have also to be taken to ensure that there is an overall development of the game at the club level and the game is played actively in schools and colleges.
Recommendations
The recommendations given here are based on extensive findings submitted by different researchers. While improving the payment mechanisms is important it should be remembered that attendance for baseball has been falling in the recent past and the fall in attendance would suggest that there would a financial crunch on the sport.
Sports Marketing and Management
The paper recommends that the promotion and marketing of baseball be done in an organized manner. A recent study has suggested that baseball must be marketed and not left to fend for itself. Currently, the advertisements, sponsorship, and promotion of the sport are limited when compared to other games such as Soccer. The market size of the sports industry in Taiwan is estimated to be 80.6 billion NTD. According to estimates made by the Council for Economic Development and Planning, the leisure and sports industry market in 2008 is expected to reach 380 billion NTD. Current trends however show that this rise in revenue is coming from sports other than baseball and the game is slowly decreasing in popularity. It is recommended that instead of a lone approach, baseball should be promoted as a part of the professional sports sectors, fitness and health club, increased participation from players of different categories, the introduction of more local level baseball tournaments and matches, and understanding the basic needs of the players (Hu, 2006).
It is recommended that advantage be taken from the fact the national baseball team qualified for the Athens Olympic Games in the 14th Asian Cup. In 2003, It is also recommended that measures be taken to increase the revenue from the 6 professional teams from the 454 million NTD in 2003, and more importantly, the income should be equitably distributed among the players and other clubs also. The attendance for the game has fallen by 8.4 percent from 2005 onwards and the total attendance for the 300 games that was 960,000 has fallen by about 3,204 visitors for each game on an average. The fall in attendance has had a direct impact on the revenue and gate collections. The gate collections have decreased by 140 million NTD from 2003 onwards. It is interesting to note that while the gate revenue has fallen, the income from merchandise and licensing revenue has increased to 58 million NTD in 2006. It is recommended that marketing of merchandise should be made more aggressive to obtain higher returns. Huang (2006) has pointed out that while the physical gate collections have decreased, polls show that the number of television viewers has gone up from 18.2 percent in 2001 to 25.6 percent in 2006. While the increase in the percent of viewers has increased, it has not benefited the players or the game directly since the TV broadcasting rights fell by about 3 percent in 2006 to reach a value of 240 million NTD. It is recommended that marketing efforts be focussed on highlighting the increase to potential advertisers as the figure of 25.6 percent is large and is a potential base for advertisers. Professional marketing and analysis are needed to show the benefits to product manufacturers as the TV audience represents a large potential market. The current strategy of expecting coaches, bureaucrats, or retired players and managers to negotiate with advertisement companies should be discouraged as advertisement, financial analysis, and creating audience models is not their expertise area. If required, MLB governing body can either hire full-time consultants for negotiating with advertisers and merchandisers e to identify and boost the advertisement revenue.
It is also proposed that professional teams from the US be invited to play exhibition matches in different cities. Baseball in Taiwan is heavily influenced by the game in the US and if professional teams from the US play more games, then the popularity and game attendance will rise. It is estimated that once the recommendations are implemented, professional baseball is will prosper and will help facilitate the overall growth of sports. Profits would increase through advertisement, sponsorship, endorsement, and licensed merchandise. Corporate bodies, product manufacturers, and service providers would become more interested in taking up sponsorship of events and even teams. The marketing strategy for sports would ensure that the baseball game in particular and the sports industry of Taiwan would be globalized.
Developing Baseball at the Primary Level
A likely fall out of adopting a marketing strategy for MBL is the positive impact on semi-professional and minor league baseball. With the growth in MBL, club-level playing would show increased participation and lead to overall growth in the sports industry. Besides offering opportunities for people, the semi-professional bodies can be more organized and work as a feeder mechanism for MBL. The current level of participation in baseball in schools and colleges is not very high as students are exposed to several sports activities. As per the sports participation model suggested by Cheng, there are six components. (Cheng, 1996). The components are demographic factors, perceived susceptibility to baseball and sport; perceived, implicit and explicit advantages of taking up a specific sport; the stimulus required for participation, and the possibility that baseball would be taken up as the preferred sport. It must be noted that students in schools and colleges have studies and a career to think of and again it may perhaps be improper to suggest that baseball should be promoted over other sports. So it is recommended that along with other sports, baseball should also be promoted as a team play event. It is estimated that with increased promotion and financial inflow in the game at the MBL level, sufficient synergies would be created to make baseball more popular in schools and colleges and more and more people would participate in the game, either as players or as spectators. It is also recommended that personally perceived susceptibility for sports can be increased by the level of the needs of sports participation. Recommendations include increasing the experiences of baseball, increasing the knowledge and interest in baseball, and increasing the skill level. Development and promotion have to begin at the grass-root level to obtain a mass following and appropriately coaches have to be appointed to develop, nurture and spot the skill at the initial level. Such measures would ensure mass following and make the game popular, rather than a game for the elite such as golf or polo.
