Category: Aviation

Executive Summary

Weather and meteorological phenomena have substantial effects on current aviation. Severe cases of weather events such as hail, thunderstorms, or cloud funnels can result in the limitation of flights, accidents, and even the loss of aircraft, equipment, and lives. As such, the following paper aims to observe the main components influencing accidents as a result of meteorological hazards. Present strategies of mitigation and prevention, and gaps in approaches to maintaining safety within the field of aviation are also vital elements of concern. Accidents often occur as the result of damage to the exterior of the plane or the accumulation of ice in inlets. Incidents may originate from human error even in the case that preventative equipment is fully operational and adequate.

Current measures focus on de-icing techniques, radars indicating turbulence, wind shears, and other harmful weather events, and the maintenance of successful navigation through synthetic vision systems and other modern devices. Ongoing studies suggest that modern systems are underutilized, and expected expansion into technology can be made in order to observe greater safety through prevention. Further research should focus on more efficient forms of de-icing and avoidance of particulates such as dust, heavy rain, and more. Improved automation, guidance services, and autopilot development may benefit aviation processes as human errors will be minimized.

Introduction

Aviation and related fields can be severely impacted by a manner of different meteorological phenomena and a multitude of functions in order to mitigate risks and damages caused by such hazards. Thunderstorms, hail, fog, and glaze have been cited as being the most detrimental to aviation and flights. A study done in a meteorological station revealed that fog and thunderstorms were the most hazardous atmospheric phenomena and would frequently hinder and prevent aviation ( (Arazny & Aaszyca, 2020). With an annual average of 71 days of thunderstorms and 14 days of fog in the region, this presents a prevalent threat to operations as well as the safety of those involved.

Severe thunderstorms, hail, or fog in areas more prone to such meteorological events create further risks and obstacles for local aviation organizations. The following paper aims to outline the severity of issues associated with meteorological hazards and current and potential solutions. Modern technology allows for a variety of problem-solving techniques and devices that mitigate or even prevent drastic consequences. However, the frequency of accidents as a result of weather events is diminishing at a slow pace and requires further intervention to assure the safety of personnel and passengers.

Primary Hazards and Impact on Aviation

Though thunderstorms and related phenomena may limit flights, they are more hazardous to aircraft already in the air. Thunderstorms have the potential to cause turbulence, wind shear, hail, and heavy rain, which is likely to destroy an aircraft depending on the severity of the meteorological features. Hailstones, usually those of larger size, can cause damage to the aircrafts skin which has an impact on the aerodynamics of the plane (Spiridonov & uri, 2020). Severe hail is able to damage propeller and engine blades or block inlets and deposit fragments in air intakes. Taxiways and runways are capable of becoming dangerously slippery by hail, showers, and other water-related meteorological phenomena. In especially harsh conditions, funnel clouds may contribute to the formation of water spouts or tornadoes.

The aforementioned occurrences greatly contribute to accidents and tragedies that take place in aviation. According to a study that observed data from the National Transportation Safety Board, or the NTSB, and the Aviation Safety Reporting System, of the 17,325 accidents yielded by the NTSB, 1,382 were weather-related (Long, 2022). As seen in Figure 1, maneuvering and en route were the two phases of flight that had the highest mortality rates throughout the investigation (Long, 2022). En route led to the phase with the highest number of weather-related incidents. The aforementioned data depicts that while safety trends are improving globally, aviation continues to suffer hazards and losses due to a lack of adequate resources, preventions, or responses due to meteorological phenomena. With certain phenomena being more common than others, the hazard of potential harm to aviation operations can only be avoided through effective prevention and mitigation strategies.

Current Strategies for Mitigation

Modern tactics and resources that aim to reduce hazards of weather and meteorological phenomena in aviation are usually defined either by actions of mitigation or prevention. Mitigation strategies are more frequently utilized and have been in place in many forms of aviation for prolonged periods of time. The current tactics include closed cabins with pressurization, lighting that allows for flight in reduced visibility, and pneumatic boots and heated leading edges that allow for de-icing of dispensers which contribute to ice removal and prevention on wings, tails, inlets, propellers, and other vital surfaces (Yamazaki et al., 2021). Electrical hardening and covers also contribute to reduced damage in the case of lightning strikes.

Anti-lock braking structures and thrust reversers also prevent potentially dangerous skidding on runways that are slick. Crosswind landing gear assures the safety of the aircraft when landing in crosswind conditions and gust alleviation systems limit the motions and turbulence experienced by the airplane (Chen et al., 2019). Wind shear detection systems allow for a safe escape from wind shear encounters. Mitigation strategies may appear to be similar to prevention tactics but vary in their execution. Essentially, mitigation strategies do not avoid or completely cease potential damage to an aircraft but work to incur as little damage as possible and reduce the risk of compromising passenger, staff, and pilot safety.

Current Strategies for Prevention

Prevention strategies focus on the identification of possible or incoming issues and work to completely avoid potential harm. Currently, these include heating and cooling systems that allow aircraft to fly above adverse weather, gyroscopic devices and tools that allow for improved flight in poor visibility, and weather radars that detect and illustrate the intensity of occurring or oncoming conditions. There is also a complex and diverse issue of human factors and the change in the effectiveness of the currently existing equipment and systems. Mitigation processes are often prone to extensive human error and therefore suggest a variety of variables that are present in aviation accidents (Johnson et al., 2019). Similarly, autopilots and auto-throttles function in order to maintain flight paths,s and airport lighting works to signal and outline surface markings to assure correct navigation even at night. Instrument landing systems that uphold precision and guidance even in situations with low visibility and advanced and synthetic viewing systems that improve situational awareness during landing are integral to safety. Aircrafts also possess lighting detection devices that allow pilots to spot the origins of lightning discharges and turbulence-mode radars that can identify convectively-induced turbulence as far as twenty miles ahead of an aircraft.

Modern equipment and strategies are successful in the reduction of many risks that are posed to aviation in terms of meteorological and weather phenomena. However, accidents and incidents continue to occur and cause damage and the loss of lives. As mentioned above, many of these are results of the aircrafts control during maneuvering and en route phases. In order to better understand the current gap in preventive and mitigating measures, it is essential to contrast existing policies and safety measures that are in theoretical or experimental phases.

Investigation into Novel Risk Management Measures

Research and development are vital in maintaining the continuous improvements to safety in aviation in regards to weather and meteorological factors. As such, five areas are of particular importance to any future and ongoing research. These are observation, forecast, dissemination, integration, and mitigation according to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Stough, n.d.). Mitigation is the primary component of any future change and current assessments focus on six areas which are turbulence, icing, obstacles to visibility, wake vortices, space weather, and atmospheric particulates. Measures that focus on control systems and the identification of turbulence have been cited to be more effective in informing other preventative measures (Wang et al., 2019). This can suggest that future designs of passenger and cargo airplanes require aircraft responses that prioritize alleviation.

Issues in propulsion, aerodynamics and control capabilities are usually adversely affected by issues in de-icing. Currently, enhanced vision systems are used throughout certain commercial and business sectors in aviation but present a greater potential, especially for terminal and ground tasks (Hecker et al., 2020). This is because they offer substantial benefits such as runway identification when approaching and taxiway identification for ground operations. However, there are still difficulties as real-time verification lacks accuracy and reliability in its current form.

Wake encounters have the potential to be detrimental to aviation operations, and as such, advanced configuration and control systems that reduce the impact of wake turbulence or introduce safe recovery have the potential to be instrumental in overall safer travel. Electromagnetic radiation or charged particles have the potential to cause issues for navigation systems. The current scope of space weather mitigation does not enable the use of higher altitudes, and therefore avoidance of poor weather, and the polar routes (Gultepe et al., 2019). Aircraft engines are likely to be frequently ruined by atmospheric particulates such as heavy rain, dust, sand, volcanic ash, or frozen precipitation. Preventive measures are currently lacking and do not effectively address the issue of avoiding damage from particulates. There are fundamental areas affected by meteorological events that either fail to utilize existing technology in the most efficient manner or have yet to introduce novel measures of prevention.

Conclusion

In this work, the primary issues associated with meteorological events were observed and thunderstorms and hail have been identified as especially detrimental. The following paper presented that advanced technology such as synthetic vision systems or improved de-icing measures should expand into all sectors of aviation. Current obstacles may include the cost of efficiently utilizing available technology. It is recommended that governmental authorities should consider pivoting focus to adapting greater safety measures and research into more efficient production of necessary utilities. The concern of human error in combination with weather-oriented mitigation equipment does not have a clear answer but does indicate that improved automation may be beneficial.

