The aviation industry is among the fastest-growing economic sectors in the United Arab Emirates. As a result, the aviation industry provides the Emirates with vast job opportunities for socio-economic development, and women should strive to take advantage to achieve personal and career development goals. Fortunately, as shown in the case study, Emirati women have benefited greatly from the vast opportunities in the growing aviation industry. The UAE government has taken an active role in empowering women to take up opportunities and high-level positions in the aviation industry through various strategies.
These strategies can be analyzed by applying different theoretical concepts. First, the aviation sector is dominated by males, which is why females often disregard the idea of working in the field. The UAE leadership sought to increase the interest and participation of women through encouragement and showing great confidence in the capabilities of women to navigate the aviation sector and even hold senior positions. Moreover, the concept of diversity of management in organizational behavior can help in understanding the challenges faced by women in this sector and the importance of the identified strategy in improving their interest and participation. The concept of diversity focuses on the similarity or differences between individuals. Diversity is characterized by such factors as age, race, gender, religion, physical abilities, and sexual orientation. Diversity can affect organizational behaviors, which is why different strategies are applied to manage the issue of diversity effectively. Moreover, discrimination occurs if the management of diversity is ineffective. The limited participation of UAE women in the aviation industry can be linked to discrimination such as exclusion, while women are intentionally or unintentionally deprived of opportunities in this sector. The government’s intervention of encouragement and showing confidence in the capabilities of women will help in addressing this diversity challenge and ensure policies that provide equal opportunities without discrimination on the basis of gender. Therefore, understanding the concept of diversity and discrimination, and how it affects organizational behavior has been important in shaping the implementation of appropriate strategies by the UAE government.
In 2011, Etihad Airways showed a great commitment while helping the government in its pursuit of increasing the local female workforce in the aviation sector. The company employed five Emirati female pilots and founded the Emirates Aviation College, which would offer women opportunities to gain knowledge on different aviation-related courses, which, in turn, would allow them to participate in the aviation sector. The UAE government supported this initiative by offering females interested in the aviation sector with academic aid. Thus, the concept of motivation in organizational behavior can help in understanding the importance of this strategy. Motivation is defined as the desire and will of an individual to engage in a certain behavior or in performing a specific task. Herzberg’s motivation theory suggests different factors that an organization can change to influence employees’ motivation in the workplace. These factors are classified as motivating factors, namely intrinsic elements that increase satisfaction and hygiene factors, and extrinsic elements that can cause dissatisfaction in the workplace if not well-managed. The UAE government initiatives have been aimed at improving the motivating factors for women to join the aviation sector, by recognizing them as important in the field and by providing academic aid, which offers them opportunities for advancement and growth in this career, for example. The hygiene factors, such as company policy, working conditions, job security, and salary and benefit, will also be provided by Etihad Airways, which is working with the government in ensuring that the goal of increasing the local female workforce in the aviation sector is achieved. Therefore, the concept of motivation in organizational behavior has been pivotal to the strategies utilized by the government.
In improving the participation of women in the UAE aviation sector, the government has focused on creating a shift in the management in the field. The government initiated the Emiratization campaign, which was important in enhancing the participation of women in aviation, as the campaign involved two leading airways, Emirates and Etihad Airways. The government has also supported Women in Aviation (WAI), which is a US-based aviation organization that operates in the UAE by enhancing and highlighting the role of resident females in the aviation industry. The organization achieves its intended goals by offering academic, financial, and vocational aid to UAE women who are passionate about a career in the aviation sector. The collaboration between the government, companies such as Emirates and Etihad Airways, and the WAI, has created a shift towards the UAE witnessing a growth in the participation of females in the aviation sector, and a significant rise in the number of females joining academic institutions to attend aviation-related courses.
The competing values framework is important in understanding individual and such organizational phenomena as organizational culture and can be used in explaining the appropriateness of the strategy adopted by the UAE government collaborating with airways and WAI. The framework has four dimensions, and the first dimension is referred to as CLAN, which focuses on the achievement of long-term change. According to this dimension, change is achieved through collaboration, namely while the leader acts as a facilitator and team-builder. In turn, the collaboration is aimed at achieving human development and high commitment as means of producing effectiveness. The framework, suggested activities, and outcomes of the first dimension are mirrored in the strategy adopted by the government. The government act as a facilitator for the UAE to achieve the goal of improving the participation of females in the aviation sector, while collaboration with Etihad, Emirates, and WAI has been essential in achieving this goal. Moreover, human development is achieved through the academic aid opportunities provided by WAI and the UAE, while the airways show a high commitment to this goal by offering employment opportunities to women. A cultural change is being observed in the UAE as a consequence of this collaboration, namely more women are participating in the aviation sector and seeking aviation-related education to prepare for involvement in the field nowadays.
Training and education comprise a widely used empowerment strategy. The approach entails providing people with the required knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to participate in advanced activities and professional areas. Additionally, education and training boost people’s confidence since they feel adequately equipped to be highly willing to take up various challenges and professional jobs (Kouzes
Conflict is a fact of life and occurs for a variety of reasons, such as differing perspectives, priorities or solutions to a problem. Typically, there are three types of conflicts which all lead on from each other;
Disagreement
Conflict usually begins with a disagreement. For example, a passenger flying from East Midlands airport with his family with no pre-selected seats has been split up. The family wanted to be seated together but as it was a full flight and most of the boarding had been completed and not much could have been done. The passenger became upset and got into an argument with the cabin crew.
Another example of a disagreement is of a passenger who was travelling on an EasyJet flight form Luton had arrived too late and the check-in was closed. This meant that the passenger could not get his boarding pass or check their baggage into the flight. The passenger argued that she had informed the airline that she was running late.
Unfortunately, airlines cannot delay flights due to late passengers due to the heavy cost involved. The passenger was annoyed and claimed that she was told that the flight would wait. In the end, her only option was to be transferred onto the next flight which would leave later that day.
Other very common but good examples are when a passenger in the front seat keeps his seat reclined throughout the day time flight restricting the space for the passenger sitting behind or an infant crying or screaming during a night flight disturbing other passengers who are trying to catch a nap.
Verbal Abuse
Normally if the disagreement does not get resolved, the passengers may start verbally abusing staff or they raise their voices which may create a scene.
For example, a Ryanair passenger who did not print his boarding pass prior to departure refused to pay to get one at the airport. The ticket desk staff refused to let him board without a boarding pass. The passenger got extremely agitated and started verbally abusing and insulting not only the check in staff but also the duty manager. As a result, he was banned from flying Ryan Air.
Another example is an American Rapper flying British Airways’ first class from New York’s JFK to London’s Heathrow and carrying five pieces of hand luggage which could not be accommodated in the overhead bins. The rapper became aggressive and was very rude to the staff and the passengers and as a result had to be escorted off the aircraft.
Physical Abuse / Violence
If the passenger does not get their way by being verbally abusive, they may sometimes become physically abusive. For example, an intoxicated passenger on an EasyJet flight had an argument with her husband during the flight and became violent. In a fit of anger, she kicked a fellow passenger and punched a crew member. In addition, she tried to open the emergency door upon landing. She had to be restrained by three crew members and was arrested upon landing.
Another example is of a Jet2 flight from London Stansted to Dalaman in Turkey had to return to Britain under escort by two RAF Typhoon fighter jets, after a passenger grew violent and attempted to open the cabin door. Upon landing she was arrested on suspicion of assault, criminal damage and endangering an aircraft.
There are many causes of conflict but below are some of the most common reasons:
Alcohol: This is the most common reason for conflict. Many passengers have alcohol before and during a flight. This could be to get into the holiday mood or relieve stress from a daunting airport experience or it could relax the passenger if they are a nervous flyer. It is also to be noted that the effects of alcohol intensifies due to altitude and even though sometimes the passengers have consumed alcohol within what their feel is their usual limit, the effects may be far more intense causing conflicts with the crew.
Smoking restrictions: Smoking is an addictive habit and when in a restricted smoking area, frequent or chain smokers get anxious due to their withdrawal symptoms and sometimes get aggressive.
Cancelled or delayed flights: Flight delays and cancellations can cause major upset to the passenger holiday or business plans and may cause a knock-on effect resulting in the passenger missing their connecting flights. The passenger may end up missing an important event or face financial losses. In this situation, they may get upset and become aggressive.
Lost Baggage: There is nothing more distressing than a passenger going on a business or pleasure trip and losing their baggage. The situation would become even more worse if they have come off from a long flight and then knowing that their baggage has been left on the other side of the world. This could be a definite reason for conflict.
Poor Communication: If for example, the flight is cancelled or delayed or some baggage rules are changed and the information is not communicated to the passengers in a timely manner, it may make the passengers very upset and cause an argument
Fatigue: Conflict is more likely to arise if the passenger is fatigued, this is because they are tired, and any small issue may annoy them.
Poor customer service: When a passenger pays for a product or service and fails to receive it or it is not up to standard, it can become a cause of conflict.
All the above factors may make the passengers belligerent and they may become verbally or sometime even physically abusive.
Signs of conflict in aviation situations
Normally before a conflict starts, there are usually some tell-tale or warning signs. These usually stem from feelings of fear, panic anger or violence. Some of these warning signs include:
Irrational behaviour: If a passenger is behaving irrationally or being unreasonable or illogical in their demands and behaviour, it is a sign of an upcoming conflict;
Excessive Alcohol: If the passenger is drinking excessively, he/she may lose their senses albeit temporarily and end up being irrational or abusive verbally or physically.
Raised Tone: The passenger may feel that their concerns are not being addressed or resolved as per their expectations making them angry and causing them to raise their voice. This could be intimidating for staff as well as fellow passengers and can be an early sign of an impending conflict.
Negative Body Language: Another way which crew or staff may see early signs of conflict would be negative body language. Crossed arms, crossed legs and tight fists may all be an early indication of an approaching conflict.
Facial Expressions: Agitated facial expressions, scrunched face, tapping on fingers and shaking leg and perspiration may suggest the passenger is feeling irritated and may cause a conflict.
Resolution techniques used to deal with the early signs of aviation conflict situations
Airline and airport staff have to deal with live, face-to-face customers in a variety of conflicts, from minor disputes to intense, emotionally driven conflicts. They employ a variety of techniques to resolve the conflict. The three common techniques used are:
Verbal
Physical
Referral to a third party
Verbal
Providing a verbal resolution to passengers is the preferred method and can be done by using the following techniques.
Reasoning: People respond to conflicts based on their perceptions of the situation, not necessarily to an objective review of the facts. Reasoning involves combining facts with knowledge. Here the conflicting parties use their general understanding of the problem, as well as facts to derive a conclusion. This process is referred to as reasoning. Most conflicts stem from misunderstanding. Therefore, if the conflicting parties’ reason with each other in order to understand the source of conflict, as well as share their points of view and actively listen to each other, the chances of resolving the conflict become greater.
Reassurance: During a conflict, it is often observed that one or both parties may be in an agitated state of mine. During this time, reassuring them that their problem or concern is being actively looked into and will be resolved to their satisfaction often helps in calming them. Once they are calm, reasoning and rational thinking becomes easier. Reassuring can often restore the confidence in the passenger and hence helps resolve the conflict
Empathy: Empathy is a powerful tool to resolve conflicts. It allows us to understand the world as others see it and is a key component of compassion. Showing empathy, listening and being sensitive to the passenger’s issue makes the passenger feel that you care about them and often dissipates anger helping to resolve conflicts. However, showing empathy does not always mean accepting liability.
Positive Body Language: When people are in the middle of a conflict, the words they use rarely convey the issues at the heart of the problem. But by paying close attention to the other person’s nonverbal signals or “body language,” such as facial expressions, posture, gestures, and tone of voice, you can better understand what the person is really saying. This will allow you to respond in a way that builds trust and gets to the root of the problem.
Therefore, using a calm tone of voice, a reassuring touch, or an interested facial expression can go a long way toward relaxing a tense exchange.