Ticket Prices and attendance
Attendance at MBL and other sporting events has been studied for quite some time and the paper gives some recommendations on the way attendance can be increased with the proper pricing strategy to increase the gate revenues. It must be emphasized that gate collection revenue also includes income from parking, sale of food and beverages, and others and these have a significant effect on attendance. As seen earlier, the TV audience has been increasing significantly over the past years and this audience does not physically contribute to the gate earnings and players revenues. Because attendance is a major source of revenue for all sports teams, the recommendations are based on theoretical and empirical research on the demand for attendance that has been an integral part of sports economics. Two earlier empirical studies of the determinants of attendance that were done in the 1970s by Noll (1974) have been used as the basis for the recommendation. The study accounted for a variety of factors that might shift demand by including control variables for income of the local population, stadium age, the availability of substitutes, franchise success, and the population in the local market. Each of these studies also found the effect of ticket prices on attendance to be problematic—imprecisely estimated or having the wrong sign. The attendance models have included similar control variables to capture demand shifts—population characteristics, stadium characteristics, team quality variables, and the availability of substitutes and price data. The recommendations follow the pattern and approach of using aggregate time-series data (Schmidt & Berri, 2001) and panel data sets containing annual average attendance by a team for several seasons, and game-by-game attendance during a particular season. Recommendations that are suggested include a detailed study that focuses on specific issues affecting attendance, such as the impact of roster turnover, the impact of the designated hitter rule, the impact of labor unrest, and the impact of the relative strengths of the teams. A general finding in these studies is that attendance demand is price inelastic. Fort (2004) shows that this is not inconsistent with the idea that professional sports franchises are monopolies, so long as the franchises have other sources of revenue. The recommendations build upon that of El Hodiri and Quirk (1974) and Heilman and Wendling (1976) by extending sources of revenue to include sales unrelated to attendance. Heilman and Wendling (1976) show that franchises may set ticket prices in the inelastic portion of attendance demand to raise revenues from other sources. It is recommended to develop a model of ticket pricing, concession pricing, broadcasting revenue, and revenue sharing in a professional sports league. The model can be used to motivate an unconditional analysis of ticket and concession prices that supports the idea that revenue-maximizing teams price tickets in the inelastic portion of the demand curve to maximize total revenues by increasing revenues from other sources like concessions. The paper makes a recommendation that we should consider a monopoly sports franchise that can set prices for tickets and ancillary goods and services like concessions and parking. Suppose that costs to the franchise are independent of attendance and sales of these ancillaries. In these circumstances, the objective of the franchises is to set ticket and concession prices to maximize revenues, given the constraint that attendance is limited by the seating capacity of the stadium or arena. The demand for attendance at professional sporting events is inelastic concerning the ticket price. This evidence appears to be at odds with the common idea that professional sports franchises are monopolists whose pricing behavior should be to set prices in the elastic portion of the demand. These results suggest at least two future lines of inquiry in this area. We devise a simple model of a multi-product sports franchise and derive implications for the pricing of each of the products of the team. The precise predictions depend upon whether the team sells out its entire stadium or whether there is excess capacity. In the latter case, the profit maximization conditions imply that when concessions prices do not affect ticket demand, concession prices are set to maximize concessions’ revenue.
Financing Infrastructure
To grow and become popular, the game of baseball needs funds and development of infrastructure for not only MLB games but semi-professional and other levels of games also. Given the huge costs of land and building a world-class stadium, the financial burden becomes prohibitive. Based on the studies done by William (et all, October 2006), certain recommendations have been done for infrastructure financing and this is a very important aspect of the management. To arrange to finance for the stadium, strategies need to be used to overcome the fiscal and legal constraints affecting stadium financing. As per the current tax laws, there is a limit on the ability of municipal, sports authorities, and sports franchises to use tax-exempt bonds to finance large major league stadium projects unless such stadiums are financed with tax revenues or similar public sources of funds. Often municipalities and franchises contemplating stadium construction projects are left with a difficult choice of either financing stadiums at conventional interest rates, or increasing local taxes to pay for a stadium project. The first alternative is financially unpalatable for a sports franchise owner and the second alternative is politically unpalatable for a municipality. The paper recommends that financing be done by using cost-effective tax-exempt municipal bonds without increasing local taxes. The key to the financing structure is the use of payments instead of real property taxes or Pilots as the source of repayment of the new stadium debt. The use of tax-exempt municipal bonds would substantially reduce financing costs, but tax-exempt municipal bonds are typically secured by local tax revenues. Levying new local taxes to pay for the construction of the stadium is difficult.