Maneuvering and en route errors are not moderated by available systems that focus on the identification of turbulence, wind shear, and electromagnetic radiation. Recommendations include further development in order to provide improved safety during phases of flights that make the crew and passengers especially vulnerable to potential errors. Improved training is essential in facilitating the progressive growth of employees along with the leaps in technology. The current body of work suggests that steady improvement is likely to continue as technology develops and becomes more efficient and less costly. Future endeavors must prioritize safety measures that contribute to the prevention of common weather-related accidents and incidents.

References

Arazny, A. & Aaszyca, E. (2020). Selected meteorological phenomena posing a hazard to aviation: a case study on Bydgoszcz airport, central Poland. Bulletin of Geography, 18(1), 61-71. Web.

Chen, Q., Wang, Z., Wan, J., Fen, T., Chen, P., Wang, C., & Zhang, C. (Eds.). (2019). Design of a turbulence prevention system based on ATG. IEEE. Web.

Gultepe, I., Sharman, R., Williams, P. D., Zhou, B., Ellrod, G., Minnis, P., Trier, S., Griffin, S., Yum, S. S., Feltz, W., Temimi, M., Pu, Z., Storer, L. N., Kneringer, P., Weston, M. J., Chuang, H., Thobois, L., Dimri, A. P., Dietz, S. J., Franca, B., Almeida, M.V., & Neto, F. L. (2019). A review of high impact weather for aviation meteorology. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 176(1), 1869-1921. Web.

Hecker, P., Angermann, M., Bestmann, U., Dekiert, A., Wolkow, S. (2020). Optical aircraft positioning for monitoring of the integrated navigation system during landing approach. Gyroscopy and Navigation, 10(1), 216-230. Web.

Johnson, I., Blickensderfer, B., Whitehurst, G., Brown, L. J., Ahlstorm, U., & Johnson, M. E. (2019). Weather hazards in general aviation: Human factors research to understand and mitigate the problem. 20th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, 421-425. Web.

Long, T. (2022). Analysis of weather-related accident and incident data associated with section 14 CFR part 91 operations. Collegiate Aviation Review International, 40(1), 25-39. Web.

Spiridonov, V. & uri, M. (2020). Meteorological hazards. In V. Spiridonov & M. uri (Ed.), Fundamentals of meteorology (pp. 303-314). Springer.

Stough, P. (n.d.). Aircraft weather mitigation for the next generation art transportation system. NASA. Web.

Yamazaki, M., Jemcov, A., Sakaue, H. (2021). A review on the current status of icing physics and mitigation in aviation. Aerospace, 8(7). Web.

Wang, Y., Wang, C., Sun, W., & Liu, X. (2019). Study on the training of risk prevention and control ability of flight trainees. 1st International Education Technology and Research Conference. Web.

Introduction

Regarding business operations and using current and emerging technology, the aviation sector has some distinct hurdles compared to other sectors. This is due to several factors, including past interactions between major airlines and governments, sector regulations, regulatory challenges, and safety concerns. This means that the promise of strategic undertakings is frequently underutilized. Furthermore, organizations that struggle to change, such as airlines, are often plagued with delayed transitions and increasing expenses. For example, airline X unveiled the outlines of a massive cost-cutting initiative in March 2021 and has yet to show the ability or culture to carry out its plan successfully one year later. Customers have been adversely affected, and expenditures have risen due to repeated strikes by disgruntled personnel. This suggests that, as the rate of change accelerates, airlines change capacity will become a more important prerequisite for long-term success.

Problem: Resistance to Change in Aviation

Airline X has been operating in major European markets for over 40 years. The corporation realized in 2021 that it needed to implement significant operational improvements to stay competitive in its industry. Notably, new airlines have emerged with more cost-effective and fuel-efficient fleets. Thus, the company believed implementing the proposed modifications would embrace fresh concepts that would boost its expansion. The changes were intended to promote acquiring new technology, customers, and staff. This would allow the firm to establish a competitive edge and strengthen its performance in the aviation sector. However, most changes have failed, and many stakeholders have opposed their adoption. Undoubtedly, this underscores the need to explore the possible causes of change management failure at Airline X.

Research Literature

The era of one significant organizational change every ten years is long gone. Today, businesses must be more flexible, responsive, and fast to change due to globalization and increased competition. Firms must be willing to adapt quickly and frequently to survive in todays financial world (Schoemaker et al., 2018). Hence, economic shocks, challenges with wealth creation, inflation, and sociopolitical and technological conditions are the most common external factors prompting the deployment of change management teams. However, as a McKinsey report illustrates, not all companies are built with the fortitude necessary to remain at the top (Bughin et al., 2018). The rate of change, complexity, interdependence, and interdisciplinary nature of todays businesses is unprecedented. Furthermore, stability is a myth and a non-linear process that seems to accelerate with time.

Conversely, specific adjustments, such as deploying a new software suite, can be modest. In contrast, most change management initiatives have a significant history, such as reorienting an entire marketing approach, stopping a predatory acquisition, or restructuring a firm in response to relentless global competitors (Smith et al., 2020). Executing change at different levels enables an organization to realize its strategic goal and thrive in the modern business environment. Thus, integrating change management enables firms to generate returns for each change more effectively. Additionally, it may support the development of competencies that increase the organizations ability to manage more changes concurrently.

The procedures, employment responsibilities, organizational frameworks, and types and applications of technology within a business frequently need to be adjusted when new initiatives or projects are launched. Often, such undertakings aim to improve performance, seize opportunities, or address critical challenges. It is crucial to manage and oversee these transitions inside the company effectively. This explains why the phrase change management is increasingly popular and entrenched in the contemporary corporate world. Change management is a systematic approach to dealing with change both from the perspective of an organization and the individual (Finlayson, 2022, p. 95). This definition is inadequate because it fails to consider some of the critical facets of change management: planning for the change, implementing the change, and measuring the success of the change. Each one relies on taking the initiative to adapt to changing circumstances. Therefore, to cope with changes in the corporate world, a firm must create and adopt new processes or technology. The objective is to take advantage of these possibilities faster while improving them.

Analysis of Problem

Many reasons can explain resistance to change. Three factors have been recognized as sources of resistance: distrust, inadequate communication, and anxiety over the unknown (Smith et al., 2020). Resistance will be inevitable due to uncertainty if the intended adjustments are executed without notifying the stakeholders of their advantages and disadvantages. Stakeholder opposition to the proposed changes might also stem from distrust. For instance, any process changes would face fierce opposition if they are forced by supervisors who employees do not trust. A lack of clarity in the desired changes could similarly meet resistance from those affected. Before implementing the reforms, all workers must be informed of the reasons, significance, and possible impacts (Smith et al., 2020). In addition, personnel must be allowed to share their thoughts on the upcoming changes. If effective communication is not implemented in advance, resistance to the changes is likely to occur.

Possible Sources of Change Plan Resistance

The three likely sources of the stated resistance are Airline Xs personnel, executive team, and stakeholders. The employees will resist the proposed adjustments if the administration does not clarify their potential consequences. Conceivably, the staff will oppose the reforms out of concern for the uncertainty. Additionally, if the airlines middle management and supervisors are not briefed on the advantages and implications of the changes, they may resist them. Therefore, they must be incorporated into decision-making before implementing any changes (Smith et al., 2020). Lastly, potential opponents of Airline Xs planned change may include the airlines shareholders. Investors may decide not to support the changes if they have limited information regarding how those benefits would accrue to their portfolios.

Problem Solution

Those overseeing the change initiatives at Airline X should be quick, use a good communication approach, gauge the workers preparedness for change, and identify any possible opposition. The top management can determine when and how the changes will be implemented by assessing the companys preparedness for change. This way, they can get the word out about the planned changes when necessary. For example, by adopting an efficient communication plan, the airlines CEO can proactively discuss the advantages and consequences of the imminent changes with staff and stakeholders (Amarantou et al., 2018). Such a plan may involve emailing everyone in advance or calling regular meetings to update the staff on the proposed changes and how they will be implemented. In those meetings, the management will have the opportunity to solicit input from staff and other stakeholders on potential solutions that might help with the successful implementation of the reforms. Furthermore, if all individuals are involved in organizational change, they will appreciate and accept the rationale behind the intended reforms. By participating, employees will experience a feeling of responsibility and ownership for specific elements of the change proposal and become advocates for the suggested amendments.