Physical
Sometimes if the passenger becomes violent or physically abusive, he/she has to be to restrained physically to subdue safely without causing them any harm. This is vital to ensure the safety of the fellow passengers and staff and also safeguard property from being damaged. Airport and airline staff are trained to do that. For example, if a passenger becomes violent during a flight, he or she will be restrained to their seat by using quick cuff handcuffs or self-webbing straps but utmost care is taken for the passenger’s well being even after being restrained.
Referral to a third party
The third method of conflict resolution is to refer to a third party. For example, if a conflict occurs between a passenger and a member of the check-in staff, the matter is referred to the Duty Manager who will listen to the problem and aim to provide an amicable solution where possible.
Different types of conflict situation
Different conflicts require different techniques and strategies for resolution. What may work in one situation may not work for another. Therefore, the approach needs to be customized as per the type of conflict. It may also be necessary to employ multiple techniques to resolve a single conflict.
For example, if there is a disagreement between the passenger and the cabin crew regarding a family being split up during seating, the crew may try and pacify the passenger by empathizing with the passenger’s situation and reassure him/her that they would try her best to seat them together. If seats are available the crew would accommodate together and resolve the situation. If the flight is full and there are no seats available, then the crew would reason with them and explain the situation in a calm manner. These techniques would assure the passenger that the crew is on their side and trying their best to resolve the situation and would prevent the situation form escalating.
Another example would be if the requested meal choice is not available for the passenger causing upset. In this situation the crew could reassure the passenger that they would try their best to check to see if he/she can accommodate them by trying to get their meal choice or offering him a better alternative, may be a choice from the business class menu. This would usually calm the passenger down and settle the conflict.
However, these techniques may not always work. For example, if a passenger has had too much alcohol on the flight, the crew might decide to withdraw the service. They may try to reason with the passenger as to why they cannot serve more alcohol, If the passenger cooperates, then the matter is resolved but if the passenger becomes physically abusive or violent and tries to cause damage the property or cause physical harm to the fellow passengers or crew, an alternative technique may need to be employed. The passenger may need to be physically restrained to their seat using the quick cuff hand cuffs or the self-webbing straps to ensure safety of the aircraft and the passengers.
Sometimes, either of these above techniques may not work and a different approach may need to be employed. For example, a passenger may get into an argument with the check in staff due to their late arrival and not being able to board their flight. The staff would try to use reasoning and empathy with them to explain that they cannot check them in due to regulations. But if the passenger gets verbally abusive, they may be referred to the duty manager who would try to calm them down and offer an alternative flight. If the passenger accepts then the issue is resolved. In rare circumstances, if the passenger gets physically abusive, airport security may have to be called in to restrain them and may they may end up being banned from flying with that airline.
During all the above techniques, the staff would use positive body language to calm the tension and help resolve the situation. To conclude, effective techniques of conflict resolution results in improved customer experience, enhanced public perception, lower long-term costs (i.e. legal, stocks, public relations, executive time and energy) and less staff turnover (i.e. the need for firing or replacing employees involved). Therefore, it is vital to ensure that staff are trained to handle conflict and are able to customize their approach depending on the type of conflict.
During the First World War, aviation significantly impacted the course of battles and positions on all fronts. The main features of aviation in that period were the simplicity of aircraft design and the rapid improvement of models depending on combat requirements. During the war, aviation included balloons, airships, and airplanes, and it was used to achieve three goals, namely reconnaissance, destruction of enemy aircraft, and bombing. The use of aviation had a great influence on the development of military equipment and changed the style of warfare. Moreover, aviation has significantly increased the death rate among the military and civilian populations. Thus, the goal is to analyze the characteristics of aviation during the First World War in such states as Germany, England, and Russia.
Advantages of Aviation
One of the essential advantages of aviation was the ability to launch bombing strikes, which sometimes happened unexpectedly for the enemy. It includes the use of aviation to drop bombs from an airplane, balloon, or airship onto the ground. As a rule, strategically important objects, such as warehouses, ports, bases, or equipment, were chosen as targets. However, given the archaism of technology in the First World War, bombs often flew past the target and hit civilian objects. These could include theatres, markets, plazas, libraries, and other non-military establishments. On the one hand, this fact formulated the unprofitability of using bombing since often a large number of bombs were needed to hit the target.
On the other hand, the affected civilian objects caused not only economic damage to the enemy. It also contributed to fear, panic, and decadence among the population, which could be used to destabilize the situation.1 In addition, air bombardments, especially at night, caused a feeling of insecurity among the people. In other words, civilians understood that the country could not protect them, which shook their faith in victory and their mood. The air defense systems of that time, such as anti-aircraft guns and cannons, as well as floodlight systems, could not guarantee complete protection. Thus, aviation was also used to successfully pass the line of defense, which was not configured for air protection at that time.
Successful Bombing Case
One example of a successful bombing operation using aircraft was the bombing of London on September 8, 1915, carried out by Zeppelins. Until September, London was off the bombing list as there were connections at the highest levels between governments. However, when the ban was lifted, the German troops began to use aviation forces to strike actively.2 Despite the fact that such bombardments caused relatively minor damage, they were considered beneficial. Firstly, it inflicted a psychological attack on both the civilian population and the military combatants at the front. Moreover, to build additional lines of defense, thousands of soldiers and hundreds of pieces of equipment were pulled back from the frontier. These items included anti-aircraft guns, cannons, searchlights, and firearms.
It is also worth mentioning that the activities that were carried out as a defense against bombing also had a negative impact on both the psychological state and the work of the industry. These included, for example, blackout measures to make it harder for the pilot to see ground targets from the air. Obviously, it was impossible to work in complete darkness, and the industry’s productivity slowed down. Moreover, during the air raid, all people had to follow the shelter, which also made it impossible to work. In addition, there were many false air alarms, which negatively affected the physical and psychological state of citizens.
For the bombing of London on September 8, three airships of the German Navy were chosen, such as L-11, L-13, and L-14. These airships were from a new series, having additional equipment and developing a speed of 98 kilometers per hour. The departure took place at 2 p.m, and the airships arrived on the coast of Britain an hour ahead of schedule at 8 p.m, after which they were forced to wait for darkness in the air. Moreover, one of the airships, namely the L-11, interrupted the flight due to a malfunction and returned to the base.3 The remaining two vehicles headed towards London, but the L-14 also experienced a malfunction and, having dropped the bombs earlier, returned to base. The last of the remaining airships reached London with 55 incendiary bombs, 14 100 kg bombs, and one 300 kg explosive bomb. The latter was a technological novelty for the German fleet and was first used in this raid.
The airship approached the city from the least expected side, namely, from the North, in addition, the observation posts of Britain did not determine the pilot’s approach to the coast and flight over the country’s territory. Moreover, there was no blackout, and the pilot was able to navigate through brightly illuminated objects and riverbeds easily. Due to this, the pilot even spent some time choosing the most critical objects in order to inflict maximum damage.
Only after dropping the first bombs on the warehouses in the North of the city the British army realized that they were under attack and activated the anti-aircraft searchlights. Heavy bombs were dropped on the National Bank, however, due to a miss, they hit residential houses and killed several civilians. After that, when the airship came under a spotlight beam, the fire from anti-aircraft guns was opened, and it was decided to drop all the bombs and rise to a height of 3000 meters. After a 10-hour flight over the sea, the crew successfully returned to base.
The consequences of the attack were negative for both the military and civilians in Britain. It turned out that the airplanes that were lifted into the air after the attack were not effective against airships. The fire of anti-aircraft guns in the dark did not damage the Zeppelin since it was at a high altitude. In addition, the personnel operating the searchlights were incorrectly trained and could not adequately keep the target in sight. The attack sowed fear among the civilian population, as a surprise strike posed a threat at any moment. Residents felt unprotected due to the lack of an adequate warning and air defense system. Finally, blackout measures were not introduced adequately at night, which contributed to easy target selection and pilot orientation.
German Aviation
At the start of the First World War, German aviation was the second largest in the world. The aviation fleet included about 220-230 aircraft used for various purposes.4 However, most of them were outdated models of the Taube type, which were used more as vehicles. At that time, aircraft could carry 2-3 people, which was effective due to the high speed. Germany is one of the first countries to assess the impact of aviation on the ground situation on the battlefield.5 Based on this, they tried to secure air superiority on all fronts through the introduction of technological innovations. In a certain period from 1915 to 1916, Germany ensured air superiority in almost all directions.
As it has been already mentioned, Germany devoted considerable influence to the long-range bombardment of the rear of the enemy, using rigid airships. Moreover, the German army became the first in the world to use strikes against the strategic rear of the enemy, including distant factories, ports, warehouses, and bases.6 Since 1914, airships and then multi-engine bombers launched regular attacks on the strategic rear of Russia, Great Britain, and France. During the war, more than 100 Zeppelin and Schütte-Lanz-type rigid airships were built and used for attacks. Before the war, Germany planned to use airships mainly for reconnaissance, but it turned out that they were too vulnerable during the daytime. Then it was decided to use airships for the long-range bombing of Entente rear cities such as London, Warsaw, and Paris. The air defense and industry of the Entente were not ready for this, which led to the need to reorganize the defense.
The First World War was the period of the birth of the widespread use of aviation, the division of aircraft into classes, and such a term as ace pilot. An ace pilot was considered a person who destroyed many enemy aircraft in duels. In Germany, about 370 pilots were able to shoot down five or more enemy aircraft. Moreover, the German pilot became the only fighter in the world who became an ace in the first and second world wars. Pilot training took place in sports schools, where future aviators were taught the necessary air combat techniques. In addition, the theoretical part was introduced, where the combat strategies, the basics of bombing, and other essential points were explained to the pilots.
Air combat involving German aircraft included mid-air clashes using the pilot’s weapons. Thus, when meeting with an enemy aircraft, the pilots usually exchanged shots from carbines, and sometimes knives were attached to the aircraft to damage the enemy fuselage. German airships gave Germany a significant advantage up to the point where incendiary bullets were developed.7 With their help, one had the opportunity to set fire to the hydrogen coming out of the holes, which led to the combustion of the entire apparatus.8 In addition, knives were attached to the hulls of the aircraft, with the help of which the pilots cut through the slow airships. Soon, the first German fighter with a machine gun was produced, which had a synchronizer for firing through the propeller screw. In other words, the bullets flew out between rotations of the screw, which gave a significant advantage on the battlefield.
The task of a fighter pilot with mounted machine guns in air combat was to take a suitable position to inflict damage on the enemy aircraft. The winner was the one who could appropriately use the speed of the aircraft, air currents, and the physical characteristics of the flight to take a position. Due to the fact that the machine guns did not have turrets for rotation, as on some airships, it was necessary to adjust the flight path. In addition, it was essential to take into account the ballistics of the bullet flight, the angle of inclination, and other characteristics. For this, the sight’s front was located higher than the machine gun, making it possible to hit the target. After an enemy aircraft was in the front sight, the fire was opened that could damage the wings, the engine, or the enemy pilot himself.
England Aviation
The British aviation fleet was inferior to some countries, however, it had some technological developments. It is worth noting that Britain became the first country to establish its air force as a separate branch of the military.9 In other words, the RAF, or royal air force, was not subordinate to the army or navy, which allowed them to make more efficient decisions and plan independent operations. In 1909, Britain became interested in developing the use of aviation for military purposes, and in 1912 an experimental fighter aircraft armed with a machine gun was developed.10 At the beginning of the First World War, the British aviation fleet consisted of 60 aircraft, but by 1918 it included 150 squadrons and 3300 airplanes, becoming the largest in the world at that time. During the war, Britain’s air force carried out various missions, including reconnaissance, bombing, and spying.
The pilots of the British Air Force were pioneers in many aspects of the use of the air force. Thus, aerial photography was involved as part of the reconnaissance department for the first time. To do this, high-quality cameras at that time were attached to the aircraft’s fuselage, which took pictures of strategic enemy objects. Photos made it possible to create a complete picture of the structure of enemy troops and deliver accurate strikes. Aerial photography included images of enemy troops, equipment, bases, warehouses, and other vital objects. Moreover, British pilots were the first to use fire on enemy positions in support of ground troops. The latter was highly effective since it acted as a psychological pressure when enemy forces were attacked from the ground and air.