Pilots that are received are paid over to the respective City to offset tax exemptions granted by the agency. For large projects, Pilots are a dependable revenue stream to the city, which is calculated and payable much like real property taxes and is ripe for securitization. Securitizing Pilots to pay for the new stadium through the issuance of municipal bonds, backed by the stadium’s Pilot revenues offer an attractive alternative to either raising taxes or issuing non-structured bonds at conventional interest rates. Pilots are also a particularly flexible financing tool. As with real property taxes, they provide a reliable source of revenue that gradually increases over time, but that is not encumbered by the municipality’s general pledge of faith and credit. A stream of Pilot payments may be pledged to repay a quasi-municipal obligation. But the key advantage of Pilots is that, for federal income tax purposes, they look and act like taxes of general application much the same as a real property tax. Interest on bonds that are backed by taxes of general application and concerning which there is no private security or private payment for the use or the bond financial property are exempt from income taxation. Financing rates relating to such obligations are also substantially lower than conventional financing rates. A Pilot is considered to be a generally applicable tax if payment of the Pilot is commensurate with and not greater than amounts imposed by a statute for a tax of general application, and payment of a Pilot is designated for a public purpose and is not a special charge. The Pilots can be derived from and measured in contemplation of ad valorem taxes that are otherwise applicable to the stadium. In addition, Pilots charged concerning the stadium are not permitted to exceed generally applicable property taxes otherwise due and are therefore not greater than amounts imposed by a statute for taxes of general application. Furthermore, using Pilots to finance the construction of the stadium as a key component in the city’s economic development plan satisfies the requirement that payment of a Pilot is designated for a public purpose. Since Pilots are typically charged for substantially all economic development projects they do not constitute a special charge and are therefore exempt from state and local income taxes. The one substantial wrinkle to Pilot bond financings is that the bonds may not be secured by any non-public or private source of revenue, and may only be secured by Pilot payments. The bonds may not be secured by a pledge or guarantee of a sports team owner or a pledge of broadcast or advertising revenues. For a Pilot bond financing to work, holders of a Pilot bond must be certain that payments will continue to be paid. In stadium financing, this requirement is not particularly problematic. The failure to pay Pilots, like the failure to pay real property taxes, can result in a tax lien foreclosure or, in the case of a Pilot, a Pilot lien foreclosure.
A Pilot lien foreclosure of a Stadium would result in the loss of the rights to use the new stadium. Given the fact that broadcast revenues, ticket revenues, endorsement revenues, and concession revenues are all dependent on the teams continuing to play baseball and the only venue for baseball is the new stadium, it is reasonable for a Pilot bondholder to conclude that the team will continue to make Pilot payments to maintain access to the new stadium.
Increasing Profitability
Nourayi (2006) has provided a detailed study and research into increasing the profitability of specific teams and the sport in the NBA and based on this study, the paper suggests some recommendations. As profit-driven entities, sports franchises try to increase revenues from various such as ticket sales and television contracts. Winning more games will increase the demand for tickets, allowing an increase in ticket prices. Winning more games provides long-term income potential through demand from advertisers and sponsorships, as well as creating excitement around the team. Professional sports such as baseball are profit-driven institutions in the intensely competitive entertainment industry and professional sports executives manage their operations in much the same way as business executives. Increased attendance and viewership for the games will enhance the franchise’s negotiation and contracting position. It is further expected that an increase in attendance will cause an increase in the revenues from related businesses such as advertising, sponsorship, concession sales, parking fee, and sales from merchandising. Identification of the best game plan and underlying players’ capabilities may be helpful in determining necessary changes in the roster, hence, drafts, trades and contracting decisions. While fans’ loyalty and attendance at sporting events are influenced by many factors nothing seems more influential than the team’s performance. Professional sports fans expect “their” team to win a respectable percentage of times. Winning appears to be the most defined service quality in such a setting. Achieving the expected quality, by winning games, is only possible if the appropriate complement of players, with optimum skill level, is contributing towards that objective. In this setting, the performance of a given professional sports team can influence the franchise’s strategy through public subsidies of facilities. The paper recommends that continuous improvement methods be used to optimize the team’s operations and management. Certain accepted industry benchmarks can be followed to bring about changes in the manner of accounting, business transactions, negotiating with advertisers, and other business-related activities. Benchmarking inherently relies on the assumption of availability and use of information about competing organizations. More often than not, benchmarking is accomplished through the cooperative efforts of benchmarking partners. Benchmarking with direct competitors requires a willing partner.
The partners need to share information and rely on such information gathered for benchmarking purposes. The major difficulty attributable to this approach is the identification of a “cooperative” partner given such partnerships require sharing of information about the partners’ operations. It is unlikely that companies share information that may be the source of their competitive advantage. Alternatively, required information may be gathered in a “unilateral” approach by collecting information without the benefit of cooperation by a target partner. This approach relies on data published or available from sources such as trade association or information clearinghouses. However, publicly available information is generally in aggregate form and may not be as detailed and refined as required for a benchmarking project. Control and performance evaluation in conjunction with benchmarking, relies on measures that are produced externally as targets. Such targets are meaningful and effective basis for comparison. The differences resulted from comparisons between a “practice” and the “best practices” also known as “performance gaps,” are meaningful. Measures for competitive evaluation purposes. Benchmarking is less likely to be subject to biases and arbitrariness than the traditional systems of standard setting, Standard Cost Accounting System, where measures are internally produced and may be sub-optimal. However, both benchmarking and standard setting have similar frameworks with their theoretical underpinning in scientific management field. Sports franchises are, by their very nature, structured on the pillars of intense competition and a desire for continual progress. Most professional players strive to achieve performance excellence. Consequently, professional sports franchises can benefit immensely from an effective method of implementing the continuous improvement principles. Franchises strive to improve their performance in order to gain the support of fans. Loyal fans’ have a significant influence on the short and long-term financial success of the franchise.