Recommendations and Possible Benefits

Upon initiating the imminent adjustments, airline X must establish measures to maintain them. To accomplish the abovementioned, the organization must foster a commitment to its mission and evaluate and reinforce the transition throughout its design stage. Building enthusiasm should be a deliberate purpose included in any approach (Smith et al., 2020). If the CEO lacked motivation for the improvement, the staff would similarly lack interest in the changes. For this reason, the group tasked with overseeing the changes execution must inspire enthusiasm for the adjustments among all parties involved. The management can ensure its success by regularly reviewing and updating the change plan (Smith et al., 2020). This approach ensures that the newly implemented system is regularly monitored and assessed. Accordingly, violations will be identified and corrected to ensure that the airlines operations are not affected in the future.

Conclusion

In the last several decades, senior executives at airline companies could make long-term plans and execute them without worrying about needing to make any changes. The twenty-first century provides a different viewpoint: Markets in constant flux, globalization, shifting government regulations, new technology, rising consumer demands, and more. The above inevitably leads to the conclusion that strategic management is highly challenging and crucial over time, necessitating commensurate business changes. This discussion emphasizes the steps in change management, particularly how they occur in the aviation industry and why resistance is unavoidable. To help businesses in the aviation sector overcome opposition and take advantage of innovative solutions to challenging change scenarios, it establishes a model for executing change while limiting process obstacles.

References

Amarantou, V., Kazakopoulou, S., Chatzoudes, D., & Chatzoglou, P. (2018). Resistance to change: An empirical investigation of its antecedents. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 31(2), 426450.

Bughin, J., Catlin, T., Hirt, M., & Willmott, P. (2018). Why digital strategies fail. McKinsey & Company. Web.

Finlayson, H. (2022). When things happen at work (revised): People, circumstances, and what to do now  A practitioners best practices compendium. FriesenPress.

Schoemaker, P. J., Heaton, S., & Teece, D. (2018). Innovation, dynamic capabilities, and leadership. California Management Review, 61(1), 15-42.

Smith, A. C., Skinner, J., & Read, D. (2020). Philosophies of organizational change: Perspectives, models and theories for managing change. Edward Elgar Publishing.

Introduction

In the 1930s, it became obvious that the conventional type of aircraft with a piston engine and propeller approached the limit of its capabilities. The aircraft, which existed in that form for almost half a century, exhausted itself in the sense of the possibility of further progress. The desire to increase the speed and altitude of flights forced scientists and designers to look intensively for new ways to develop aviation. As a result, through the experiments and efforts of many aircraft manufacturers, the era of jet aviation began, which made a genuine technical revolution. The worlds first passenger jet aircraft appeared only in the middle of the last century, when the development of aviation continued actively, although the first jet fuel engine was successfully tested back in the 1930s (Millbrooke 38). Due to World War II, particular attention was paid primarily to military aircraft, and after the war ended, engineers began to construct passenger liners. The advent of the jet engine in civil aviation marked the transition to faster and more convenient passenger transportation, thus ushering in a new era in the aircraft industry.

Prerequisites for the Development of the Jet Engine

The many unresolved issues in the use of the steam engine marked the need for more technically efficient solutions, which eventually led to the advent of the jet engine. Obsolete liners could not fly at high altitudes and were characterized by a relatively low speed of movement, which was not only unsafe but also unprofitable (Millbrooke 74). Interest in the idea of a jet aircraft arose largely due to the fact that the thrust of such an engine was independent of flight altitude. In this regard, the first practical work on the creation of new constructions, which began in Germany in the late 1920s, was considered a step toward stratospheric aviation (Decher 36). However, rocket engines whose experimental flight models already existed in the 1930s were uneconomical and had an extremely short duration of operation for use on civil aircraft (Decher 49). Therefore, the most suitable type of power plant seemed to be an air-jet engine, which, despite the first unsuccessful attempts at testing, closely entered the civil aviation industry. Thus, the aspects of economy, safety, and performance were the key drivers for developing new types of engines.

Better Fuel Consumption Outlook

When speaking about the aspect of ecology, traditional steam engines running on combusted fuel caused enormous harm to the environment. Although the issue of climate change did not fascinate humanity at that time, the awareness of the damage caused was one of the incentives for the development of a new design. Modern jet aircraft use renewable energy sources, which is effective not only from an economic standpoint but also from the perspective of reducing the harmful impact on the environment (Yakovlieva et al. 231). Kroyan et al. opined that jet fuel, especially its early alternatives, was characterized by high viscosity, which negatively affected performance due to poor atomization (7). Nevertheless, even those developments proved to be more efficient than the obsolete mechanisms of using engines operating on the principle of the internal combustion. Particular attention to fuel safety began to be paid in the 1970s when projects were approved for the development of more environmentally friendly and less noisy jet engines (Decher 158). Those solutions marked the emergence of aircraft that were characterized by high speed, the ability to fly high, and significantly less environmental damage, which were real achievements.

Political Incentives for the Transition to Jet Engines

Along with technical, economic, and environmental aspects, political incentives were also critical in the move toward jet engine development. Bednarek considers the second half of the 20th century, namely the period of the Cold War, and notes the technological race between the USA and the USSR, which determined the emergence of many scientific developments (584). The energy sector today is closely associated with geopolitical nuances and the distribution of influence of individual states in the international arena. In this regard, the development of alternative fuel production mechanisms is a tool for achieving political advantage through the optimization of national aviation sectors (Yakovlieva et al. 232). At the same time, modern opportunities offer more flexible ways of development. In the 1970s-1980s, political determinants were decisive in the development of the airline industry because tensions between superpowers called for caution (Bednarek 534). Today, economic factors weigh more heavily in determining the potential of national aviation sectors. Therefore, the widespread use of jet engines in civil aviation at the present stage is a consequence of a market economy in which making a profit and addressing customer needs are more important than interstate competition.

Conclusion

The transition to a new era in civil aviation with faster and more convenient air travel was largely due to the introduction of a jet engine in the production of aircraft. Outdated steam engines could not cope with the growing demand and, in addition, caused great damage to the environment. Jet engines have higher technical characteristics and are less harmful. Their mass development was largely due to political tensions in the second half of the 20th century. Today, the massive demand for air travel and the need to achieve a competitive advantage from an economic perspective are the main drivers of jet aircraft production.

Works Cited

Bednarek, Janet R. Daly. Civil Aviation and the Globalization of the Cold War by Peter Svik. Technology and Culture, vol. 63, no. 2, 2022, pp. 583-585.

Decher, Reiner. Powering the Worlds Airliners: Engine Developments from the Propeller to the Jet Age. Air World, 2020.

Kroyan, Yuri, et al. Modeling the Impact of Sustainable Aviation Fuel Properties on End-Use Performance and Emissions in Aircraft Jet Engines. Energy, vol. 255, 2022, pp. 1-17.

Millbrooke, Anne. Aviation History. Jeppesen, 2006.

Yakovlieva, Anna, et al. Evaluation of Jet Engine Operation Parameters Using Conventional and Alternative Jet Fuels. International Journal of Sustainable Aviation, vol. 5, no. 3, 2019, pp. 230-248.

Introduction

The Federal Aviation Administration is an important organization in the aviation industry. It has always played a critical role in aviation regulation and control of the air safety. This essay provides a brief history of aviation as it appeared earlier than the Federal Aviation Administration. Knowledge of the aviation history will help to understand its origins and the background of this institutions development. Moreover, the history of the Federal Aviation Administration is described to discover the chronology of its appearance.

Reasons for the establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration

The flying history began a long time ago. People always had the intention to learn how to fly. Even the legends were told about this phenomenon during the ancient times (Brady, 2000). Before the invention of the first plane model, people used to utilize hydrogen gas balloons (Petreschu & Petreschu, 2013).

Wrights were recognized as the first creators of the plane (Hallion, 2003). They were smart photo-engineers, who were working on the details and continuously revising the blueprints (Hallion, 2003). These facts helped them to create the first flying plane. Meanwhile Wrights demonstrated the plane, European pilots were already making flights (Hallion, 2003).

Although, it has to be mentioned that Wrights impact on the aerial age was not to establish another plane but to improve the flying techniques. As Europe was developing faster than the United States of America, it was using the planes during the First World War (Hallion, 2003). After that, the development of the flying machines continued as people had a desire to decrease the time required for the transportation. Another important aspect was to boost safety as flying involved high risk.

Soon it became a vital part of the life. Planes were widely used, especially, during the war times. Although, during these times, the planes were still considered dangerous (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). Pilots needed to fly as low as possible to navigate in the air and understand the locations (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).

However, low flying could not exist for the long period as many accidents happened (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It was necessary to launch the first airlines to start the flying business. The primary air traffic control was established to increase safety (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).

The attempt was primitive as people were standing on the runways and showing signals to the planes (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). Another important factor had the influence on the establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration. It was the growing demand for the air travel (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It occurred that more people started considering traveling by air as it was beneficial.