Moreover, Britain was the only country other than Germany that actively developed a fleet of rigid and soft airships. It is worth noting that the first rigid airship in Britain was built back in 1912, but due to unsuccessful testing, it was never used in the First World War.11 During the fighting, a significant number of airships of many types were built in Britain. However, for some reasons, such as technical problems during testing and economic aspects, their use has been limited. Thus, their military service began only in 1918, when other countries used airships for a long period.12 However, the airships were used only for anti-submarine patrols and had only one combat encounter. At the same time, soft airships, of which there were 50 in Britain by 1918, were actively used against German submarines, where they were successful.
British aviation was actively used as a corrective artillery, for which it was necessary to fly around enemy positions. Thus, pilots were increasingly involved in combat, which articulated the need for skill development.13 Therefore, flying schools were created, where, similarly to the German pilots, the English ones received the necessary information and training. Practical training included reconnaissance skills in the early stages of the war and, later, air combat skills. Theoretical training gave the pilots the necessary information about combat, bombing, reconnaissance, and assault on enemy positions.
Moreover, Britain extensively used aircraft for various types of reconnaissance activities. The most effective form was aerial photography, which began to be used in 1914. However, only in 1915, it became effective as, before that, images obtained from the planes could not be fully informative and used for combat purposes.14 By 1918, filming could already be done from a height of 5,000 meters, and in such pictures, more than 3,000 human figures could be distinguished. Accordingly, aerial reconnaissance could provide detailed information about the enemy’s strategic targets. These included warehouses and one could sometimes determine the quantity and contents of a building on photographs. In addition, it was possible to take detailed pictures of enemy positions, the number of troops, the location of equipment, etc.
Russian Aviation
At the time of the declaration of war, the Imperial Russian Air Force was the largest in the world. It included 263 airplanes and 14 airships in 39 aviation units.15 As in all other armies of the world, Russian aircraft were not armed since, at that time, only developments were underway to install weapons on the fuselage. Pilots leaving for the flight had only personal weapons, such as pistols, revolvers, and others. Moreover, a severe shortcoming was the personnel problem since the fleet had only 129 qualified pilots.16 The central part of the aircraft fleet at the beginning of the war was the Nieuport, which had engines with a capacity of 70 horsepower.17 However, the material part at that time was significantly worn out, and planes that had served for two years were sent into battle. Moreover, in some cases, fatal crashes have occurred due to sending aircraft with the wrong design, namely a negative angle of attack.
At first, aviation was used only for reconnaissance and artillery fire adjustment. However, the pilots soon began to engage in aerial combat using different tactics and strategies. Basically, the pilots leaving for the flight were armed with German Mausers. During the First World War, only close air combat took place due to the short-range weapons on aircraft. The machine guns mounted on the sides contributed to the fact that the plane had to approach a distance close to the enemy to inflict damage. To do this, it was necessary to perform a large number of maneuvers and take into account many factors, such as the speed of the aircraft, the angle of inclination, and some physical characteristics.
From the aviation fleet of Russia during the First World War, it is worth highlighting the four-engine all-wood biplane Ilya Muromets. This machine sets a number of records in terms of carrying capacity, number of passengers, time, and maximum flight altitude.18 They were used mainly for bombing, during which heavy bombs were dropped, and in 1915 an experimental drop of the largest at that time, 410 kilograms bomb, was made. This device was effective in combat use as it had a larger carrying capacity and flight altitude compared to others. In addition, due to the design, the pilots had a more convenient view, which made it possible to detect the enemy early and carry out suitable maneuvers.
However, significant development of the aviation fleet was hindered by weak materiel. Primarily, it was formulated by the need to deliver components from abroad. The shortage was especially problematic in the aspect of aircraft engines since, at that time, their production in Russia was practically non-existent. Because of this, in 1915, many aviation units became worn out and unusable, which led to the need for reorganization and retraining. All this happened chaotically, interspersed with training in the use of captured aircraft. Thus, the aviation component could not use its full potential and remained not at such a developed level as in other countries.
Speaking of pilots, as already indicated, there was a significant shortage of personnel. However, it is worth noting that among the qualified pilots, there were aces who shot down five or more enemy aircraft. Among this, it is worth mentioning the ramming of the pilot Nesterov when an enemy aircraft was damaged by the plane.19 However, due to the damage received, Nesterov’s plane could not continue the flight, and both pilots died. Soon, the ram was used by the second pilot Kazakov, however, in this case, the pilot who used the ram survived.20 The ram was made by hitting the wheels on the upper plane of the enemy aircraft, but due to the collision, Kazakov’s aircraft also began to lose altitude and speed. The landing was hard, and the plane rolled over, but the pilot Kazakov was not injured. The enemy plane was completely destroyed and unfit for flight, and the pilot died.
Impact on Death Toll
One may notice how the evolution of aircraft and air combat took place during the First World War. It can be divided into several stages, and in the first stage, the pilots try to use personal weapons during air combat. It quickly became apparent that this tactic was not effective, and the first developments of installing weapons on aircraft began. Germany gained air superiority in 1915 after the introduction of machine guns with synchronizers, which made it possible to fire without touching the propellers. The high rate of fire and damage contributed to the rapid and effective destruction of enemy aircraft and ground troops, which increased the death toll.
The Entente responded by developing light and agile biplanes with machine guns mounted on the upper wing. For a time, Entente aviation gained superiority, but soon the evolution of German fighters took place. The lighter and more streamlined fuselage of the German vehicles made it possible to perform maneuvers to take a more advantageous position, and Entente began to suffer significant losses. Obviously, it was accompanied by an increase in the death toll since there were many deaths in air battles.
Conclusion
To conclude, the First World War was the period of the birth of the widespread use of aviation and the emergence of air combat. It impacted the death toll as mass bombing, and the evolution of aircraft increased the number of victims. In addition, aviation was an effective way to defeat ground targets and formulate a psychological attack. The inhabitants of the cities under bombardment had a constant feeling of fear and insecurity, and persistent air alarms interfered with industry. Aviation also made it possible to conduct effective reconnaissance, for example, by using high-quality cameras. During the war years, aircrafts changed significantly, which was formulated by combat missions. From unarmed fragile vehicles, they turned into fast fighters armed with machine guns that could perform complex maneuvers and hit targets.
References
Jackson, Robert, & Jim Winchester. 2019. Dogfight: Military Aircraft Compared from World War I to the Present Day. London: Amber.
Kulikov, Victor. 2013. Russian Aces of World War 1. Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
O’Connor, Neal. 1988. Aviation Awards of Imperial Germany in World War I. Princeton, NJ: Foundation for Aviation World War I.
Philpott, Maryam. 2020. Air and Sea Power in World War I: Combat and Experience in the Royal Flying Corps and the… Royal Navy. Bloomsbury.
Richthofen, Manfred, Peter Kilduff, & Manfred von Richthofen. 1969. The Red Baron. Garden City: Doubleday.
Wilkins, Mark C. 2019. German Fighter Aircraft in World War I: Design, Construction, and Innovation. Havertown: Casemate.
Footnotes
Manfred Richthofen, Peter Kilduff, & Manfred von Richthofen. The Red Baron (Garden City: Doubleday, 1969).
Robert Jackson & Jim Winchester, Dogfight: Military Aircraft Compared from World War I to the Present Day (London: Amber, 2019).
Robert Jackson & Jim Winchester, Dogfight: Military Aircraft Compared from World War I to the Present Day (London: Amber, 2019).
Neal O’Connor, Aviation Awards of Imperial Germany in World War I (Princeton, NJ: Foundation for Aviation World War I, 1988).
Mark Wilkins, German Fighter Aircraft in World War I: Design, Construction, and Innovation (Havertown: Casemate, 2019).
Neal O’Connor, Aviation Awards of Imperial Germany in World War I (Princeton, NJ: Foundation for Aviation World War I, 1988).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Maryam Philpott, Air and Sea Power in World War I: Combat and Experience in the Royal Flying Corps and the… Royal Navy (Bloomsbury, 2020).
Ibid.
Maryam Philpott, Air and Sea Power in World War I: Combat and Experience in the Royal Flying Corps and the… Royal Navy (Bloomsbury, 2020).
Ibid.
Robert Jackson & Jim Winchester, Dogfight: Military Aircraft Compared from World War I to the Present Day (London: Amber, 2019).
Maryam Philpott, Air and Sea Power in World War I: Combat and Experience in the Royal Flying Corps and the… Royal Navy (Bloomsbury, 2020).
Viktor Kulikov, Russian Aces of World War 1 (Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2013).
Viktor Kulikov, Russian Aces of World War 1 (Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2013).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Viktor Kulikov, Russian Aces of World War 1 (Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2013).
The aviation security is very important because it is a target for terrorist group to commit atrocities. If people with bad intentions can get to the airport and successfully board a flight, they can cause a lot of damage. Remarkably, even in the World Wars and other international battles, the countries that managed to control the air automatically became the winners. The air provides a perfect aerial view for targeting critical regions, as was the case during the 9/11 bombing. Aviation security is becoming more sophisticated as passengers are searched using metal detectors, body scanners, pat-downs, and sniffer dogs. The robust increase in the number of people travelling by airplanes has also led to the use of behavior profiling to identify the human threat.
Background, Relevance, Main Points and Thesis
Many states have adopted behavior profiling in airports as a strategy to boost security. However, concerns have been raised about violation of civil liberty, consent, data breaches, poor passenger experience, and the possibility of racial profiling, which creates an even bigger crisis. This study is relevant to aviation policymakers, future researchers, and the TSA as it will provide information on both the strengths and weaknesses of character profiling. Noteworthy, the strategy supporters argue that it is necessary as a safety measure, human behavior can be measured, and it is effective. In light of the points above, the stance of this paper is: although aviation security is crucial, the behavioral body search infringes on civil rights, makes the travel experience stressful, and has low credibility. Hence, the TSA should remove behavioral profiling from the safety protocols.
Theoretical Underpinning
The routine activity theory proposes that three conditions must be suitable for a crime to take place. Particularly, there must be the absence of a guardian, a motivated offender, and a suitable target (Krohn et al.,2019). In essence, a perpetrator can attack when all the trigger factors are in place. However, if the person judges that there is no opportunity to do what they want, they avoid the situation. Relatedly, the officers may act as the guardians such that the criminal keeps away their intentions because they are being observed. The challenge is that the terrorist can also mark the faces of officers doing behavioral profiling and then create a way of distracting them. The result is that there will be no guardian, and the remaining conditions remain constant, creating a perfect environment for the crime to occur.
Rational choice theory is also suitable for understanding criminal activities at the airport. The framework holds that before executing a crime, the criminals have personal drives such as exposure to the target, security lapses, money, and expected level of retaliation against the enemy (Abeyratne, 2019). The theory is relevant to the terrorist attack and hijacking incidences at the airport because the people take a significant risk due to their motivations. The individual is not worried about being negatively profiled but reaching their target and executing the crime as planned. Thus, the presence of the security officer does not make them withhold as long as they have a plan on how to avoid being caught.
Aviation Security Threat
Terrorists and other criminals are a major threat to the aviation industry. As such, there have been efforts to ensure the neutralization of crises before they even transpire (Falamarzi et al., 2021). The implication is that aviation security officers must be proactive in identifying the risks. During the assessment, there should be a strategy to evaluate vulnerable regions, the criticality of the situation, the probability of a risk occurring and the cost of protection (Klenka, 2019). Some of these tasks are automated to save time and avoid crowds. In sum, there are various security protocols that TSA follow to ensure the safety of travelers and workers.
Remarkably, the airport must always be secure as it is a high-risk area that terrorists target to execute their plan. However, in 2013 despite significant investment, the TSA was unable to demonstrate that behavior detection activities had the potential of identifying high-risk passengers (Government Accountability Office, 2019). Similarly, according to Kyriazanos et al. (2019), the automated decision-making process may help improve security, but the process is unreliable. Moreover, Gechkova & Kaleeva (2020) notes that the strategy is not cost-effective due to inaccuracy. Hence, maintaining a high level of security at the airport is integral, but analyzing the passengers’ conduct is not the best option.