Pay Inequalities and Performance of Teams
Based on the study done by Frick (et all, 2000) on pay inequalities and performance of teams, certain recommendations are suggested. As discussed in the research findings, there were allegations and convictions of certain teams and team members who had been bribed or accepted money to lose a game. Such behavior not only spoils the game but drives away spectators who feel cheated. The success of a game depends to a large extent, not only on winning but also on the ethical behavior of their favorite teams. To a certain extent, team members are coerced to accept bribes because of the perceived lack of income and certain disparities in pay. The authors have examined the data of wins and losses of teams and studied the wage structures in these teams. They conclude that higher wage disparity is detrimental to team performance. Then the question arises that should talented individuals who perform well should be given a salary that is equal to what a non-performing player gets. The paper recommends that salary and wage should be based on a commonly accepted points grading system that would rate the player for a few games and a season. Players who play better would get a higher rating and a corresponding higher salary. The paper suggests that though wage inequalities would remain, the player who gets paid less has a chance to redeem himself by playing better and by earning more.
Leveling the Playing Field – Balancing the Haves with the Have Not’s
Solow (et all, April 2007) has made detailed research on how MBL factions are structured. The authors speak of imbalance in the organization of the teams and clubs and this leads to a disparity in salaries, decision making and creates a difference and discontent in the sport. It can be seen that the structure of Major League Baseball (MLB) is regarded as evolving into a league of haves and have-nots. On one end of the spectrum, we find a few large-market teams whose vast revenues allow them to accumulate the best talent and deepest benches. At the other end of the spectrum, we find several struggling teams whose ability to field a competitive team seemingly is hampered by the ability of their market to generate a sufficient level of revenue. Critics charge that this imbalance in revenue potential is leading to a domination of the sport by the large-market teams. To successfully address the problem of imbalance in the leagues, redistribution must affect teams’ marginal revenue functions. The extent to which such redistribution equalizes competitive balance depends on whether the effect disproportionately lowers the marginal revenue of large market teams. Previous theoretical work has also shown that redistributing revenues from rich to poor teams will lower the marginal value of winning of all teams, thus reducing the payments to labor (Fort 2003). Different revenue sources are likely to respond differently to current and lagged winning percentages. While a team’s share of the league’s national television revenues is not sensitive to its performance, gate receipts and concessions are likely quite responsive to both current and lagged winning percentages. Local television and radio revenues can be expected to respond to lagged performance and will respond to current performance if the number of games that are televised depends on performance or if payments are linked to ratings. From a theoretical perspective, it remains an open question whether and which kind of redistribution improves competitive balance. While Quirk and El-Hodiri (1974), Fort and Quirk (1995), Vrooman (1995), Kesenne (2000), and Fort (2003) provide models in which gate revenue sharing does not affect competitive balance (the so-called ‘invariance principle’), Fort and Quirk (1995) showed that sharing local television revenues can improve the competitive balance, while Kesenne (2000) showed that gate sharing can lead to more balance if owners are win-maximizers. Modeling a sports league as a non-cooperative game, Szymanski and Kesenne (2004) showed that league balance can suffer when gate revenue sharing is imposed.
Since the allocation of playing talent ultimately depends on the intensity of demand, the recommendation is to look at the demand for player talent. A team’s demand for talent is its marginal revenue product, derived from its marginal revenue (MR) and the marginal product of players (MP). Teams in big cities have an advantage over their small-city counterparts in that their marginal revenue, and hence the demand for talent, is larger. As such, the dominance of the sport by the large-market teams is a free-market outcome ultimately explained by the greater value of a win in these cities. While the market allocation of talent may be optimal from the perspective of anyone team, it ignores the externality associated with the overall well-being of the league. First introduced by Rottenberg (1956), the uncertainty of outcome hypothesis maintains that fans prefer sports events in which the outcome is exciting because of its uncertainty. If large-market teams acquire the strongest rosters and deepest benches, then match-ups with small-market (and less talented) teams could hurt the demand for the league as a whole. For the recommendation of redistribution on the allocation of playing talent, assume the supply of talent is fixed, that teams are profit maximizers, and that the league consists of one large-market (L) and one small-market (S) team. The distribution of winning percent (W) between the two teams is determined, with the large market team’s winning percent (W L ) plotted on the horizontal axis (hence, W S is [1- W L ]). Given this normalization assumption, each team’s demand for talent is determined by its marginal revenue functions. As is common in this type of model, assume that the marginal revenue function of L is greater than that of S. Under profit maximization, the market allocation of talent (without redistribution) occurs at the intersection of the two marginal revenue functions, where each is equal to the price of a unit of talent, P T. Given that MR L > MR S, this allocation results in the large-market team winning more games than the small-market team (i.e., the equilibrium winning percent of the large-market team is greater than 50%). If the league values competitive balance and we assume that the equilibrium distribution of wins is widely perceived as unacceptable, then this market mechanism must be overridden. But simply transferring revenues from large markets to small-market teams will not achieve this goal; the teams’ marginal revenue functions must be changed to have an effect on the allocation of talent. It has been argued elsewhere that redistribution programs ultimately reduce the marginal value of a win because the amount taxed away from each team does not equal the amount returned to that team (Fort and Quirk 1995; Fort 2003). For example, consider how the current revenue-sharing program in MLB affects teams’ marginal revenue functions. This agreement takes 17% of each team’s local revenues, then returns an equal share (i.e., 1/30) to each team. While winning an extra game adds to local revenues, some of this extra revenue is taxed away, meaning that the marginal value of a winning net of redistribution payments will be smaller than that which ignores such payments. Given that each team’s marginal revenue function is decreased as a result of the redistribution program, the remaining question is whether the net result on the allocation of talent is in the intended direction of greater competitive balance (i.e., towards small-market teams and away from large-market teams). For example, consider the case where both teams’ marginal revenues fall by an identical amount. In this case, the allocation of talent is unaffected by the program and the only effect is the reduction of the equilibrium price of talent. If redistribution has a greater impact on the marginal revenue of the large-market team, then the league will become more balanced. Conversely, if the program disproportionately affects the marginal revenue of the small-market team, then balance will suffer. In all cases, however, the effect of redistribution on players’ salaries is unambiguously negative.