All these aspects are the crucial reasons for the Federal Aviation Administrations origin. It was necessary to make the flying process organized since it still seemed dangerous and chaotic. Systemization of the takeoffs, landings and flights is the essential part of the traffic control procedures today. Nevertheless, it was not on the same level of development in the past that is why the Federal Aviation Administration was established.

The History of the Federal Aviation Administration

After the first airlines had been introduced, it was necessary to establish the federal institution, which would control the safety regulations of the flights (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It was clear that it was not possible to gain a market share without the federal support. As the importance of the airline industry was growing, more air traffic control centers were being established (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It helped to increase the safety and allowed to make flights to the diverse destinations.

The federal aviation continued evolving as President Franklin Roosevelt decided to establish the independent Civil Aeronautics Authority (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015, para. 7). It increased the level of control of the federal aviation, as it supervised the majority of the flights. However, the accidents still occurred as not all of the air space was covered by the air traffic control towers.

The Civil Aeronautics Authority was transformed into the Federal Aviation Agency in 1958 (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). As the number of employees was growing, it was not possible to locate all of them in one building. It was the main reason for the agencys relocation to the Federal Office Building (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).

It could be said that these facts implied that the institution was gaining importance on the national level. As the air traffic was developing, it was essential to create a new agency, which would be fully responsible for the aviation safety.

President Johnson was the key person who was responsible for the transformation of the agency into administration (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It was necessary to give extra duties to the administration, as it seemed that there was a lack of safety (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). The high level of the required safety was a vital reason for the creation of the Federal Aviation Administration. Furthermore, it was critical to organize the transportation and avoid accidents and complications.

The Role of the Federal Aviation Administration Today

Today the Federal Aviation Administrations has the same attitudes regarding the safety regulations and organization of the transportation as it had before (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). Nonetheless, it is strict about the aircraft safety and certifications (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).

It pays close attention to the air traffic control and the organization of the flights (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). Additionally, the Federal Aviation Administration performs its duties on the international level (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). The key reason for this matter is the globalization (Oum, Park, & Zhang, 2000). As people have a tendency to travel around the world in case of business and vacation, it is necessary to have international air traffic control.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it could be said that the aviation is rapidly developing. It is a constant process as it continues today. People always have a tendency to search for solutions and innovations in different industries, and aviation is one of them. The history of aviation provided a better understanding of the origins of aviation control. Safety was one of the main reasons why the Federal Aviation Administration was established.

Before its presence, the landings and take-offs were controlled physically as no mechanical systems were involved in the process. People used to stay on the runways and provide the required signals to the landing plane. Nowadays, the air traffic control is highly automated.

Nonetheless, the accidents still take place, but the amount of them is dramatically lower as it was in the past. Today the Federal Aviation Administration performs similar duties as in the past. Nevertheless, they are focused internationally and pay even closer attention to the safety regulations.

References

Brady, T. (2000). The American aviation experience: A history. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Federal Aviation Administration. (2015). History.

Hallion, R. (2003). Taking flight: Inventing the aerial age from antiquity to First World War. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Oum, T., Park, J., & Zhang, A. (2000). Globalization of strategic alliances: the case of the airline industry. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishing Company, Inc.

Petreschu, R., & Petreschu, F. (2013). The aviation history. Norderstedt, Germany: Books on Demand.

Introduction

In the last several decades, aviation has experienced a significant number of challenges that arose because of its strategic importance for the modern world. As an integral part of the international discourse and relations, air transportation becomes the primary target for malefactors and terrorist groups trying to destabilise the situation and spread panic by introducing multiple security concerns and causing severe harm, including victims among the passengers and population. For this reason, there is a corresponding growth in the sphere of security to be able to resist all dangers and provide appropriate responses to emerging issues to guarantee safety to all individuals.

Unfortunately, there is a tendency towards a constant appearance of new threats to civil aviation and their diversification regarding the war against terrorism and its forms. Today, developed security systems are expected to eliminate the majority of existing loopholes and protect aviation from the outsider attacks. However, there are still multiple concerns that should be considered, and insider threat should be taken as the most dangerous of them because of the improved knowledge of prevention measures and how they can be avoided.

Background

One of the factors preconditioning the high relevance of the given issue is the increased sophistication and effectiveness of existing security measures that are employed by civil aviation. The combined efforts of various regulatory agencies such as IATA and ICAO and the cooperation with governments contributed to the creation of a practical approach to managing all known hazards, minimising risks, and preventing terrorist acts (ICAO 2018).

The correct understanding of the nature of vulnerabilities, methods utilised by terrorists, and other problematic issues contributes to the creation of a knowledge base and framework that is used to design innovative security systems deprived of serious drawbacks and protected from outside attacks (Coles-Kemp & Theoharidou 2010). That is why malefactors look for new methods to bypass all countermeasures and damage civil aviation.

Under these conditions, an insider threat acquires the top priority as it is one of the possible ways to destroy barriers from inside and create new loopholes offering opportunities for attackers. The importance of the given problem is evidenced by the fact that it is recognised by the IATA and ICAO and other authorities that provide guidelines for the minimisation of these risks and the creation of appropriate strategies to resist them.

Current Security Systems

The existing security systems are centred around the necessity to resist attacks that come outside the aviation sector. It means that their effectiveness in dealing with external risks remains high due to the sufficient work of all its components and elements of the framework. However, the adherence to the given model means that a loophole or flaw can be created if some of its parts work inappropriately, or there is an intentional use of specific information to provide an opportunity for attack (Siao 2017).

The absence of a systemic approach to dealing with this sort of risk and responding to them can become one of the greatest problems for air travel as it leaves a chance for the destruction of any protection (Coles-Kemp & Theoharidou 2010). Moreover, the improved understanding of how modern systems work can contribute to the creation of new ways to minimise their effectiveness and damage critical areas (Siao 2017). That is why there is an essential need for addressing this question and its discussion.

Problem of Insiders

There are multiple approaches and definitions of the insider threat and its nature. In general, it can be described as the existence of one or a group of individuals who possess or have access to insider knowledge that can be used to exploit vulnerabilities of the current security systems with the primary goal to cause severe damage (Bean 2017). The given problem firstly appeared in the late 80s with the first attempts to sabotage aircraft and transformed into one of the growing concerns with the tendency to rapid self-radicalisation that is observed in many states today (Cole & Ring 2006).

One of the difficulties associated with this question is that there is a variety of forms that can be peculiar to insider threats, and there is a need to consider this diversity (Bean 2017). Malefactors can share data crucial for the effective work of the protection system, corrupt information systems, smuggle goods or people, outline all existing loopholes or enter terrorist groups to help them perform violent actions aimed at the destabilisation of the situation (Bean 2017). The broad scope of the issue shows the necessity for appropriate interventions to avoid the deterioration of the situation and help aviation to survive and resist attacks.

Associations with Terrorism

Another serious problem of insider threat is its association with terrorist groups. Because of the complexity of security systems mentioned above, and their effectiveness, malefactors change their tactics and start to analyse objects that are selected as the aim for new attacks. The data collection presupposes the use of their own agents who often work in airlines and have access to essential data that can be employed to find or create a loophole that can be later used for various purposes (Probst et al., 2010).

That is why IATA (2018) aims at the creation of increased awareness among companies, partners, and authorities about the insider threat to engage in cooperation and create a framework that can help to eliminate potentially problematic areas. Moreover, due to the diversification of methods used by insiders and the use of innovative technologies to corrupt the work of the sector, an appropriate change in the approach to cybersecurity should also be aligned to ensure the positive outcomes and guarantee the high level of protection to all stakeholders.

Types of Insiders and Misuse

The in-depth analysis of the problem also shows that there are various types of insiders, which is critical for the ability to introduce appropriate responses and eliminate a potential threat. Differences among this cohort include the physical and logical presence, as there can be malefactors working in different environments (Neman 2010). Moreover, there are various degrees of insiders regarding the level of their access, the information available to them, and their role in the company (Neman 2010).

In such a way, the ability to work with essential data portions or impact decision making creates the basis for the appearance of multiple chances to intervene with the work of systems and corrupt them (Neman 2010). Both categories of malefactors possess an opportunity to cause severe harm to the company and make it vulnerable to terrorist attacks. For example, a multi-level security system can be bypassed by using insider data available both for logically or physically present malefactors (Neman 2010). It means that there are no effective measures to resist attacks if the company disregards the given sort of threat and avoids additional security measures.

Additionally, there are different types of insider misuse, such as intentional and accidental ones. Although both these forms are dangerous for airlines, more attention should be given to the first one as it poses a serious threat to existing security systems. The occurrence of accidental insider threats can be explained by the human factor and mistakes that can be found in the work of any specialist because of such factors as tiredness, low motivation, stress (Neman 2010). However, the intentional insider misuse indicates the existence of the desire to cause serious harm to the company or passengers either by providing information to third parties or by using it on his/her own (Neman 2010).