In addition, the security personnel working for the TSA must understand the high possibility of insider threats at the airport. Specifically, most successful crimes occur when one or more people can access an organization’s knowledge allowing them to exploit the vulnerabilities of the air transport with the intention to cause harm (Bean, 2017). There are various insider threats, including spying, corruption, sabotage, smuggling, and impersonation. The criminals can easily liaise with the employees to identify the behavioral profiling officer and avoid them. Hence, the employees may become perpetrators when only the passengers are profiled.
Selection of Behavior Profiling Officers
The aviation security team have detective officers whose core function is to perform passive observation of travelers around the airport vicinity and determine if they are a potential threat. In doing so, they should adhere to the Transport Security Administration (TSA) policies, which demands that the managers conduct the profiling without regard to ethnicity, race, and other background factors of their targets (Government Accountability Office, 2019). However, maintaining objectivity in light of many terrorists being of a specific religion, it is common for behavioral profiling to focus on a personal characteristic. Hence, the level of accuracy is low because some of the officers who work at the airport lack the necessary training and resources to standardize the profiling process
There is always a risk of stigmatization as a specific race, ethnic group and religion get more of the negative behavioral profiles. Consequently, profiling continues to raise concerns over possible bias toward some ethnic or religious groups, which can escalate in to a crisis (Falamarzi et al., 2021). Noteworthy, profiling of some races, especially those from the third world countries, can create a crisis at the airport. As such, the frontline security officers’ risk being targets of assault if other people perceive them as unfairly targeting some individuals. Thus, behavior profiling can easily lead to some people being unfairly targeted.
The professionals in this capacity have an education background in human behavior, psychology, and criminology. The rationale is that criminals are humans whose behavior can be explained and predicted within a specified framework (Krohn et al., 2019). The officers have also been trained on cultural conflict to help them identify what they can classify as deviant or usual based on a person’s background. For instance, it may not be awkward for an American to raise a complaint while shouting. On the contrary, if someone from the eastern culture acted in the same way, it would be a concern because their traditions have trained them to talk in slight tones. Therefore, people with detective experience working in a multicultural setting may be more suitable.
Detecting Lies
Part of the job function for profiling personnel at the airport is that they should try and start conversations once they identify a person with suspicious mannerisms. Some of the cues that aid in detecting if a person is lying include avoiding eye contact while responding, excessive sweating, protruding neck veins, and dry mouth (Michalski et al., 2020). Some of these physiological reactions occur when a person feels intense. For instance, when people feel that their crime plan will be unveiled, they may feel pressure. Therefore, the officer can tell when a passenger is uncomfortable talking or is panicking in fear and continue probing further before clearing the individual.
Similarly, the officer should apply the correct probing strategy to help identify incongruencies. Detection of malintent represents only a small part of studies conducted about non-verbal communication. (Denault et al., 2020). Therefore, the airport police should endeavor to utilize some of the remaining strategies in behavioral profiling (Bogaard et al. (2019) state that the airport police can detect lies by asking unexpected questions. For example, the manager can ask about the weather, reasons for travel, and destination and then ask about thoughts on terrorism. The aim is to avoid leading the suspect and give them ample time to plan their responses.
Profiling
Several aspects can help categorize a person in terms of their perceptions, orientations, attitude, and intention. In turn, profiling methods rely on analyzing features such as appearance, behavior, and survey technologies to identify people appearing to have deviant behaviors (Antonov et al., 2021). Officers who are well trained in psychology and human behavior can help in predictive identification for proactive actions. It is crucial for the officer not to make any accusatory remarks at this point as they risk breaking the passenger’s trust.
Unfortunately, there is significant misinformation that the general public often gives regarding no-verbal communication. The internet, books, and some conferences provide basic body language opinions that are neither scientific nor peer-reviewed (Denault et al., 2020). When the workers are not competent in identifying such cues, they easily profile others based on their biases. Moreover, McFarlene (2020)) notes that academics, policymakers, and security professionals have given little consideration to the complexities of the linkage between human errors and hidden modes of failures that terrorists can explore. For instance, individuals should understand that behavioral profiling can create a gap to be exploited because the security checks may focus more on the people they perceive as criminals instead of treating each person equally. Thus, cases of suspected crime due to behavioral profiling can lead to false accusations.
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
Behavioral profiling can strengthen the security at the airport by ensuring that prospective criminals are identified before they execute their missions. According to Leather (2019), it is impossible for a person about to commit a crime to hide all the signs of adrenaline, nerves, and physio-psychological responses to anxiety. People who are trained and have the experience to identify such indications can always tell when a passenger is not acting normally. They can then approach the person for a further question to understand the reasons they are unsettled. In sum, human behavior has a motivation which the officer endeavor to know. In sum, behavioral profiling can enhance security in the airport in the wake of increasing passengers and threats.
The other advantage is that the criminals cannot predict behavioral analysis as they would other security measures such as metal detectors. The strategy followed in such a program is risk-based security (RBS), in which the officers intelligently focus on examining a few suspects instead of harassing the majority of travelers and passengers that are harmless (Kyriazanos et al., 2019). Notably, the criminals are likely to know what breach the security personnel is looking for at each point. As stated by Leather (2019), the predictable nature of the airport safety procedures is a weakness that terrorists can potentially exploit. However, with human behavior analysts, it is impossible for criminals to manipulate because they do not expect it to be a standard procedure.
The developments in intelligent analytics and surveillance technologies enable the RBS model to be used as an end-to-end technological and operational framework. The application of machine learning makes it possible to assess data on profile patterns and behaviors of attackers in regard to the volume and availability of data (Kyriazanos et al., 2019). With more information, the level of accuracy in identifying individuals increases. Thus, since a big percentage of people in the airport do not pose any threat, it is wise to profile those that are dangerous by observing and deterring them from completing their evil mission.
It is also crucial for the TSA to adopt a behavior profiling model because it changes the security mindset of the of the employees. There are no specific checkpoints for profiling which implies that all the staff, including those at the restaurants, retails, and security doors, can all assist in identifying any suspicious activity (Leather 2019). When workers are more conscious of safety, it becomes easy to identify potential threats. Moreover, when the thieves know that they are being observed, they are more likely not to attempt crime. The result is enhancement of safety and risk mitigation among the aviation stakeholders.
Weaknesses
The security officers have less competencies in analyzing behavior leading to high levels of false positives and true negatives. As Denault et al. (2020) state, “there are no nonverbal behaviors present in all liars and are absent in all people who tell the truth” (p.3). The implication is that there are no standard behavioral procedures that can help correctly categorize behavior as defiant. Moreover, some airport personnel may have unrealistic expectations of forensic science, making them believe they can always tell when a person is lying Denault et al. (2020). The result is that they infringe on passengers’ comfort. Thus, the TSA workers will worsen their traveler experience without standard behavioral markers for detecting deviance.
There is a high margin of error, yet behavioral profiling may lead to stigma or racial profiling. According to Leather (2019), no data proves the effectiveness of the strategy, and there are many records of unfair treatment. Notably, the airport is inherently stressful because some people have travelled long distances and are exhausted. Stereotypical targeting of a community is also a possible consequence of bias when in behavior profiling (Leather, 2019). The officers can easily mistake normal reactions to stress as suspicious behavior. Moreover, the officers with no multicultural competencies cannot tell which mannerisms are typical for different tribes.
Ethical Consideration
Civil Rights Violation (CVR) is a significant complaint for many streetworkers and people who appear odd because of their traditions. It is crucial that all forms of screening indicate respect for fundamental human rights (Kyriazanos et al., 2019). However, screening is usually done only on the persons identified as possibly being a threat to others. As Maliwat (2019) notes, people mistakenly identified by the airport authorities feel humiliated as the officers infringe on their dignity. The level of stigmatization that the passenger experiences when they are selected for further questioning can also be traumatizing. Yet, most of the time, the results are inaccurate, and the passenger that was thought to be a threat ends up feeling bad for the rest of their journey.
In addition, there are concerns about equal treatment because only a small percentage of people travelers are approached for more investigations. According to Nguyen et al. (2017), improving safety through behavioral profiling requires travelers to trade off their equity concerns. Noteworthy, the profiling of people does not follow randomization but subjectively targets only a few people. In most cases, such profiling easily follows biases regarding sex, race, age, or religion.
There is a high potential for data breaches and a lack of consent when performing behavioral profiling. For instance, Al-Saad et al. (2019) note that some ways of collecting information include passport control, bodily pat-downs, bag searches, sniffing dogs and inspection of content in laptops and cameras. All these security protocols are tedious to passengers in addition to the long interrogations. Such experiences are unethical as they violate privacy rights without seeking consent from travelers.
Moreover, observing people with the objective of gathering information and making a tentative or conclusive profile is a form of research on humans. Yet, no consent is taken from the subjects when taking data such as country of origin, the reason for travel, and time of travel. The information is added to build a profile and categorize people as either low risk or high risk without considering the impact it would cause if there were a breach in such information.
Position
It is apparent that much as behavior profiling has some possible benefits, it should not be adopted because it pauses threats to constitutional rights and has many weaknesses. The United States has moved significant strides in building multiculturalism and allowing all citizens to have a sense of belonging regardless of their ethnic or religious backgrounds. However, the introduction of behavior profiling by TSA is already raising concerns among the people. For instance, 2059 complaints were filled by passengers at the TSA multicultural branch from late 2015 to early 2018 (Government Accountability Office, 2019). Noteworthy, a considerable number of individuals felt the security officers target them because of their complexion and other physical features. The implication is that behavior profiling may cause civil arrests, demonstrations, and accusations, which is not good. Therefore, the officers should not use behavior profiling as it can stir up people to feel wrongly identified.
Furthermore, the people who do the behavior profiling at the airport are either inadequately trained for the work or lack enough resources for their task. For example, in 2017, out of the 178 sources that TSA used for determining the Screening of Passengers by Observation Techniques (SPOT), only 20 were relevant (Denault et al.2020). A lack of competencies precipitates high errors in identifying potential offenders. Thus, aviation security personnel must stop behavioral profiling until they realize high levels of accuracy. Otherwise, they will continue to collect incorrect data while delaying passengers and making their experience unbearable. Behavioral profiling is expensive, and the government have to invest resources in employing professionals and seeking data (Gechkova & Kaleeva, 2020). Yet, the returns on investments are low because most of the suspected cases are not true. It is better when the resources are used in improving other systems that have high sensitivity to error.
The other reason for having a stance against behavioral profiling is because it causes distress to the passengers and may kill the tourism industry. The security aspects that passengers experience the least level of satisfaction include slow speed of screening, staff attitude, queuing, and the general organization (Maliwat, 2018). Notably, when profiling is also added as part of the screening, it becomes more tedious for those that have been identified as depicting unexpected behavior. Worse still, behavioral profiling is a form of pseudoscience, implying that it lacks supportive evidence (Denault et al., 2020). It creates more problems for both the passengers and the workers. Reliant on gut feeling is subject to issues of transference or past experiences of the officer and should never be used in classifying some people as threats.
Noteworthy, the proponents of behavior profiling can claim that it has helped to improve security because there are fewer cases of airport terrorism. However, that is a logical fallacy because the fact that behavioral profiling can deter some thieves does not mean that it is effective (Denault et al., 2020). Moreover, it is not right for security and justice organizations to use tragedies in justifying dubious methods and programs. Hence, there is no scientific proof that behavioral profiling works even if there are fewer terrorism.
Instead of behavioral profiling it is better for the TSA to continue using technologies such as the metal detectors and closed-circuit television (CCTV). According to McFarlane (2020), the aviation industry can liaise with research institutes and non-commercial experts to build machine learning models that will be more accurate in monitoring passengers. The alternative for this strategy is that it will be objective and not subject to racial profiling.
Conclusion
The airport remains one of the target areas for terrorism and other crimes, hence, the need for tight security. The TSA has now adopted behavior profiling as one of the measures for security enhancement. However, behavioral profiling has several negative consequences, including infringement of civil liberty, lack of consent and data breaches. Moreover, the margin of error is high, and there is no evidence-based documentation of the effectiveness of the program. The officers who give the profile have little training on multiculturalism and are subject to losing objectivity in their observations. Therefore, the TSA must remove behavior profiling until there is sufficient evidence that it aids in deterring crime. Proper and continuous training on this topic is relevant to improving credible and valid security protocols.