The recommendations to balance the growing divergence in local revenues generated by teams from differing market sizes, MLB has to take up several programs to redistribute revenue. While the intent is to enhance the balance of talent across the league, it is also well known that such programs ultimately depress players’ salaries. If the net effect of revenue sharing were to “equalize talent” (in any case, more so than would occur in the absence of such programs), then perhaps we might feel that this reduction in salaries paid to players is justified because of its beneficial effects on competitive balance. The question of interest in this paper is whether the net effect of redistribution has helped or harmed the balance of talent in the league. Since redistribution, in theory, depresses the MR curves of all teams, the ultimate comparison is whether the MR of large-market teams falls by more or less than that of the small-market teams in equilibrium. Based on estimates, the MR curves of teams were indeed reduced by the redistribution efforts undertaken by Major League Baseball from 1996-2001. But the overall effect of those efforts on league balance was neutral, leaving teams’ winning percentages essentially where they would have been had revenue not been redistributed. The results are thus consistent with the invariance principle and suggest that the assumptions behind those models that conclude that redistribution will affect league balance either positively or negatively do not hold. At the same time, the results indicate that redistribution led to an economically significant reduction in players’ salaries. Hence it is recommended that equitable redistribution should be based on the player’s performance and talent rather than any other equitable measures.
Ethics and Discipline
According to a report published by Taiwan Tiger. (2005), there are vast indiscretions by some of the players who play for different clubs. It has been widely alleged that some players had accepted money and other favors to lose a game and that the players acted in objectionable behavior with others. There is a lack of enforcement and ethical behavior among the teams and certain rules of behavior and conduct should be imposed on the players. The question again arises as to who would enforce the rules and discipline the players. An apex body needs to be constituted that would be made up of neutral members of the Judiciary, eminent retired players, and coaches and they should be given the power to censure and place a player on the bench if any gross misconduct and improper behavior are proved beyond all reasonable doubt. The apex body should also have the power of arbitration and be authorized to solve disputes among different clubs. A strong bias against foreign players has also been reported and there is a cap of a maximum of two foreign players in the team. The number could perhaps be relaxed with a cap on the maximum appearances of foreign players in a season. The paper suggests that exposure to foreign players and their participation is beneficial to the game and would bring an overall improvement. The paper also recommends that there should be equitable treatment of foreign players and that they should not be unduly victimized or censured.
Gambling and Betting
Lisa (2007) has pointed out incidents that involved gangsters who intimidated some players into losing a game and has suggested that the gambling syndicate is behind such episodes. Gambling is quite popular in China and Taiwan and people like to place bets for specific outcomes of the game. While people like to place bets on straight games, they become skeptical when the games are fixed and consequently the game suffers, there is less attendance and a fall in sponsorship and revenue. The paper recommends that betting be regulated by the government or other bodies and illegal gambling and match-fixing should be strongly put down.
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The field of games is a rather demanding area that calls for a fair deal of devotion if one is to succeed in it. Games come in different categories. However, inasmuch as each category wishes to attract fans based on its records of fabulous performance, it is crucial to note that various factors boost and or lower the performance.
The paper narrows down to the baseball game. Major league and minor league baseball attendance are affected by a myriad of factors ranging from the motivational factors that attract fans, to ticket pricing. In between these two extremes, scholarly works have shown a number of factors to be significant in influencing the attendance in baseball matches.
Meehan, Nelson and Richardson (2007, p.572) sheds light that, “A host of factors influences the demand for sports, including the price of tickets, fan income, the population of the drawing area, team quality, and the age of the stadiums in which teams play”. Other factors include crowd control, parking, and concession.
These factors are what researchers have referred to as environmental factors. Fans of a given sport differ enormously from fans of another sport and hence the factors that affect their attendance in the matches are widely controlled to a different extent by the same factors.