In some cases, it can be hidden or concealed by emphasising its accidental nature, which can help to reveal existing vulnerabilities and how companies cope with them to find the most effective way to use the current loopholes. In such a way, the significance of the given problem comes from its scope, the existence of various forms, and challenges in detecting the source of maleficent actions if it comes from employees who possess critical information or access to it.

IATAs Recommendations

That is why, similar to USTSA, IATA also considers insiders one of the greatest threats to modern aviation. The agency emphasises the fact that the productive and successful work of any security system is possible only if all vulnerabilities are considered, including internal and external ones (IATA 2018). For this reason, IATA cooperates with international companies, airlines, and governances to create guidelines that can be offered to all actors in the civil aviation sector to minimise possible threat and eliminate loopholes that can be used by malefactors. The current objectives offered by IATA to create an insider risk-based approach presuppose:

• Provide assistance in developing the paradigm to all member airlines
• Provide guidance on the proactive approach to address this sort of threats (IATA 2018)

These are the core activities that should be given specific attention to ensure that there is a framework characterised by the decreased risk of insider threat. Moreover, IATA also introduces the basic principles that should be taken into account when establishing a framework for the effective management of the problem. They include

• Focus on security outcomes
• Devoted attention on security measures under the influence of the operator
• Outline all current operator responsibilities
• Implement the insider risk management in the security system
• Offer a unified approach, strategy, roadmap, and methods to improve the systems resilience against emerging threats (IATA 2018).

The observation of the given principles is a fundamental demand for the modern security system, which is also focused on the consideration of various forms of insider threat and maleficent actions that can be performed by workers of companies with the purpose of deteriorating the work of the framework.

Policy for Insider Risk Management

The policy for the sufficient work with this sort of risk and mitigation of its negative impact on the aviation sector presupposes that the primary source for the appearance of the given threat should be eliminated. In other words, the more productive work with staff should become one of the most important activities of recruiting specialists (IATA 2018). Moreover, there is a need for the reconsideration of security systems with the primary goal to introduce measures that will help to determine any potentially dangerous activity performed by employees and report it.

Additionally, IATA (2018) acknowledges the significance of additional training for specialists responsible for the monitoring of the work of security systems for them to be able to work both with insider and traditional threats, recognised vulnerabilities, and provide appropriate responses. Under these conditions, the need for these elements shows the demand for the multi-layered protection system and approach to mitigate the risk of maleficent actions performed by workers who have access to essential data portions. The complexity of the proposed structure also proves the great scope of the discussed problem and the need for its consideration to achieve positive outcomes.

Pre-Employment Interventions

One of the fundamentals of the policy dealing with the insider threat is the introduction of effective employment practices. As it has already been stated, today, there is a practice presupposing the use of individuals who start working for airlines with the primary goal of acquiring access to critically important information and then give it to third parties or use to create loopholes (IATA 2018). One of the potential solutions to this problem is the prevention of the recruitment of a person who cannot provide information about his/her background or cannot meet the operators requirements (IATA 2018).

This data includes travel history, criminal records, employment history, identification profile, and financial status (IATA 2018). Consideration of these factors is critical when hiring a new worker with access to important elements of a security system as it helps to minimise the change of poor outcomes.

Moreover, the requirements should differ depending on the level of risk that a persons role might presuppose, his/her access to areas, decision-making activities, and strategical planning (IATA 2018). For this reason, comprehensive recruitment might also include cooperation with the governmental agencies to collect information about a person, his/her past, and general reliability (IATA 2018). This approach becomes one of the practical methods to minimise insider threat and guarantee that only loyal and skilled workers are hired.

Spot and Stop Measures

IATA also recommends to devote more attention to the development of measures that can be used by specialists to identify an insider at the first stages and prevent him/her from doing harm to airlines. For this reason, there are two useful options:

• SPOT measures. The strategy that presupposes the identification of behaviours, actions, or activities that can be potentially dangerous, or discovery of changes or suspicious behaviours that might help to find an insider and isolate him/her (IATA 2018).
• STOP measures. The method focused on the prevention of undesired or dangerous actions via the determent of an insider from exploiting his/her role for unauthorised processes (IATA 2018).

The effectiveness of these approaches rests on the idea that any person might become an insider because of the changing circumstances or new factors impacting his/her life. Personal crises, the need for money, or other motifs can be used by the third parties to recruit a specialist and acquire access to protected data or areas.

That is why for security specialists or managers, it is critical to monitor employees behaviours and note any changes that occur. IATA (2018) offers the most common factors that might cause personal problems such as financial difficulties, pressure from peers, family issues, and perceptions of unfairness at work. These factors can be used to identify an insider by management and personnel via the supervision and teamwork. In collectives with the high level of cooperation, the risk of insider threat is much lower if to compare with other groups (IATA 2018). For this reason, SPOT practice can be an effective measure to deal with the outlined problem.

The STOP measures can be employed to support SPOT methods to prevent the development of a critical situation. It rests on the effectiveness of reporting practice and if it can be used for whistleblowing on strange behaviour or unusual moods. The combination of these two measures can help to prevent malefactors from causing harm to the company and avoid the emergence of vulnerabilities, which is one of the main goals of any security system.

Awareness of the Staff

The complexity of the current challenges presupposes that the most effective response can be achieved only by the collaborative effort of all actors engaged in the process. For this reason, the involvement of staff members in activities to resist insider threat is essential for the creation of a safe environment. The awareness of the existing problem among the senior management and the collective help them to acquire models of behaviour, skills, and competencies required to detect any suspicious activity and report it to ensure that the security system remains protected (IATA 2018).

For teams working in airports or airlines, attentiveness for the environment and changes is fundamental against the insider threat as it contributes to the appearance of another protection level. That is why managers should focus on the knowledge generation related to the issue via the provision of demanded training for staff members who play key roles in the existing environment (IATA 2018). Their ability to determine problematic areas, note changes in colleagues moods and behaviours, and communicate should become an integral element of the contemporary security culture.

Granted Access

Another possible way to solve the problem of insider threat and minimise the risk of incidents is the reconsideration of the approach to granting access to workers. At the moment, the work of any airline company presupposes the existence of a high number of employees who have an opportunity to interfere with some essential processes or process data that is vital for the effective work of security systems. From one hand, it helps the company to spend less time and function faster by involving numerous persons in all processes; however, from another, it creates the basis for the emergence of loopholes in security systems and possible incidents.

The practice of granted access is one of the strategies offered by IATA (2018) to minimise the risk of insider threat. Only experienced workers who are examined for their loyalty to a company and have an appropriate background should be provided with access to core elements of security systems. It will help to improve the current situation and protect airlines from attacks.

Training

Finally, all international agencies working in the sphere of aviation and creating guidelines for the effective work of the sector consider training a core component of the modern response to insider threat. As stated above, the creation of specific awareness helps to avoid misunderstandings and engage employees in struggling against the insider threat. At the same time, there are different levels of training that should be offered to managers and operators regarding of the position they hold and their role in the work of the security system (IATA 2018). The provision of knowledge about how modern approaches function can help them to recognise the significance of the issue and become elements of a certain proactive method detecting any alterations and providing the in-time response.

For this reason, there is a critical need for special courses aimed at the explanation of the existing risks and ways to manage them. It will be an effective measure to struggle against the insider threat and cooperate to attain improved outcomes.

Response

Dealing with the outlined problem, it is also critical to provide the in-time and appropriate response that will help to find the vulnerability in a security system and eliminate it. That is why IATA (2018) recommends immediate and robust reactions created in accordance with relevant safety and security standards. Because of the existence of multiple scenarios and options, at the very first stages of the possibility of non-intentional infringement of rules should be accepted. However, there is still some level of concern and risk, which means that measures should be applied when the first signs of any possible intervention are detected (IATA 2018).

The response should include the determination of the primary reason for the appearance of a risk and if it should be addressed (IATA 2018). The results of these investigations should be used to inform an employee responsible for the emergence of a problem and select an appropriate punishment which might include termination of employment and even a trial (IATA 2018).

The existence of the given response practice is vital for operators to realise the fact that there is an effective system that will detect their inappropriate actions and all pieces of evidence of a criminal offence will be collected and reported to special authorities. This cooperation is another essential part of the response to insider threat as it helps to investigate all similar cases, find common motifs or organisations that might be responsible for hiring employees with the goal to organise acts of terror or introduce instability and chaos by damaging aircraft.