Implications for Future Researchers
Future researchers should investigate if behavior profiling improves safety measures at the airport. In conducting the study, caution must be made to control possible extraneous variables such as other automated security checks. The other suggestion is for students to investigate the feelings and experiences of passengers who have been given a bad profile and identified as threats. It is also recommended that a survey be done based on the race and religion of the individuals called for interrogation to verify if allegations of subjective treatment of specific ethnic groups are true. Last but not least, a systematic literature review or metanalysis paper on behavior profiling will fill a significant gap because there are several articles with conflicting results on effectiveness.
References
Abeyratne, R. (2019). Legal priorities in air transport. Springer.
Al-Saad, S., Ababneh, A., & Alazaizeh, M. (2019). The influence of airport security procedures on the intention to re-travel. European Journal of Tourism Research, 23, 127-141.
Antonov, V. V., Kharisova, Z. I., Rodionova, L., & Kulikov, G. G. (2021). Model of a domain-specific profiling system based on explainable AI technologies. IOP Conference Series.Materials Science and Engineering, 1069(1). Web.
Denault, V., Plusquellec, P., Jupe, L. M., St-Yves, M., Dunbar, N. E., Hartwig, M., Sporer, S. L., Rioux-Turcotte, J., Jarry, J., Walsh, D., Otgaar, H., Viziteu, A., Talwar, V., Keatley, D. A., Blandón-Gitlin, I., Townson, C., Deslauriers-Varin, N., Lilienfeld, S. O., Patterson, M. L.,… van Koppen, P.,J. (2020). The analysis of nonverbal communication: The dangers of pseudoscience in security and justice contexts. Anuario De Psicología Juridica, 30(1), 1-12.
Gechkova, T., & Kaleeva, T. (2020). Economic aspects of airport security systems (Behavioral analysis). Godishnik na UNSS, (2), 217â-230.
Government Accountability office, (2019) TSA has policies that prohibit unlawful profiling but should improve its oversight of behavior detection activities. Report to Congressional Requesters, 2-46
Michalski, K., Jurgilewicz, M., Kubiak, M., & Grądzka, A. (2020). The implementation of selective passenger screening systems based on data analysis and behavioral profiling in the smart aviation security management–conditions, consequences and controversies. Journal of Security & Sustainability Issues, 9(4).
Nguyen K., Rosoff, H., & John, R. S., (2017). Assessing U.S. travelers’ trade-offs for aviation safety objectives: A natural experiment. Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 1502-1511.
Transport and communication remain a key driver to most of the human activities carried out in today’s society. The two sectors of the economy are interdependent. However, in spite of this relationship, certain aspects of institutional streamlining are essential.
The strengths and weaknesses of these two elements, as well as their impacts on the economy, should be reviewed. The transport industry is made of many sub-sectors. They include, among others, rail, road, water, and air transport. All of them have unique characteristics and contribute differently to economic growth.
In this essay, the focus is made on the civil aviation wing of the transport industry. Two agencies operating in this industry are reviewed. To this end, the author of the paper examines the historical backgrounds of the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
In subsequent sections of this paper, examples of negative and positive connotations of the two agencies are illustrated. The intention is to highlight the efforts made by the authorities in improving the international aviation industry.
The International Civil Aviation Organisation: Historical Background
The agency draws its authority from the United Nations (UN). According to information obtained from its website, ICAO is one of the many specialized agencies formed under the auspices of the United Nations (International Civil Aviation Organisation [ICAO], n.d.). The organization is tasked with the responsibility of formulating key techniques and strategies to promote the efficacy and safety of operations in the international aviation industry. It has its headquarters in Montreal, Canada.
At the turn of the 20th century, the global airline industry was beginning to take shape. As such, there was a need to introduce some streamlining measures into the industry. The aim was to regulate the activities of the operators in this sector. The International Commission for Air Navigation (ICAN) acted as the regulatory body at the time.
However, membership of the regulatory body was not very attractive. For example, in 1903 (when ICAN had its first convention in Berlin), the organization had only eight members. Key policy measures were first realized when another convention was held in London in 1912. The convention came up with radio call signs, which were expected to be used by aircraft.
The ICAO came to replace the ICAN on a permanent basis in 1947. The former had been disbanded in 1945. To make sure that there was no vacuum left after the disbandment of ICAN, a caretaker organization was formed. The transient agency was referred to as the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization (PICAO).
The caretaker entity operated for two years, giving way to the eventual creation of the ICAO in 1947. The organization (ICAO) credits its formation to the famous Chicago Convention of 1944. Its formation was seen as a way of stabilizing air transport in the aftermath of World War II.
The growth of the aviation sector in the world has seen a corresponding rise in the number of members who have joined the convention. Information obtained from the website of the convention reveals that as of 2011, 190 members of the UN had ratified the treaty in their countries. In effect, the countries were active members of ICAO (ICAO, n.d.). The organization’s leadership is drawn from a governing council that has a three-year mandate. There are 36 members in the governing council.
The states taking part in the council are divided into three categories. According to Milde (2012), the first category comprises of states that are seen as occupying strategic positions in air transport. The second tier consists of countries that make significant contributions in terms of facilities that promote international air navigation. Lastly, the third class is made up of countries that give a geographic representation to the council.
It is noted that ICAO plays a number of roles in the aviation industry. One of the roles assumed by this entity is the standardization of procedures associated with the international aviation industry. In terms of communication, ICAO helps to provide a standard framework for the Aeronautical Message Handling System (AMHS).
Milde (2012) points out that the organization is responsible for publications that contain the required standards for several aviation procedures. An example is the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) that illustrates the standards to be adopted with respect to airspace and aviation facilities. According to Milde (2012), ICAO is also instrumental in the development of the airline code system. The system is an important communication platform for air traffic since it enhances the development of flight plans.
The International Air Transport Association: Historical Background
The International Air Transport Association is an aviation agency that caters for the welfare of airlines. The organization was formed in Havana, Cuba, in April of 1945 (International Air Transport Association [IATA], 2011).
The entity is essentially an agency that champions for the welfare of the airlines. Information contained from public records indicates that the association succeeded the then International Air Traffic Association (IATA, 2014). The latter had a narrow scope, which IATA was keen on improving upon. The new organization has its headquarters in the Canadian city of Montreal.
At its inception in 1945, IATA had a total of 57 members. Majority of the founding members were drawn from Europe and North America (IATA, 2011). The regions were very active in the international aviation industry. However, it is important to appreciate the fact that the 57 members represented just 31 countries. The organization has experienced tremendous growth over the years. Today, it has a membership of 240 drawn from 118 countries worldwide (IATA, 2014).
According to Tiffin and Kissling (2007), most international bodies are often a creation of industry stakeholders. The stakeholders are keen on developing technical aspects of the trade. The IATA draws its life from the ratifications of the Convention Relating to the Regulation of Aerial Navigation. According to IATA (2014), the convention was held in 1919. It is important to note that organized international flight was not realized until 1919.
The organization of these flights called for an agency that would develop policies and a properly working framework. The reason is that such flight activities required regulation. At the time, rudimentary navigation systems required an agency that would enhance the safety and reliability of air transport. The same explains the formation of IATA. The body was meant to oversee international flights, which were increasing with a rise in globalization.
The organization was formed with a number of objectives in mind. According to IATA (2011), one of the missions of this entity is to safeguard the interests of operators in the airline industry. It is engaged in lobbying for these interests among member states and regulators. Secondly, the organization has a specific role to play as far as the airline customer is concerned.
As such, IATA is expected to ensure that airlines provide quality services to the customer (IATA, 2011). The third objective behind the creation of the entity is capacity building. To this end, IATA was created to ensure that there are adequate professional and expert services in the industry, which are required for growth.
Given its status in the airline industry, IATA is tasked with a number of responsibilities. Safety is the most fundamental of these objectives. The concern comes against the backdrop of serious accidents at the time (IATA, 2011). In addition, the organization was created to provide security to the airline industry.
The need for security was compounded by the terrorist attack against America in 2001. A number of airlines were involved in this attack. Priorities and objectives associated with the entity were adjusted to ensure the overall well being of the airline industry.
Examples of Negative Attributes of the Agencies
In any sector, there are a number of agencies tasked with the responsibility of formulating policies and frameworks to oversee the activities of the stakeholders involved. However, the operations of these regulatory agencies may be counterproductive to the players involved. Tiffin and Kissling (2007) are of the opinion that IATA is such an entity. It is noted that the role played by IATA in terms of setting up prices in the industry is turning the agency into a cartel.
Tiffin and Kissling draw similarities between the agency and cartels operating in the oil industry. According to Tiffin and Kissling (2007), the interest groups in the energy sector determine prices in a bid to control the market. Price setting may be intended to promote fair competition. However, it appears that IATA has exploited this regulatory aspect of the body.
At around 1941, IATA came up with a framework meant for the coordination of flight tariffs. According to Tiffin and Kissling (2007), any two airlines were required to come up with a common figure to be used as the price for a given flight. If the deal involves two different countries, the opinion of the member states with regards to the set price is sought.
Such a move locks the client out of the process. There are many cases involving collisions between airlines and governments to keep the prices high for maximum profit. At the end of the day, the airline consumer suffers at the expense of the profits made by aviation companies. Such forms of exploitation go against the principle of customer satisfaction.
Positive Attributes of the Agencies
As mentioned in the previous sections, ICAO was instituted at a time when the international civil aviation industry was nascent. The subsequent two World Wars made the situation worse for operators in the industry. Over time, the industry has recorded significant improvements. At the center of the improvements in the communication system adopted by IATA and other stakeholders.
The airline codes have enhanced safety in aviation travel. Milde (2012) suggests that improved communication systems have helped reduce air accidents. In addition, ICAO has proved instrumental in the recovery of aircraft that experience difficulties in the air. In general, the agency has demonstrated its effectiveness in the making air transport a safe endeavor.
References
International Air Traffic Association. (2011). Introduction to the airline industry. Montreal: IATA.
The management of airline operations is often very complex and requires a high level of commitment from those involved. This paper looks at general aspects of the aviation industry and also provides a discussion on air traffic control towers.
General Aviation Industry
General aviation is a term used to denote the different aspects of the aviation. Apparently, this does not include planned military flying as well as scheduled operations that cover the transportation of both passengers and cargo (Seidenman & Spanovich, 2009). To a large extent, general aviation factors in those businesses that cater for unscheduled passenger or cargo flights. It also incorporates flight departments, personal aircraft operations, schools that deal with flight matters and storage as well as maintenance.
As pointed out by Seidenman and Spanovich (2009), some general aviation businesses focus on providing services such as fueling, cabin maintenance, catering and other ground related aircraft activities. Statistically, the general aviation industry greatly supports the economy of the United States and employs a huge number of American citizens. Evidently, the industry contributes more than USD 150 billion to the economy of the United States (GAMA, 2014).
General aviation aircraft are aircrafts used to transport people privately (Benny, 2012). General aviation aircrafts may be owned by private individuals or may be rented when required from a general aviation airport. General aviation aircraft also comprises different aircrafts that are used by corporate organizations to ferry executives, employees, or even customers.
Non-military federal government agencies make use of general aviation aircraft to transport staff and to accomplish various missions in an organization. Among such missions are intelligence operations and law enforcement. General aviation may be used for law enforcement patrols, fighting fires, providing emergency medical air ambulance services, and rescue operations. There are other uses of general aviation which include agricultural crop dusting.
To a large extent, this helps to improve food security by ensuring that crops are properly sprayed with pesticides while still in the farm. They are also very useful for controlling insects along rivers, lakes and other waterways that are located close to densely populated areas. Apparently, aircrafts that are used for flight instruction are also classified under general aviation.
As pointed out by GAMA (2014), general aviation industry comprises more than 360,000 aircraft scattered across the world and includes all sorts of airplanes. Statistics indicate that this number is bound to increase with time due to increased aviation activities. The general aviation industry also serves as a good training ground for a majority of commercial airline pilots. Based on the study undertaken by Seidenman and Spanovich (2009), the general aviation fleet in the United States will continue to swell over the years.