What this means is that one factor may have positive effects in drawing the spectators to cheer up a given match while in a different sport, it may produce the opposite effects. With this in mind, this paper introspect the factors that affect sports attendance with reference to principal and minor baseball league. The complexity and magnitude of promotions and marketing of entertainments products during the matches ardently influence major baseball leagues.
Other factors that are given consideration in the paper includes but not limited to team quality, top prospects, ticket pricing, prospects of terrorism, influence of international players and location of base ball facilities. However, these factors widely act in a combination mode and hence they influence attendance compositely.
Major and minor baseball league attendance
Promotions
Various scholarly works have confirmed promotions to increase attendance of baseball contests. Various types of promotions, however, influence attendance differently. As Gitter and Rhoads (2011, p.345) claim, “While price promotions affected attendance negatively in all clubs, non-price and combinations of promotions were associated with an increase in attendance for all teams.”
Butler conducted a study of determinants of the minor games attendance in 2006 Carolina baseball league. The analysis of the study predominantly focused on the effect of different promotions conducted during the game day, as opposed to promotions conducted throughout the season.
In this regard, Butler (2002, p.328) posits that, “The operation of Major League Baseball (MLB) teams is a remarkably complex enterprise involving the marketing of a diverse multi-dimensional entertainment commodity. Apart from promotion of concession products: soft drinks, hot dogs and the likes, promotion of home teams tickets increases the attendance for home teams fans.
Increased buying power goes hand in hand in the provision of the positive response to promotional campaigns. Arguably, the demand for tickets and hence the attendance during minor baseball leagues is impeccably affected by income per capita.
Butler (2002, p.328) reckons that, “the higher the per capita income in the host county (or host city) for a minor league team, the greater demand for tickets in that county.” Attendance for minor base ball league, consequently, is a function of factors that affect the demand for the home team tickets and the factors that impede the promotion of the home team entertainment products.
Using the data generated form Carolina baseball league attendance in the year 2006. Butler (2002, p.334) found out that “attendance, expressed in relative terms as a number of persons in attendance as a percent of stadium capacity was directly related to the per capita income of the county or the city of the host team”. The attendance was also a function of the other benefits such fare deals of foods and drinks products.
Reduction of food and drinks prices sold during the matches and other products for home teams such as caps, T-shirts are promotion endeavors, which have a tremendous capacity to draw a substantial volume of attendance (Gifis, 2006, p.513). Scheduling the games on Saturday and Fridays has also the capacity to increase attendance. Consequently, given the capacity of the promotions to increase the attendance, combining the two has an ability to raise the attendance even more.
Team quality
Team quality affects not only major league baseball attendance, but also minor league attendance. According to Gitter and Rhoads (2010) “there is evidence that minor and MLB are substitutes as increased ticket prices for the nearest MLB team lead to higher minor league attendance if that team is within 100 miles” (p.620). Most fans interpret quality of the team as reflective of its performance. Maintained satisfactory performance stands a perfect chance of increasing the team’s attractiveness before the eyes of its supporters.
A study conducted by Greenstein and Marcumin 1982 revealed that major baseball attendance was a function of win-loss record in previous matches (Kahane & Shmanske, 1997, p.427). In the variance of attendance, 25% of it was accounted for by the team’s record of performance. Attractiveness or rather the quality of the team plays pivotal roles in making the decision to attend.
Arguably, the fans of given Baseball team whether in major or minor leagues attend games to celebrate the winning of their team. In case a team has been recording losses more than wins, most of the fans will tend to shun from attendance since they do not want to be part of loss. This perhaps leads to the appreciation of the significance of considering the team’s quality in determining the attendance of major and minor Baseball league.
As Kahane and Shmanske (1997, p.434) reckon, “The attractiveness of the visiting team (its quality, the presence of star players, the strength of its rivalry with the home team, etc.) is a second crucial factor in fans’ decision making about game attendance” (p.40). Congruent with this view, if a visiting team has recorded a negative record in terms of performance, most likely the home team fans are likely to attend in large numbers even though the visiting team might have not held contests previously with the home team.
According to Gitter and Rhoads (2010) “…local or regional MLB team’s winning percentage only has a positive impact on minor league attendance when they are affiliated clubs” (p.614). Thus, it is plausible to argue that affiliation of teams coupled with fans perceptions about their team’s quality has an impeccable influence in determining whether to attend or not to attend a major or minor Baseball league competition.
Top prospects
The existing enthusiasm among fans to see the future baseball star contributes to increased attendance during the minor leagues. According to Gitter and Rhoads (2010), “Baseball America, a leading industry publication, ranks 100 top prospects that have yet to play substantially in the principal leagues” (p.614).
For a whole year, the one hundred prospects develop within their localities before taking part in major leagues. Fans attend baseball minor leagues driven by enthusiasm to have a glimpse of the likely star to take part in the major leagues.
The study conducted by Gitter and Rhoads claims that “only those prospects ranked in the top five and the highest AAA have an impact on their team’s attendance and their impact on attendance is small” (2010, p.615). From these results, it follows that for those stars rated least in the Baseball America ranks for top 100 prospects have little capacity to draw fans attention and hence attendance during their minor base ball leagues.