Conclusion

Altogether, insider threat remains one of the most significant threats to the modern civil aviation sphere. The existing security systems are focused on the effective management and mitigation of risks that come outside airlines, which means that they remain extremely vulnerable to maleficent actions performed by employees and resulting in the appearance of loopholes. The central risk is that these drawbacks in protection can be used by the third parties or terrorist groups with the primary goal to cause severe damage to airlines and passengers. For this reason, organisations such as ICAO and IATA provide their guidelines to address this problem and minimise risks associated with the insider threat.

These recommendations presuppose enhanced recruiting techniques, special staff checks, and an increase in the awareness levels to guarantee the early discovery of a potential threat. Unfortunately, the risk of insider threat is still high and remains one of the fundamental problems of modern aviation and should be considered when designing sufficient security systems.

Reference List

Bean, B 2017, Mitigating insider threats in the domestic aviation system: policy options for the Transportation Security Administration, Masters thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. Web.

Cole, E & Ring, S 2006, Insider threat: protecting the enterprise from sabotage, spying, and theft, Syngress Publishing, Inc., Rockland, MA.

Coles-Kemp, L & Theoharidou, M 2010, Insider threat and information security management, in C Probst, J Hunker, D Gollmann & M Bishop (eds), Insider threats in cybersecurity, Springer, London, pp. 45-70.

International Air Transport Association (IATA) 2018, Insider threat in civil aviation. Web.

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 2018, Insider threat awareness. Web.

Neman, P 2010, Combatting insider threats, in C Probst, J Hunker, D Gollmann & M Bishop (eds), Insider threats in cybersecurity, Springer, London, pp. 17-45.

Probst, C, Hunker, J, Gollmann, D & Bishop, M 2010, Aspects of insider threats, in C Probst, J Hunker, D Gollmann & M Bishop (eds), Insider threats in cybersecurity, Springer, London, pp. 1-17.

Siao, D 2017, The aviation insider threat: An assessment of vulnerabilities and countermeasures. Web.

Costs incurred in the warehousing of aviation and aerospace materials and parts include handling and storage charges, and operational and general administrative expenses. Handling costs are related to moving the materials either in or out of the warehouse. Storage expenses comprise all the costs associated with occupying a facility and are incurred whether the products such as engines or radars are moved. Operational expenses are overheads sustained to facilitate operations at the distribution center. General administrative costs include all the expenses not accrued for a particular distribution center, such as remunerations for nonoperating staff and general office expenses.

Each of the expenses associated with warehousing materials and parts linked to aviation or aerospace impacts overall operational productivity. The nature of material stored determines the rates charged for storage, for instance, items such as engines are enormous and require an ample space to safely store. Therefore, when looking for a facility to keep engines, airlines may have to look for big warehouses or pay more for the space occupied by the item. Additionally, some aviation items are sensitive and delicate and require special handling and storage hence attracting higher handling fees during warehousing. Further, aviation-specific storage can be expensive due to the bulkiness and high cost of the items to be kept, which translates to higher operations administration expenses as well as general administration costs.

The costs associated with warehousing aviation-specific items may cause trade-offs in decision-making among managers. Trade-offs involved may include the choice of warehousing location and the type of products to be stored. For efficiency, a warehouse should be located relatively close to the center of the airlines operations even if it may be costly compared to another potential location. Additionally, administrators must critically examine the type of aviation materials to store since the nature of items significantly impact the costs involved in storage and handling. Further, the business executive must make the most rational decision on the warehouse management system (WMS) to implement at the desired warehouse since it dramatically influences the operations efficiency.

In the aviation industry, most companies use rigid rather than non-rigid containers since they offer the most secure storage for products. Airlines primarily use rigid containers for this form of containerization since it offers excellent protection for both passenger and freight cargo. Further, the structure of the containers allows stacking hence making it possible to handle several small consignments of air cargo (Drljaca et al., 2020). Rigid containers can quickly and comfortably be loaded, offloaded and moved in and out of a storage facility without pilferage or causing any damage to the contents. In the aviation industry, rigid containers are skillfully made to match the cargo area within aircraft thus promoting maximum utilization of the available space. In some instances, non-rigid containers are used in the aviation industry, particularly where the objects to be moved have irregular shapes.

The cargo industry is changing and innovations are influencing the materials and packaging of items, including aircraft maintenance parts. In the future, there will be more airlines opting for new-age composite materials for storage. The products are strong, lightweight and low-cost and are more efficient compared to the conventional rigid containers (Rajak et al., 2019). The materials are produced sustainably and are set to transform the future of the packaging and handling industry. Innovative substances are undergoing research and their favorable characteristics will make them suitable for applications beyond the aviation industry.

References

Drljaca, M, Stimac, I, Vidovic, A, & Petar S. (2020). Sustainability of the air cargo handling process in the context of safety and environmental aspects. Journal of Advanced Transportation Volume, 1-13.

Rajak, K. D, Pagar, D. D, Kumar, R & Pruncu, I, C. (2019). Recent progress of reinforcement materials: a comprehensive overview of composite materials, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 8(6), 6354-6374.

The case filed by Celio Diaz Jr. in the court of appeal as the plaintiff versus Pan American World Airways on April 6^th, 1971 ushered in an era of equality on employment for prospective airline employees. Before this ruling, airlines had a hiring policy that ensured only female airline stewardess such as Terry Mason was hired for the job. Preferential treatment of women went against Title VII that required At Will employment of personnel. Previously, being female was treated as a bona fide occupation qualification (BFOQ) for employment as a flight attendant. As a result, male applicants such as Diaz suffered prejudice and were wrongfully disqualified.

The main findings of the appellate court established that Diaz and male applicants suffered discrimination. The first determination of the ruling was that employers and employees at will liberty to engage in a contract or quit at will with minimal legal implications. This ruling was in line with Section 703 of Title VII of the civil rights act of 1964 (Farnsworth, 2018). However, section 703 (a) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 puts a limitation to the extent to which an employer can apply Title VII. According to The Pennsylvania State University (August, 2021) Section 703 (a) (1) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, terms discrimination of employees based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin as unlawful and a violation of human rights. Therefore, the court of appeal was in agreement with Diaz that his rights as a male job applicant had been violated, and the airline had made selective application of the law by citing BFOQ as the guiding principle (Morgan, 2021). The jury further observed that due to cumulative years of discrimination against men for the job, there would be fewer successful male applicants for the job.

On the other hand, Terry Mason was pursuing her career as an airline stewardess having been preferred for the job as her gender resonated with the industrys preference for female employees. Although the airline industry operated on At Will basis, Terry Mason had little freedom as she felt Objectified b her job. The airline industry believed that female employees were endearing to customers, and as such, they gave clients a wonderful experience flying with the airlines. As a result, the young girl from Nebraska, Terry Mason, was flying around the world and living her dream. Unlike Terry Mason, Diaz had unsuccessfully applied for a flight attendant position owing to his gender. Diaz suffered prejudice due to the selective interpretation of the law that gave female applicants an edge over their male counterparts.

Secondly, before the ruling, flight passengers were used to female employees such as Terry Mason. According to Shannon and Hunter (2020) female employees seemed acceptable for the job that had become stereotyped as a female preserve occupation. In flight attendant colleges there were hardly any male students. Therefore, Terry Mason enjoyed a privilege that Diaz would not get as a flight attendant due to existing stereotypes. Therefore, although the court of appeal had come into agreement with Diaz, changing perceptions amongst passengers would still pose a challenge to him and other male flight attendants. Male would appear rather odd for the job as was the case in subsequent years.

In conclusion, the findings of the court of appeal in the case of Cello Diaz versus Pan American World Airways, were significant towards employment equity. The judgment gave a clear interpretation of BFOQ preference and the true intention of section 703 (a) of the civil rights act of 1964. As a result, discrimination of flight attendant employees based on sex was brought to an end.

References

Farnsworth, L. (2018). Inferentialism, Title VII, and legal concepts. The University of Chicago Law Review, 85(7), 1775-1818.

Morgan, S. (2021). Working twice as hard for less than half as much: A socio-legal critique of the gendered justifications perpetuating unequal pay in sports. The Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts, 5(2), 17-118

Shannon, J. H. & Hunter Jr. R. J. (2020). The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Beyond race to employment discrimination based on sex: The three letter word that has continued to vex society and the United States Supreme Court. Journal of Social and Political Sciences, 3(3), 18-161.

The Pennsylvania State University (2021) HR Fundamentals LER305 Retrieved from lesson 3: The Legal Environment of Work, World Campus; The Pennsylvania State University. Web.