Arguably, the growth of the general aviation fleet is a direct indication of the fact that the number of flight hours will equally increase. An important contribution associated with general aviation is the provision of on demand transport services for freight as well as passengers. In the United States, operators who intend to make use of general aviation aircraft through hire services have o be certified by the Federal Aviation Regulators.
By and large, the general aviation industry supports many operations in and outside the United States. However, there are major security concerns that are linked to general aviation. After the September 2011 attack on the United States by terrorists, there have been increased efforts to ensure the safety of general aviation aircrafts. Considering that the attackers were trained at flight schools in the United States, efforts to reinforce security had to be extended to cover flights schools in the United States as well.
Air Traffic Control Towers
Ordinarily, there will be thousands of aircrafts moving from one point to another across the sky on any given day. The ability of these aircrafts to leave and enter different airports and to stay away from any collisions is a complex issue that often requires concerted efforts by various stakeholders. Air traffic control towers are generally responsible for the operational security of both commercial and private aircrafts.
Ostensibly, the control tower is one of the most critical air traffic control facilities and it comes in different shapes and sizes. Drawing from a study by Reisman and Brown (2006), control towers are extremely essential for providing the flight crew with important information that is meant to guarantee the safety of the pilot and those aboard an aircraft.
Different approaches, including the use of computer graphics, have been utilized over the years by key players in the aviation sector to enhance the general security of airplanes as well as passengers and cargos transported from one location to another via the sky. Any displays that are designed to be worn on the head must be very clear in order to ensure that the vision of a tower controller is not impaired.
It is imperative to check that displays do not contain any form of impairment that could hinder clarity. Generally, air traffic controllers ensure that thousands of airplanes that move across the sky from time to time move smoothly from one point to another.
Air traffic controllers are responsible for guiding the take off of airplanes and making sure that problems are not encountered during landing. Controllers also play a very crucial role of ensuring that airplanes are properly guided in bad weather and that their motion is not hampered by unbearable climatic conditions.
Air traffic control services are generally offered by controllers who are mainly based on the ground. Among other responsibilities, air traffic controllers are in charge of directing the flow of aircrafts as they land and leave airports. Controllers also ensure that all aircrafts are advised accordingly in order to guarantee their safety both within the airport and in the airspace. To a large extent, the main goal of control towers is to see to it that aircrafts are able to travel smoothly and that collisions are avoided.
The task of ensuring that pilots are fully informed before, during and even after flight is, however, extremely important. In most countries across the world, air traffic control towers offer their services to the military, to private individuals operating their own aircrafts, and to commercial airlines making use of the nearby airspace.
Ostensibly, air traffic controllers may give out instructions to pilots based on the type of flight being operated and the category of the airspace. To manage the immediate environment around the airport, air traffic controllers mainly rely on visual observation via the airport control tower.
Typically, towers are tall structures that are built around the airport and fitted with windows that help to provide visibility. This makes it possible to effectively detect any motion in the surrounding airspace and to efficiently control the movement of aircrafts and vehicles on the runways and taxiways. Proper management of control tower services thus helps to ensure safety at the airport and the surrounding environment.
Drawing from a study by Nolan (2010), air traffic control towers are operated by both federal and non-federal agencies in order to provide separation services to all aircrafts flying into and out of a given airport. Apparently, the main goal of the control tower is to see to it that sufficient runway separation does exist between landing and takeoff.
Other important services include issuing clearance information, giving instructions to taxis at the airport, and offering support to airplanes in the airspace around the neighborhood of an airport. Ordinarily, these services are undertaken with the help of two-way radio equipment that are used to instruct the pilot when landing or taking off from an airport or to alter the flight pattern of an aircraft. Nolan (2010) identifies three categories of control towers.
These are the VFR towers, non-radar-approach control towers, and radar-approach control towers. Radar and non-radar-approach categories are delegated the responsibility of separation. Non-radar approach controllers are usually placed within the tower cab and help with the separation of aircrafts using non-radar procedures. Radar-approach controllers on the other hand are located inside a separate room that is normally placed near the base of the tower.
They separate aircrafts using radar-based procedures. Although all the three categories of control towers are responsible for the separation of arrivals and departures, VFR towers generally do not have an elaborate separation responsibility. VFR towers are delegated limited responsibility for initially separating aircraft arrivals from departures but most of the separation is around VFR towers and mainly handled by the air route traffic control center.
Air traffic control towers are responsible for directing aircrafts as they move guided by visual flight rules located on the ground as well as near airports. Among other services, the towers offer both ground control and local control services.
While ground controls provides instructions to airplanes and vehicles moving through an airport’s runways and taxiways, local controls ensure that aircraft receive weather related information as well as landing and takeoff clearances as airplanes arrive and takeoff from an airport. Air traffic control towers make use of different equipment among them radars, communication networks as well as landing and navigation aids.
Largely, the air traffic control system is very complicated and brings together various players each with a very important supporting role. Airspaces in different parts of the world are organized into different centers that may be referred to as zones. For ease of administration, the zones are further split into sectors. Zones also consist of small segments known as terminal radar approach control (TRACON) airspaces.
Every TRACON segment is made up of several airports assigned to their own unique airspaces. In the United States, the development of the air traffic control system is associated with airspace segments. The control system consists of various divisions that include air traffic control system command center, air route traffic control centers, terminal radar approach control, air traffic control tower and flight service station.
The air traffic control system command center is designed to oversee all aspects of air traffic control. This division is also responsible for dealing with bad weather or any other problems encountered during flight operations. Apart from challenging weather conditions, the division is also expected to deal with traffic overloads as well as runways that fail to operate as envisioned.
Air route traffic control centers are controllers that are located en-route and are responsible for taking care of traffic that exists within the centers but not for the TRACON. They mainly direct the movement of airplanes outside the terminal space. The main reason for having these en-route centers is to ensure the availability of a safe and smooth traffic flow with minimal or no distractions.
The services that are offered by air route traffic control centers include but are not limited to the separation of aircrafts that are meant to operate under instrument flight rules, closely monitoring the flow of traffic, issuing traffic and weather advisories, and making sure that effective traffic management initiatives are implemented. For effectiveness to be realized, each center has its own air traffic control point.
In some situations, however, air route traffic control center services are provided less efficiently in the absence of radar surveillance and direct communication between pilots and controllers. The terminal radar approach control division is in charge of ensuring that all departures and landings happen smoothly within the assigned airspace. Usually, terminal radar approach control division facilities are located at or outside an airport.
The services provided include traffic advisories, traffic alerts, weather information, and sequencing arrivals as well as departures. Every single airport that handles scheduled flights is required to have a terminal radar control section responsible for dealing with all takeoffs and landings.
The flight service station provides important information to assist pilots when landing and taking off. It also offers assistance to pilots during emergency situations. In addition, this division handles cases of missing aircrafts through coordinated rescue operations when necessary.
During the movement of an airplane across a particular airspace, so much is done to avert any unwelcome situations. Traffic controllers are expected to closely monitor aircrafts to alleviate any problems. Usually, control and monitoring is passed from one division to another as the aircraft leaves one division to another. While the use of air traffic control towers may prove to be costly for very huge airfields, it is less costly and quite beneficial when it comes to smaller ones.
The tasks undertaken by those assigned to a control tower may be split into four categories including flight data, clearance delivery, ground control, and local control. For a busy control tower, it is prudent to assign the duties to four or even more control personnel. The duties may, however, be combined into a smaller number of positions when dealing with a less busy control facility.
In the event of an emergency, the pilot in command has the freedom to decide on the best logical action at the time for his own safety and that of the passenger on board an aircraft. Air traffic control towers mainly help air traffic controllers to monitor three key areas including the local air control, ground control, and flight data delivery.
While ground control is concerned with movement areas around the airport such as along the taxiways and inactive runways, local air control takes cares of active runways and ensures that aircrafts enter and leave an airport smoothly. Flight data delivery mainly provides pilots with clearance information which may include the suitability of the route to be taken by a particular aircraft. Also considered are possible stops or any form of delay that may be encountered by the aircraft along the way to its scheduled destination.
Conclusion
Certainly, general aviation industry plays an important role in many economies. However, success depends on factors such as government support and security enforcement. Air traffic control towers on the other hand are critical for guaranteeing the security and smooth flow of aircrafts on the ground and in the airspace
The aviation industry is one of the most important industries in modern society. This industry makes it possible for air travel to occur. Air travel is the fastest and most effective form of moving from one destination to the other. Through the efficient movement made possible by aviation, individuals and nations can benefit and prosper. Commercial flights enable passengers can move from place to place for business. Goods are transported through cargo planes, therefore, enhancing commerce. The safe and effective operation of aircraft is crucial for the benefits of air travel to be enjoyed. However, certain weather phenomena affect individual flights and might even result in devastating accidents. Statistics by the Federal Aviation Administration indicate that adverse weather conditions are responsible for 23% of all aviation accidents (Kulesa, 2003).
This paper will set out to highlight some of the devastating weather related to aviation accidents in history and discuss the adverse weather phenomena that can critically affect flight safety. The paper will then give the weather minimums that aircraft cannot safely operate without and offer advice on how pilots can avoid those adverse situations and minimize the damage once they encounter the situation.
Weather Related Aviation Accidents
There have been several significant kinds of weather-related to aviation accidents over the past decade. On April 20, 2012, the Pakistani owned Bhoja Air Flight 213 crashed as it made its way to the airport in Islamabad due to poor weather. This crash resulted in the death of 121 passengers, making it the second deadliest aircraft accident in the history of Pakistan aviation. The weather conditions that led to this accident were a thunderstorm and heavy rains in the region of flight. The accident occurred 5.6 kilometers away from Benazir Bhutto International Airport, which was the destination of the aircraft. Reports suggest that the plane might have been struck by lightning before the crash. Other reports suggest that wind shear was responsible for smashing the plane into the ground as the pilot prepared to land in the strong winds and rain.
Another aviation accident involved the Airblue Flight 202 on July 28, 2010, in Pakistan. This plane was scheduled to land in Benazir Bhutto International Airport as part of a domestic flight. The weather conditions as the plane attempted to land were dense fog and heavy rains. One hundred and fifty-two people (the entire passenger and crewmembers of the flight) were killed in the accident. Reports indicate that the poor weather present as the plane attempted to land made it necessary for the flight controllers to delay the plane’s landing. It was while the pilots of the Airblue Flight 202 were making the diversion that the fatal accident occurred.
A Ukrainian flight suffered from an accident due to weather conditions. The South Airlines Flight 8971 crash-landed on 13 February 2013 following an attempt to land in poor weather. The pilot tried to land the plane in dense fog leading to the crash. Five people died because of the accident, and the plane was badly damaged.
Adverse Weather Phenomena
Thunderstorms are one of the weather conditions that make it dangerous to fly. These conditions lead to several weather patterns that are dangerous to aircraft. As the thunderstorm grows, there is significant turbulence created due to the internal up and downdrafts that occur within the thunderstorm. An aircraft that encounters this turbulence can be forced to gain or loss altitude, severely leading to accidents. The FAA (2010) reports that thunderstorms impede on the ability of the aircraft to fly at a steady altitude because of the turbulence created. In addition to this, thunderstorms are often accompanied by lightening, which might have devastating effects on the aircraft. If an aircraft is struck by lightning, the electronic equipment in the plane might be knocked out, making it hard for the pilot to navigate. Lightning flashes might also lead to temporary night blindness as the pilot’s vision is affected after the lightning strikes (FAA, 2010).
Icing presents a danger to airplanes both on the ground and in the year. While on the ground, icing can cause accumulation of ice on crucial parts of the aircraft such as propellers and the engine inlets. Accumulation of icing on the body of the plane’s wings can lead to accidents during takeoff since it can sufficiently increase drag, therefore, preventing the airplane from achieving lift at the normal speeds (Kulesa, 2003). Icing might also lead to navigational errors while the plane is in the air. This occurs when ice affects the measuring instrumentation leading to wrong results on the airspeed and altitude parameters. The pilot might, therefore, make erroneous judgments due to this wrong measurements caused by icing.