Arguably, this is perhaps because the majority of the fans interpreted the ranking as likely indication of how such prospects would perform during the matches. This argument consequently takes us to the idea that fans would like to be associated with winning teams rather than losing teams.
Since motivation is essentials in any game, the best prospects have the ability to produce baseball stars during the major leagues. Fans produce this motivation since their large attendance serves to give the players the belief that they are the best in the ranking as put forward by Baseball America.
It is somewhat subtle to argue that, if top prospects can increase minor league attendance, them if these prospects happens to participate in the major league then, there is no doubt that the attendance will also be high. Unfortunately, this argument tend to infer that only those that who are ranked high by Baseball America have the chances of being Baseball stars during major leagues.
Even though, the ranking of baseball prospects by Baseball America may increase the attendance percentage according to various scholarly studies, the increment is minimal. According to Gitter and Rhoads (2010), “minor league Baseball player ranking by Baseball America as top prospects increases attendance for minor league team by a minimal amount (less than 2%)” (p.621).
However, even though this increment is small, its contribution to sporting facilities revenues increment is quite significant. This is particularly pertinent since most of this revenue goes into improvement of sports facilities. In fact, new facilities have indicated their ability to increase attendance of fans both in minor and major baseball leagues (Roy, 2008, 146).
Fear of Terrorism
Sporting facilities are crucial targets of terrorist activities. Consequently, various sporting managers anticipate all range of consequences in term of fans attendances especially with increased perceptions and fears of terrorism activities. Kalist (2010) laments that, “sports venues may experience falling ticket sales as the public becomes more concerned about the threat of terrorism” (p.181).
Increase of terror alerts results to escalation of reduction of Baseball fans attendance. Kalist reckons that “during the early days of the nation’s first-ever increase in the terror-alert level (i.e., rose from yellow to orange) attendance decreased by as much as 12%. A back-of-the-envelope calculation suggests that a team may have lost more than a half million dollars in attendance revenue” (2010, p.181).
However, this suggestion faces incredible opposition since the most recent terror alerts has not been positively reflected into a reduction of fans attendance. The researchers of study conducted it in a time perhaps when people were not used to terror attacks threats by the ministry of state security. This is largely because most of the terror attacks threats hardly success.
Terror attacks threats that do not materialize. They make the public to lose confidence for government’s announcements of likelihoods of terror attacks. However, sporting facilities remain outstanding targets for terror attacks perhaps due to high anticipations of a large crowd turnout. In fact, “he Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has made repeated statements about terrorist interest in stadiums” (Kalist, 2010, 189).
Convenience and security are perhaps two factors that fans establish tradeoffs. Inadequate security has the capacity to annoy the fans to the level that they may choose never to attend again in the future. This is argument is perhaps more significant and applicable to people who have encountered insecurity instances at one or more attendances.
Fears of terrorism have additionally resulted in the increment of insurance costs. For economic reasons, the owners of the stadiums have to extend this cost to the fans in terms of increased tickets, prices. Feeling of insecurity fueled by fears of terror attacks affects major and minor baseball leagues attendance negatively both in terms of increase in ticket prices and the need to refrain from places that one is likely to be afflicted by aftermaths of the terror attacks.
International players
The United States does not dispute the incorporation of foreign players into the Baseball teams. It is widely acceptable among sporting scholars that fans initially attended tournaments to celebrate the achievements of people they regarded as ‘their own’. Does the incorporation of foreign players in the baseball team affect the attendance of the fans? Tainsky and Winfree (2010) demonstrated “how traditional studies of consumer’s discrimination can be applied to gauge the impacts of international players in sports” (p.126).
According to Tainsky and Winfree, the incorporation of a foreign player not only resulted to discrimination amongst the MLB teams players but also affected the team’s quality. However, “the net effect of additional international player has evolved with time from negative to positive” (Tainsky and Winfree, 2010, p.126).
More and more fans continue to develop the sense of internationalism. Hence, their attendance in response to incorporation of international players in major Baseball leagues also increases lineally. This is, in fact, immensely vital since as Tainsky and Winfree (2010) reckon, “MLB, have actively tried to become more international by signing international players or scheduling more games outside the United States” (127).
Perhaps also with appreciation of the need to incorporate the international players in the MLB teams, MLB deploys incredible endeavors to advertize base ball tournaments in other languages apart from English. As Tainsky and Winfree (2010) argue “…domestic demand is not affected by international players” (p.127).
Opposed to long gone perceptions, global perceptions have resulted to immense alteration of fans regards about international players in the MLB. Furthermore, Tainsky and Winfree (2010) indicate, “The largest negative change in revenue from an international player came in 1985 with a loss of $731,875. In 2000 when the effect peaked teams increased their revenue by $595,632 from an international player…” (p.127). Based on people’s arguments, increased arise from increased attendance.
Location of the major league
Location influences the attendance of fans in the Baseball tournaments especially the major leagues. Location is significant since it influences other factors such the capacity of the fans to commute. The influence of location to attendance of major Baseball league concerned Winfree, Mittelhammer and Fort who conducted a “ travel-cost model to analyze the attendance impacts on major league baseball (MLB) of the closest substitute MLB team” (2004, p.2117).