The medical community has long recognized the importance of implementing safe and effective policies and procedures to provide patients with the best care. In recent years, the medical community has turned to the aviation industry for inspiration, adopting many policies and procedures to improve patient safety and outcomes. This collaboration has resulted from the shared focus on risk management and error prevention and the recognition of the potential benefits of using proven strategies from other industries. The aviation industry strongly focuses on safety, with strict rules and regulations in place to prevent accidents and ensure the smooth operation of flights. By adopting similar policies and procedures, the medical community has improved patient care and reduced the risk of medical errors and complications. This includes implementing processes such as checklists, crew resource management, safety culture, and technological advancement to ensure that medical professionals are always prepared and able to provide the best possible care to their patients.

The medical community has adopted the use of checklists from the aviation industry to improve patient safety and reduce the incidence of medical errors. These checklists typically include a list of key steps that need to be performed during a procedure and any potential risks or complications that may arise. By using checklists, healthcare providers can ensure that all necessary steps are performed and that potential risks are identified and addressed before they become a problem. In surgeries, for example, checklists are used to ensure that all necessary steps are completed before, during, and after the procedure. This includes verifying the patients identity, checking equipment, and confirming the surgical site. According to Papadakis et al. (2019), checklists promote cooperation and communication among team members hence an effective tool in the healthcare sector. In addition, checklists are also used in other medical practices, such as in administering medications and managing patient care. Using checklists has therefore helped reduce the incidence of medical errors and improve patient outcomes.

The medical community has also embraced Crew Resource Management (CRM) as a critical tool to improve patient safety, optimize team performance and reduce errors. CRM is a set of techniques and principles that optimize the use of all available resources, including personnel, equipment, and information, to achieve the best possible outcome in any given situation. In the medical field, CRM has been adopted in various settings, from hospitals and clinics to ambulances and emergency rooms. It was introduced to enhance patient safety through a multidisciplinary learning approach that focuses on improving communication, coordination, and collaboration among healthcare workers and enhance their decision-making and problem-solving skills (Man et al., 2019). One of the key ways in which CRM has been adopted in the medical community is through the use of training programs. These programs are designed to teach healthcare workers the principles of CRM and provide them with the tools and strategies they need to implement them in their daily work effectively. This includes teaching them how to communicate effectively with one another, how to share information and resources, and how to work together as a team to achieve the best possible outcomes for their patients. In addition to training programs, many medical organizations have also implemented CRM-related policies and procedures. These guidelines provide clear direction on how healthcare workers should approach their work and interact with one another, focusing on improving communication, coordination, and collaboration.

The medical community has increasingly adopted a focus on safety culture from the aviation community, which aims to ensure that patient care is performed to minimize the risk of harm. According to Lawati et al. (2018), there are millions of people who suffer injuries and various disabilities annually because of unsafe medical practices. Therefore, this shift has been driven by several factors, including the increasing complexity of medical procedures and treatments, the increasing frequency of medical errors, and the growing awareness of the importance of patient safety. One of the key ways in which the medical community has adopted the focus on safety culture is through the implementation of standardized protocols and procedures. In the aviation industry, standard operating procedures are well-established and widely followed, designed to ensure that all pilots perform consistently and safely. In the medical community, standardized protocols and procedures have been developed for multiple procedures, including surgical procedures, medication administration, and infection control. By following these protocols and procedures, healthcare professionals can reduce the likelihood of errors and improve patient safety. In addition, the medical community has also incorporated the use of incident reporting systems. In the aviation industry, pilots are required to report any incidents or near-misses, allowing airlines to identify potential safety issues and take steps to prevent them. In the medical community, incident reporting systems have also been implemented, allowing healthcare professionals to report emergency incidents such as accidents, allowing hospitals and other healthcare facilities to identify potential safety issues and take steps to prevent them from occurring in the future.

The technological advancements in the aviation industry have greatly influenced the medical community. One significant way in which this has occurred is through the use of advanced imaging technologies. In the aviation industry, advanced imaging technologies such as Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) are used to diagnose issues with aircraft and ensure their safety before takeoff. These same technologies have been adopted and adapted by the medical community for use in diagnosing and treating various medical conditions in humans. For example, CT scanners and MRIs allow doctors to view detailed images of the inside of the human body, providing them with crucial information about a patients condition. This allows for greater conformity and effective delivery of dosage to illnesses such as tumors, ultimately improving patient outcomes (Beaton et al., 2019). Additionally, the medical community has adopted the aviation industrys use of advanced data analysis and monitoring systems. These systems allow doctors to track and analyze a patients vital signs and other health metrics in real time, allowing for early detection and intervention in potential medical emergencies.

The medical community has improved patient care by adopting similar policies from the aviation industry, such as checklists, crew resource management (CRM), safety culture, and technological improvements. These strategies have helped improve communication and coordination among healthcare workers and enhance their decision-making and problem-solving skills. Checklists are used in surgeries or other medical practices as a key tool to ensure that all necessary steps are performed correctly without any potential risks or complications arising. In addition to using checklists and CRM, the medical community has also adopted a focus on safety culture and technological advancements from the aviation industry to ensure that patient care is performed to minimize the risk of harm.

References

Beaton, L., Bandula, S., Gaze, M. N., & Sharma, R. A. (2019). How rapid advances in imaging are defining the future of precision radiation oncology. British Journal of Cancer, 120(8), 779-790. Web.

Lawati, M. H., Dennis, S., Short, S. D., & Abdulhadi, N. N. (2018). Patient safety and safety culture in primary health care: A systematic review. BMC Family Practice, 19(1), 1-12. Web.

Man, A. P., Lam, C. K., Cheng, B. C., Tang, K., & Tang, P. (2019). Impact of locally adopted simulation-based crew resource management training on patient safety culture: Comparison between operating room personnel and general health care populations pre and post course. American Journal of Medical Quality, 35(1), 79-88. Web.

Papadakis, M., Meiwandi, A., & Grzybowski, A. (2019). The WHO safer surgery checklist time out procedure revisited: Strategies to optimise compliance and safety. International Journal of Surgery, 69, 19-22. Web.

Introduction

In the last decade, social media has experienced a paradigm shift as an online communication category where content is created, shared, bookmarked, and networked at a prodigious speed. This report examines social media tools to comprehend how they are utilized to facilitate analytical response capabilities by airlines for effective crisis management and emergency response. The paper explores the main social media roles in aviation crisis management and emergency response. These functions are mapped in the primary crisis and response phases in aviation, which are preparedness, response, and recovery. Several case study airlines are mentioned in relation to the effective use of social media in managing past crises and emergency response strategies.

Crisis Management in the Aviation Industry and Social Media

As a critical function of an airline, crisis management involves strategic planning and proactive incident response to unpredictable situations as they unfold. These events have cascading effects that may undermine an airlines ability to effectively operate in addition to causing serious harm to reputation, assets, structures, and customers (Cohn 2014). The emergence of a plethora of different social media tools has redefined the crisis management landscape in the aviation industry in the last ten years with possibilities for a quantifiable social action quickly becoming a reality. With the advent of many online software tools such as news aggregators and discussion platforms, airlines are now in a position to acquire, disseminate, and review information more comprehensively and efficiently (Coombs 2014).

For instance, effective use of social media tools could prevent a developing crisis from escalating out of control because of its ability to efficiently aggravate a situation when it is unfolding. As a catalyst, social media is undeniably a force for communication and planning in the modern aviation industry. This is because the speed of its impact is fast and predictable. Ultimately, social media is a critical tool that can instigate positive outcomes through accelerating and facilitating the breath and speed of communication, when utilized properly. Specifically, social media is an instrumental aspect of crisis preparedness, response, and recovery in the aviation industry.

Comprehending the Social Media Landscape in the Aviation Industry

According to Haddow and Haddow (2013, p. 41), social media devoid of purpose and content would do little to enable people to prepare, respond and recover in the face of disasters. Since social media facilitates communication and social interaction via the online Internet-based platforms, the aviation industry may use different tools such as bookmarking sites, social blogs and networks, content communities, collaborative projects, and social reviews to develop and plan different crisis management and emergency response strategies. For instance, social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter are significant tools for channeling communication in the form of relevant updates about unfolding situations during a crisis is the aviation industry.

Bookmarking sites are the airline websites where information could be posted, stored, shared, and classified using folksonomy techniques (Haddow & Haddow 2013). This means that the visibility of websites of different airlines could be increased when people share and tag content. Collaborative projects such as communal databases are instrumental in generating and sharing content with the global Internet community. Moreover, content communities such as YouTube and Flickr are ideal for sharing different information such as videos, audio, and photos. Lastly, social reviews are websites enabling users to rate, share, and search information besides providing recommendations (Zhi & Kaoru 2017). Thus, social reviews could be used to influence inclinations and perceptions at the mass-market level. Unlike traditional media forms that are restricted to a place and limited in reach, the above social media tools are capable of overcoming place barriers to reach and influence the perception of many people within a shorter time.