Another significant adverse weather phenomenon is wind shear, which is defined by an extreme change in wind direction and speed. Several weather conditions can cause wind shear, and these include thunderstorms, microburst, mountain waves, and jet streams. The wind shear caused by microburst present a greater danger than the other causes since they occur at lower altitudes (Rajendra & Ashok, 2013). The effects of wind shear when the plane is close to the ground can be devastating since the aircraft is normally at low altitudes during the two crucial phases of its flight, which are during takeoff or landing. The FAA (2010) states that at these phases of flight, the pilot does not have enough time to react to the loss of control or altitude that the wind shear might lead to.
Weather Minimums for Safe Aircraft Operation
Some minimum weather conditions must be present before an aircraft can be allowed to engage in the crucial phases of takeoff and landing. Under Visual flight rules, the aircraft is not allowed to land in low visibility since the pilot should have a clear view of the runway before making a landing. While the pilot can land with the help of navigational signals, there is no guarantee that these signals offer a reliable report of the real conditions on the ground. Heavy snow might lead to a distortion of the glide slope signals leading to a miscalculation that could cause a catastrophic landing (Knecht & Lenz, 2010).
Aircraft are not supposed to land on wet and icy runways since these surfaces are hazardous. Reports indicate that icy runways are responsible for most of the landing accidents witnessed at airports all over the world (Rajendra & Ashok, 2013). Wet and icy runways affect the friction between the aircrafts wheels and the runway surface. This leads to a reduction in the efficiency of the braking system, and it might cause runway overshooting. The ground icing conditions must, therefore, be checked before a plane can be cleared for takeoff or landing.
Landing or taking off while a wind shear is in progress is unsafe. Aircraft control towers are equipped with systems that can detect wind shear and report this to the pilot (Knecht & Lenz, 2010). The aircraft is supposed to delay its takeoff or landing if there is a wind shear since this condition can lead to loss of control of the aircraft while it is close to or on the ground.
Avoiding Adverse Situations
A report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicates that adverse weather is the leading risk factor for fatal crashes (O’Connor & Lincoln, 2011). Tackling weather situations can, therefore, greatly improve aviation safety. Access to weather information is crucial to reducing the incidents of weather-related aviation accidents. The importance of adequate weather information is reinforced by report findings that most of the crashes in Alaska between 2000 and 2010 occurred in remote airfields that had limited weather information (O’Connor & Lincoln, 2011).
Pilots should always get their preflight weather briefing from reliable sources. This sources should be aviation oriented and of a high-grade. Kulesa (2003) recommends obtaining weather briefings from the Flight Service Station. The information from this source is not only accurate but also tailor-made for pilots and up to date. It is possible for an aircraft to encounter un-forecast weather conditions while on a pre-planned flight path. Reports by the FAA (2010) indicate that flights into adverse weather during the cruise phase are the most common probable causes of fatal weather accidents. When this occurs, the pilot can navigate the aircraft under the Visual Flight Rules if possible. Craig (2012) states that the pilot should adjust the course of the aircraft to get away from the dangerous weather. These diversions should take place with the assistance of local weather stations.
Awareness of the local weather conditions can help a pilot to make appropriate decisions while in flight. Pilots can make use of weather radar to identify the weather conditions of the area they are flying into. Most commercial aircraft have an Airborne Weather Rader System that can provide the pilot with a local weather picture (Craig, 2012). This system enables the pilot to identify undesirable weather formations and avoid them.
The onboard instrumentation should be used to improve flight safety. Specifically, pilots should make use of their instrument indications when flying in weather conditions that are undesirable for visual flight rules (Kulesa, 2003). Most of the weather-related fatalities occur when the pilot attempts to fly using visual flight rules in weather conditions that require him/her to rely on the instrument indications available to him. The pilot should, therefore, avoid the temptation to rely on his visual perception in Instrument meteorological conditions.
Conclusion
This paper set out to highlight the impact that adverse weather has on aviation. It began by highlighting some weather-related accidents in history. It then gave an overview of some of the adverse weather phenomena that can affect flights. Deteriorating visibility, turbulence, and thunderstorms have been singled out as some of the most problematic weather conditions. The paper has highlighted the weather conditions under which it is unsafe to operate an aircraft. Pilots should not attempt to take off or land in poor visibility or when there are wind shears in the airport area. The paper has also discussed some of the ways though which the pilot can avoid adverse situations or minimize the damage caused when the conditions are encountered. If weather concerns can be reduced and risk mitigated, the number of weather-related aviation accidents would reduce significantly. This will ensure that society can enjoy the many benefits that air travel offers.
References
Craig, C. (2012). Improving flight condition situational awareness through Human Centered Design. Work, 41(1), 4523-4531. Web.
FAA (2010). Thunderstorms and Interference. Web.
Knecht, W. & Lenz, M. (2010). Causes of General Aviation Weather-Related, Non-Fatal Incidents: Analysis Using NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System Data. Oklahoma: Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Federal Aviation Administration. Web.
Kulesa, G. (2003). Weather and Aviation: How Does Weather Affect the Safety and Operations of Airports and Aviation, and How Does FAA Work to Manage Weather-related Effects? Washington: Transportation Research Board. Web.
O’Connor, M. & Lincoln, J. (2011). Occupational Aviation Fatalities — Alaska, 2000–2010. Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report, 60(25), 837-840. Web.
Rajendra, K. & Ashok, K. (2013). Bad weather and aircraft accidents – global vis-à-vis Indian scenario. Current Science, 104 (3), 316-325. Web.
Overview of the National Transportation Safety Board
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is an investigative agency that was formed by the government of the US. According to Hersman (2013, p.92), the main mandate of this government agency is to investigate all civil transportation accidents that happen in America and other parts of the world. The national transportation safety board is also charged with the responsibility of reporting accidents and incidents happening in the aviation industry, crashes on national highways, accidents by ships and other marine equipment, and mishaps witnessed in railroads and pipelines. In some cases, the national transportation safety board also helps the military in investigations involving various types of accidents. Moreover, Fielding, Lob, and Yang (2011, p.18) reveal how the NTSB also takes part in the investigations in cases where there are hazardous materials emitted on the environment.
Such spillage and release of harmful materials happen during transportation. The NTSB is headquartered at Washington, D.C. The agency also has nine regional offices, which are spread across the country. In a bid to ensure dissemination of safety information and professionalism in investigations, the agency trains safety and investigations at its training center situated at Ashburn in Virginia.
History of the NTSB and its foundation
The National transport safety board was created through the 1926 Air Commerce Act. Later, in 1967, the NTSB was made the principal bureau of command charged with the responsibility of inspecting catastrophes. Fielding, Lob, and Yang (2011, p.18) affirm that the government mandates the NTSB with the role of carrying out primary investigations on the highway, rail, aviation, pipeline, and marine accidents. During the formation, the NTSB comprised the majority of the Bureau of safety civil aeronautics board. The agency was also established with a very strong link with the department of transportation of the United States. However, the 1974 Independent Safety Board Act detached the two departments. Chapter 11 of the United States code gives the NTSB authority to carry out its mandate. The agency has investigated thousands of cases both in the United States and in foreign nations since its inception.
Roles of NTSB in aviation
The major role of the National Transportation Safety Board is to provide leadership in investigations that concern transport within its mandated areas. Such mishaps may involve railroad accidents, pipeline emergencies, road accidents, and aviation accidents. Fielding, Lob, and Yang (2011, p.17) affirm that civil aviation investigation experts from NTSB organize, manage, and carry out investigations. In case of an accident within the mandated areas of NTSB, the board comes up with a ‘go team.’ The team comprises various specialists in the field that concerns the accident. For example, if the accident involves a ship, professionals from the naval industry are involved in the team of investigators. The board also involves other investigation organizations in the process of carrying out its duties. Occasionally, the NTSB organizes public hearings in the course of carrying out its investigations.
During the public hearing, witnesses and interested parties are allowed to give their views. Some of the parties that may have direct involvement in the accident are also required to provide their statements to the investigation board during the public hearing. Public hearings make it possible for the citizenry and other interested parties to audit the process of investigation. In case the public realizes that there is mischief in the way the investigation is carried out, it can voice its opinion to the board either through an attorney or in person. This ensures transparency and trust of the process of investigation.
In some cases, the National Transportation Safety Board offers technical support to other investigative bodies. For example, if a disaster has direct connections with evil undertakings, the attorney general can advise other security agencies of the government to take over the investigation while the NTSB provides any key assistance. For example, although the case of September 11, 2001, when the World Trade Center was attacked by terrorist had links with the transport industry, the attorney advised the federal department of justice to investigate the case. The department of justice, therefore, investigated the terrorist attack, with the NTSB only providing directive assistance.
In all investigations, the NTSB takes the primacy. However, in cases that involve the civil aviation industry, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has to be enjoined as a major party. Fielding, Lob, and Yang (2011, p.18) observe that the Federal Aviation Administration will normally carry out the investigation as an independent body while the NTSB is the main investigative agency in the whole process of investigation. For example, the National Transportation Safety Board will request the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to carry out the process of collecting basic facts concerning an accident. Bing (2012, p. 33777) reveals that the FAA gathers raw facts about the accident and forwards the information gathered to the NTSB. The FAA is well equipped with resources, which put it at a more advantageous point in the process of investigation. The NTSB receives the information and makes use of it during the investigation.
It is also the role of the NTSB to assist in accident investigation in other countries. Such investigations must attract the NTSB due to certain circumstances. For instance, according to Hersman (2013, p.92), if the accident or incident involves an aircraft that is owned or registered by America, the NTSB enters to assist in investigations. In other incidents, the NTSB investigates incidents and accidents that involve aircraft that have components manufactured in the United States of America or by companies that are affiliated to the US. Moreover, if a country with less resource invites the NTSB to assist in investigations of an accident, the board also takes the responsibility to aid the investigation in a bid to offer its recommendations.
Hersman (2013, p.92) affirms that the NTSB also plays the role of a court of appeal for certified aviation companies, pilots, air personnel, aviation mechanics, mariners, and cabin crews that face charges or have their licenses suspended by various authorities, for example by the federal government. However, although the court serves an appellate court role, its decision may be appealed further by any losing party to the federal court system. The FAA may also appeal the case for the losing party to the federal court. Therefore, the NTSB also provides justice to aviation employees.
NTSB Reporting Requirements
The NTSB reporting requirements aim at providing safety recommendations for the transport industry. These reporting requirements are in various fields of transport. For example, in the highway industry, the board-reporting requirement recommends the implementation of graduate driver licensing laws. Such laws will guide the issuance of licenses to young drivers upon advising that drinking should be strictly for adults above 21 years and that vehicles should be fitted with smart airbags for the safety of the drivers.
Brake lights for all vehicles should be highly positioned so that other drivers that may be behind the vehicle can see the vehicle slowing down from far. Also, the report recommends improvement in the way school buses are constructed to make them more stable. According to Hart (2013, p.519), the reporting recommendation in the aviation industry requires that aircraft be fitted with mid-air collision avoidance technology, detectors of airborne wind sheers and alert devices, warning devices that inform the crew of the ground distance, smoke detectors, fuel tanks, and floor-level escape lighting. These technologies ensure air safety.
In the marine industry, the report recommends the industry to implement “recreational boating safety, carry out fire safety on ships, and equip fishing vessels with lifesaving devices” (Guzzetti, 2013, p.20). Guzzetti (2013, p.20) asserts that the reporting also recommends the pipeline industry to provide excavation damage protection equipment and provide the necessary measures to prevent pipe corrosion. The pipeline industry should also offer remote shutoff valves that can be controlled from far in case of an accident or incident.