Majority of the Baseball leagues owners complains of the probabilities of experiencing uncertainties in terms of finance in future attributable to imbalances of competition problems. As part of the solution to these problems, people have stood an excellent chance of making many proposals.
One of them is that “MLB should allow owners to move their teams, especially to larger markets to reduce the imbalance” (Winfree, Mittelhammer & Fort, 2004, p.2117). One question surface: Does change of location by virtues of relocating a major Baseball facility to a market with more financial capacity help increasing attendance and hence the revenues to the owners of the facilities?
Location carries within itself many other factors that might influence attendance such as the existence of other Baseball teams within the area that might acts as substitutes that would have the net effect of reducing the attendance of a certain MLB.
Location is significant in the evaluation of factors that influence the attendance since travel cost entangles a cost that Baseball fans have to meet. Arguably, if location needs to be significant, then in case there are two facilities within an area that offers equal utilities amongst fans, then it is widely anticipated that the fans would choose to attend the tournament that is closest to them.
In this context, it “implies that attendance lost to a substitute team should be a functions of the distance to that other substitute” (Tainsky and Winfree, 2004, p.2118). Now, it is essential to ask ourselves how prominent location is in comparison to fans loyalty to their teams.
From a different dimension, it is crucial to look at the location and its impacts to the attendance of Baseball leagues as a function of other factors that influence the same.
Tainsky and Winfree, (2004) posits that “The utility of a Baseball fan is a function of the number of visits to baseball stadiums, the quality of the teams, the quality of those stadiums, as well as all other goods consumed” (p.2118). It is thus worth to argue that, the dominant factor among all these factor wins in terms of contributing and controlling the fans decision to attend a given Baseball competition.
Tainsky and Winfree finding claim, “A travel cost model is used to explain attendance for MLB teams, 1963–1998. At the sample average variable values, a one-mile increase in distance to a substitute MLB team increases attendance by about 1544 fans” (2004,p.2123). These results indicate that in case a substitute team emerges within the vicinity of an existing team, the attendance of the first team is likely to reduce.
However, when this teams assume their market share of fans, “ongoing attendance impacts are small, even when a team might be placed fairly close to another” (Tainsky and Winfree, 2004, p.2123). Bearing in mind the economic consequences change of the location can have on the fans’ attendance, change of location should encompass one of the things that owners of Baseball facilities needs to consider before attempting shift the location of their facilities.
However, this does not disregard out the weight of other factors that may contribute towards pre-bargaining for the need of relocation. This is largely justifiable since a good number of fans can be willing to attend tournaments of Baseball teams to which they have developed incredible loyalty towards no matter the commuting costs.
Ticket pricing
Sport teams have three principal sources of income. These sources are “sales, of media rights, concession sales and ticket sales” (Meehan, Nelson & Richardson, 2007, p.572). As a way of ensuring that sport teams have maximized their profits, the team’s owners need to be in possession of ample knowledge about the relationship, between the attendance and the pricing of the tickets.
Pricing tickets at higher prices, from the most general dimension and given that the demand is inflexible, means increased revenues and hence profits. On the other hand, increased attendance, even without necessarily increasing ticket prices, means increased revenues.
However, is it possible for demand to be inflexible even in the helm of increased ticket prices? As Meehan, Nelson and Richardson (2007, p.572) posit, “A host of factors influences the demand for sports, including the price of tickets, fan income, the population of the drawing area, team quality, and the age of the stadiums in which teams play”.
Each of these factors has different impacts on the attendance. For instance, Meehan, Nelson and Richardson (2007, p.574) claims that “the sensitivity of attendance to changes in the price of tickets (the elasticity of demand) and to changes in average incomes (the income elasticity) may vary from team to team”.
Meehan, Nelson and Richardson’s study investigated 23 MLB teams in 1970 to 2003. They deployed series data to make them be at a point to pin point on certain factors that had a direct influence on the attendance of Baseball leagues. To this extent, ECM (error correction model) came in handy.
The results of the study indicated that ticket pricing was amongst the factors that affected the attendance in the baseball league. Their results contend with other scholarly studies that “MLB ticket prices are set in the inelastic range of demand” (Meehan, Nelson and Richardson 2007, p.577).
Setting ticket prices in any elastic range of demand has the effect of reducing demand and hence revenues in case any adjustments are made on the ticket prices. This is perhaps necessary for the purposes of ensuring that ticket pricing does not result to dwindled demand. Reduced demand is a substantial impediment towards ensuring increment of baseball facilities profitability.
Conclusion
A number of factors affect the attendance of fans in both major and minor baseball leagues. These factors range from incidences of voicing likelihood of terror attacks, team quality, top prospects, ticket pricing, and influence of international players, promotions and location of Baseball facilities.
Before making any policy, the Baseball facilities’ owners, consequently, need to put all these factors into consideration since they affect the attendance of the fans differently. This goes hand in hand in determining the future financial position of the Baseball clubs.
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