How the Agency may affect Aviation Rulemaking
The NTSB may affect the aviation rule making process in various ways. Since the agency is created through an act of parliament, it has powers to influence government decisions. The federal and state governments depend on NTSB to provide recommendations after investigating an incident or accident. Bing (2012, p.33777) argues that the government takes the role of implementing the recommendations since the NTSB has no authority to implement its recommendation. Such recommendations may affect how the aviation industry makes rules. Guzzetti (2013, p.20) asserts that the federal government also observes the annual recommendation that NTSB makes for use as a blue print to guide the aviation industry of the US. Also, the NTSB provides recommendations on how aircraft are constructed and fitted in a bid to promote safer transport (Norris, 2013, p. 34). Such recommendations will also affect rule making. Foreign nations also seek guidance from NTSB in case of an accident. The recommendations that the agency makes after investigations may also affect rule making in the aviation industry.
Reference List
Bing, R. (2012). General Aviation Safety Forum: Climbing to the Next Level. Federal Register, 77(110), 33777-33777. Web.
Fielding, E., Lob, W., & Yang, H. (2011). The National Transportation Safety Board: A Model For Systemic Risk Management. Journal of Investment Management, 9(1), 17-49. Web.
Guzzetti, B. (2013). Is the Federal Aviation Administration Making Sufficient Progress on Safety Initiatives? Congressional Digest, 92(6), 19-31. Web.
Hart, S. (2013). The Crash of Cougar Flight 491: A Case Study of Offshore Safety and Corporate Social Responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 113(3), 519-541. Web.
Hersman, O. (2013). Is the Federal Aviation Administration Making Sufficient Progress on Safety Initiatives? Congressional Digest, 92(6), 18-30. Web.
Norris, G. (2013). Down to the Wire. Aviation Week & Space Technology, 175(11), 34-34. Web.
This report covers various methods of improving aviation safety in Africa by implementing an effective and transparent regulatory oversight system. Africa has experienced a massive growth in air traffic in the recent past. For instance, the demand for air transport has increased, there are many airlines and Africa has experienced the highest growth in air transport globally. In addition, the African air market is large and many small airlines scramble for the market share too. The European Commission (EU) has noted that safety is one of the most critical weaknesses in the aviation industry of Africa, yet it is a necessary condition for development (European Union, 2009). Many indicators, such as the rate of accidents, safety evaluations and ICAO safety oversight audits show that perhaps Africa has the poorest aircraft safety record relative to other regions globally.
Key stakeholders in the aviation industry, such IATA, ICAO and other regulatory bodies have recognized the need to enhance air safety in Africa. Between 2006 and 2010, IATA and ICAO conducted studies and analysis of air transport accidents that took place in Africa. The analysis showed that many air transport accidents in Africa were related to weak regulatory frameworks, oversights and failure to implement several safety measures (International Air Transport Association, 2012).
The findings were used to develop intervention measures. From the analysis, they concluded that tools such as Flight Data Analysis (FDA) could help in identifying serious accidents such as “runway excursions, controlled flight into terrain and loss of control” (International Air Transport Association, 2012). Runway excursions were responsible for a significant percentage of air transport accidents in the continent. Therefore, enhancing air transport safety in Africa is imperative and the possible solutions must account for immediate resolutions of all identified critical safety issues.
Implement Safety Management System (SMS)
The SMS is a methodical strategy for managing safety issues in the aviation industry. It accounts for the suitable “organizational structures, procedures, accountability and policies” (International Air Transport Association, 2012), which can meet safety standards in the aviation industry.
Based on ICAO guidelines, service providers and airline companies should offer their own SMSs, which should meet standards and regulations by their respective countries (African Aviation, n.d). In this case, service providers include training institutions on safety issues, operators, permitted aircraft maintenance firms, aircraft designing firms, aircraft manufacturers and qualified aerodrome service providers.
Under ICAO guidelines, service providers should only implement recognized SMS in their respective countries. The implemented SMS must ensure the following safety aspects.
A decline in costs and the need for audit resources for aircraft firms and regulatory organizations;
The implemented system must identify potential safety concerns;
It must institute corrective action required for acceptable standards of safety;
The system must be able to offer continued assessment of the safety standards achieved;
The ultimate goal of the implemented system is to improve the overall safety outcomes.
Implementation of IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA)
The IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA) is a safety approach that has achieved global recognition and acceptance in the aviation industry. The IOSA evaluates and assesses operational processes and control elements of airlines (Fadugba, 2006). IATA members must obtain IOSA registration and they have to uphold their registration in order to remain members of IATA.
The IOSA requirements provide the primary SMS assessment tool for safety standards. Many industry stakeholders have noted that IOSA is a global safety standard that was developed to enhance safety in the airline industry. From the IOSA database of 2011, the registry indicated that Africa-based airlines had “an accident rate of 1.84 per million flights, which above the world IOSA average of 1.73” (Fadugba, 2006). Professionals in the industry have recognized that the rate of accident for non-IOSA airline firms is extremely high at 9.31. The average rate of accident for non-IOSA organizations was significantly higher than the rate for other operators in Africa. Moreover, the rate of accident for non-IOSA operators has continued to rise (Fadugba, 2006).
The past tragic accidents in some of the African countries have shown that aviation safety is a major challenge even for countries with the best practices and stable safety standards. On the other hand, a report published in 2012 indicated that none of the IOSA registered airlines operating in Africa has been involved in any accident. This shows that carriers, which have implemented IOSA guidelines, are efficient and safe. In addition, they show that the Audit 900 standard is highly effective and efficient in enhancing safety. Therefore, it is imperative for the Africa air transport industry to implement it to curb accidents. For African airline companies, implementing the IOSA will enhance the following outcomes.
Effective audit processes under the guidelines of IATA;
Constant reviewing and updating of the safety standards to meet regulatory requirements and offer the industry best practices;
Reduce audit challenges, costs and the need for several audit resources;
The IOSA ensures requires service providers to be qualified and accredited;
There are formal training courses for all audit organizations, which provide standardization in the industry;
The IOSA provides structured audit processes with standardized methodology and safety checklists.
Therefore, implementation of the IOSA will enhance aircraft safety in Africa.
Implementation of the Runway Safety Measures
IATA, ICAO and other safety authorities in the airline industry have formulated the Runway Safety Program, which promotes safety in the aviation industry globally. The Runway Safety Measures account for safe flights during the start and conclusion. This measure remains one of the highest priorities among aviation safety authorities. Pilots, traffic controllers and vehicle drivers must adhere to Runway Safety Measures.
Consequently, the implementation of these measures will ensure the best practices during the start and at the end of a flight. Stakeholders must understand airfield markings and signage, provide current information on the runway usage and drives to reduce risks among others.
Implement Flight Data Analysis (FDA)
Implementation of the FDA is an important approach to enhance safety in the air transport industry in Africa. The IATA promotes the “Implementation Program for Safe Operations in Africa (IPSOA) to ensure that flight data analysis tools are available to all IATA carriers in Africa” (International Air Transport Association, 2012). Carriers that have adopted the FDA have recorded 56 percent decline in trajectories while airports with unsteady modes have been noted.
Africa can improve its aviation industry safety if it adopts and implements the above safety measures. The continent has recorded impressive growth in the air transport. Air connectivity has facilitated the integration of Africa into the global field. However, one must understand that air transportation in Africa faces myriads of challenges.
The aviation industry has facilitated the growth in the tourism industry, job creations and emergence of high-tech and highly skilled workers (Tyler, 2014). However, safety remains a major source of concern for many African carriers. Today, Africa has the weakest share in the global air traffic, poorly developed intra-Africa aviation relations, slow creation of jobs, the use of older aircraft with an average of over ten years of fleet age and reliance on old and obsolete tools for air navigation and airspace management (European Union, 2009).
ICAO USOAP audit reports have revealed that the aviation industry in Africa experiences poor rates of effective implementation of ICAO guidelines and other safety standards. African countries have recorded below average outcomes in safety standard implementation relative to the global implementation outcomes. The EU notes that the challenge goes beyond compliance and poor implementation to show that, “Safety is really at stake” (European Union, 2009). Audits have revealed that safety deficiencies correlate with high a number of serious accidents in the African aviation industry.
The aviation industry must recognize that safety remains a major challenge and it can emerge in different forms. Thus, there should be a need to promote safe flying by implementing the global safety standards. The aviation industry in African can facilitate safety improvements by investigating past accidents and acting on the recommendations. Meanwhile, the aviation industry must improve on the implementation of the global standards and best practices as defined by IATA, ICAO and other safety organizations in the air transport industry. However, one must recognize the implementation challenge as indicated by past records among African countries. Therefore, African aviation industry requires a strategic action plan that can address safety concerns, develop regulatory requirements and facilitate implementation of the global safety standards and best practices.
References
African Aviation. (n.d). New Initiative on Aviation Safety. Web.
European Union. (2009). Improving Aviation Safety in Africa: A Necessary Condition for Development. Web.
Fadugba, N. (2006). Improving air safety in Africa. Web.
International Air Transport Association. (2012). News Brief: Strategic Action Plan to Improve Aviation Safety in Africa. Web.
Tyler, T. (2014). Improving African aviation safety, in the 100th year of commercial aviation. Web.
Federal Aviation Administration has expressed its vision of goals that are supposed to be achieved by 2025 in “Destination 2025”. Though the overall strategy of transformation is well-developed, further actions should be taken to improve the plan and provide a successful realization of the strategy aimed at promoting the safety of aviation.
FAA has been working on providing maximum safety of the aviation system for decades. The efficient work brought great results, as the number of fatal accidents has decreased drastically. FAA is looking forward to improving the system, ensuring the safety of air carriages, and enable bigger aviation capacity. The strategy for achieving these goals includes employing the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) (“Destination 2025” 1). NextGen is aimed at transforming the air traffic control system and providing the extension of passenger and cargo capacity. Besides sustained aviation growth, NextGen is supposed to develop “environmental protection” that reduces the impact of aviation on climate change (Wuebbles, Gupta, and Ko 157).
Cooperation with international partners, including the International Civil Aviation Organization, is also mentioned as an important part of the process aimed at improving global aviation safety (“Destination 2025” 2). Safety Management Systems (SMS) are regarded as essential to providing the expected progress. SMS are used to deal with the risks related to human factors issues in aviation safety management (Liou, Yen, and Tzeng 20). FAA emphasizes the importance of creating a convenient workplace for the people involved in providing aviation services.
In my opinion, the plan presented by the FAA appears to be well-grounded and can bring great results. The strategy described in “Destination 2025” mostly relies on NextGen. I think the main advantage of NextGen transformation is its orientation toward covering all areas related to the functioning of aviation. The concentration on one distinctive aspect inevitably leads to a lack of attention to other aspects. Such a situation results in the evolvement of new problems. NextGen does not focus on one particular aspect that needs to be improved. Instead, it is based on the comprehensive method of providing improvements. I found this method the most suitable, as only the complex approach to dealing with current challenges in aviation can lead to success.
Though the strategy chosen by the FAA appears well developed, it lacks certain points. The plan does not emphasize the importance of training and education of airport drivers for ensuring maximum safety. Rankin analyzed three studies conducted in 1994, 2007, and 2008, which support the importance and urgency of acquiring and implementing a “computer-based airport movement area driver training system” in the 35 largest U.S. airports (87). The results of the studies prove that efficient airport driver training is key to aviation safety. However, the FAA has not taken any actions aimed at addressing airport driver training as a major strategy (Rankin 87).
Though “Destination 2025” presents a well-grounded plan for enhancing the safety of aviation, the implementation of this plan appears to be accompanied by many challenges. Achieving NextGen benefits will take many years (“NextGen Independent Assessment and Recommendations” 2). Unfortunately, FAA has not developed an appropriate system of measuring progress in implementing the NextGen transformation (“NextGen Air Transportation System” 54). Insufficient development of performance measures limits the program’s benefits.
The successful realization of “Destination 2025” can be possible only after providing certain changes aimed at improving the plan. The adjustment of the plan to current challenges will ensure the development of efficient safety management.
Works Cited
Destination 2025. n.d. Web.
Liou, James, Leon Yen, and Gwo-Hshiung Tzeng. “Building an effective safety management system for airlines.” Journal of Air Transport Management 14.1 (2008): 20–26. Print.
Wuebbles, Don, Mohan Gupta, and Malcolm Ko. “Evaluating the Impacts of Aviation on Climate Change.” Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 88.14 (2007): 157-160. Print.