In terms of unique characteristics of social media tools, the aviation industry may gain through differential effect in the application when disseminating information internally or externally before, during, and after a crisis to take full command of every situation. In contrast to traditional media that limiting, social media tools have the merit of increased collectivity, which serves to connect the entire global population irrespective of time zones or geographical boundaries via various common platforms. This wider appeal may be used to foster the expansion of online communities by airlines, depending on the interest at hand (Haddow & Haddow 2013). Connectivity traits may enable airlines to reach users through a single link that can be shared. Since social media is capable of capturing contributions from many users and storing them in a persistent state, the aviation industry is empowered to exploit the complete nature of this communication tool to effectively manage crisis and respond to an emergency (Coombs 2014). Moreover, the clarity nature of social media websites makes it highly visible and content posted may quickly go viral. Besides, social media encourages collaborative interaction in different online platforms through feedback tracking.

Harnessing Different Social Media Tools: Augmenting Capabilities in Crisis Management and Emergency Response within the Aviation Industry

Crises with the aviation industry are complex and characterized by disproportionate impacts changing at varying speeds. Through the effective harnessing of social media tools, airlines are able to significantly enhance their organizational capacities in demonstrating resilience in responding to these crises. For instance, social media platforms could be used to create new avenues for active collaboration to create strong communities in the short and long term (Haddow & Haddow 2013). At the onset of any crisis, responders and managers may be able to access information from social blogs and networks to identify its source and severity. This information may then be distributed consistently among affected communities. Moreover, as links and other consistent resources are shared and tagged, crisis managers can evaluate its magnitude from the recommendations made by experts. This means that social media is a critical tool in gathering and search for information besides responding to preceding developments promptly.

Social media tools may also be used by airlines to expand their online community capacity in preparing and anticipating crises. For instance, the collaborative project sites could be expediently initiated in different social media platforms to empower expert communities with a rich database of content to analyze and validate the information that could support intervention opportunities during a crisis (Austin & Jin 2017, p. 56). Moreover, the aviation industry crisis responders, and managers will be in a position to effectively monitor these content communities to highlight any potential hotspots or emerging trends, which are flashpoints in crisis management. Over time, different crisis management groups in the aviation industry will be able to timely mine different databases for relevant content based on social reviews to pinpoint themes and concerns being conveyed online (Hatcliffe 2018). At the same time, the crisis management committee may contact the key contributors to gain insightful feedback for supplementary investigation.

Understanding social medias role in crisis management and emergency response requires examining its purpose, core activity, stakeholders, information content, treatment of information, software tools, and output (Fla 2014). In terms of purpose, social media is ideal in engaging a wider aviation community using different interactive and creative social platforms to increase association with like-minded people for effective response. The aspect of core activity is significant in generating actionable knowledge using the robust capabilities on social media platforms to sustain timely insights and decision-making systems. It is inherent to bring all stakeholders on board since a single airline cannot have a monopoly of information.

This means that an ideal crisis management strategy involves collecting a myriad of information that is transmitted to different audiences using social platforms (Austin & Jin 2017). Therefore, the aviation industry may use social media to undertake a strategic crowdsourcing as an alternative in gathering different perspectives of resulting challenges and their effective or innovative solutions to enhance crisis management and emergency response. The element of information content is critical in analyzing emerging issues as a result of a crisis and its effects. Focusing on discrete data is not sufficient in generating meaningful insights that might be used to guide response to a crisis (Hatcliffe 2018). Thus, social media capabilities are ideal in enabling aviation industry crisis managers to review existing interdependences of factual discrete data to foster a comprehensive knowledge of the emergent effects of these emerging issues.

Adopting different social media platforms that have capabilities of supporting information sharing and transparency in aviation industry crisis management may facilitate proactive streamlining and integration of response processes to meet stakeholders information needs and improve the accuracy and speed of crisis communication. According to Hayes and Kotwica (2013, p. 87), a crisis response formulated by considering special assessments, stakeholder perspectives and crowdsourced opinions using social media would enable stakeholders to make better decisions. For instance, unlike in-house systems used by airlines that cannot be integrated with external networks, social media has many open-source platforms laden with flexible tools for gathering information. These platforms also equip crisis responders with management capabilities for enhanced workstreams and analytical processes.

Applying Social Media Tools in Crisis Management and Emergency Response

The process of crisis management and emergency response in the aviation industry is categorized into three phases, which are crisis preparedness, crisis, response, and crisis recovery. In these phases, as captured in figure 1, social media tools are significant in information gathering, disaster training, and planning, collaborative decision-making and problem-solving, and information dissemination.

In the phase of crisis preparedness, which is focused on primary preventive activities aimed at reducing known and unknown risks that might escalate into a crisis, social media could be used as a tool for providing information on training and planning the existing crisis management teams in the aviation industry. At the crisis response phase, social media could be used to speed up the initial response strategies for general effectiveness (Zhi & Kaoru 2017). For instance, social platforms such as Facebook and Twitter could be used by airlines to communicate situational awareness, which is an essential aspect of proportional response in the event of a crisis. Using these social networks is critical, especially in engaging the stakeholder networks as part of data gathering, analysis, and timely dissemination of information. Moreover, the crisis recovery phase in the aviation industry is very complex since it requires strategic and prolonged planning to effectively restore the crisis situation back to normalcy.

Information dissemination through social media in aviation crisis management and emergency response is an ideal platform for the provision of reliable information to crisis responders. For instance, this information facilitates proactive preparedness in responding to a crisis situation. This means that information dissemination effectiveness is dependent on penetration and research of relevant social media platforms. For instance, Malaysia was able to provide information via social media during the management of an air accident over Syria in 2013. Based on information gathered, crisis responders were empowered by the disseminated communication through a focused and streamlined response mechanism (Fla 2014).

Social media is a significant tool in disaster planning and training within the aviation industry. This platform has gamification leverages that could be tapped for planning and facilitating training to proactively promote scenario, personnel, and collaborative exercises during or before a crisis. Social media sites could be used to manage the partnering agencies during the crisis by enhancing risk handling practices. For instance, the Cubana de Aviacion Flight 972 accident on May 18^th, 2018 was effectively handled through a social media site created to bring together aviation disaster response experts (Hatcliffe 2018). These groups were able to work as a team to quickly address the crisis and develop recommendations that will be essential in handling a similar occurrence in the future.

Crowdsourcing via social media may facilitate collaborative problem-solving or decision-making in aviation crisis management and emergency response. Specifically, crisis responders have an access to various information streams available on web-based and mobile technologies to fill the perceived sense-making and information gaps as well as to aggregate, analyze and plot data about urgent crisis needs (Coombs 2014, p. 49). Over time, the knowledge base will grow and response authorities will be in a position to better respond and manage different scenarios leading to a crisis. For example, airlines across the globe have made it a policy on situational awareness as driven by emerging trends to guarantee an informed decision-making process when handling the crisis.

Since information gathering is an important aspect of disaster assessment, airlines across the globe may use social media to effectively coordinate any response. For instance, Emirates Airline has integrated the use of a social community platform that has capabilities of leveraging mobile texts, emails, and applications on smartphones to enable all the stakeholders to communicate their perceptions, concerns, and thoughts about on-going situations that might turn into a crisis (Hatcliffe 2018). As a result, this airline has enhanced its capabilities in crisis management based on the gathered data.

Aviation Industry Frameworks in Enhancing Social Media Capabilities: Strategic Crisis Management and Emergency Response

Since the current crises in the aviation industry are complex, it is important to integrate an effective framework with the capacity for enhancing the use of social media in crisis management and emergency response. The framework may foster a coordinated and systematic approach to communication, planning, and responding to a crisis. Emirates Airline has integrated this framework to sustain the use of social media in managing unexpected situations. As captured in figure 2, this approach combines strategic guidelines, capability development, and measurement of response activities.

Section 1 involves integrating the value of different social media tools in the crisis management plan as a primary approach to the management of crisis situations. As a result, airlines will be able to send consistent and strong messages to multiple agencies managing a crisis-related occurrence (Hayes & Kotwica 2013). Section 2 is vital in establishing clear guidelines via social media to ensure that information is disseminated promptly to obtain needed intelligence or reassurance while harmonizing protocols and communication processes. Under capability development, the aspects of early detection, optimized task-handling, integrated feedback, and alert system via social media would facilitate straightforward and seamless communication to complement existing response processes (Zhi & Kaoru 2017). In the end, crisis management and emergency response will be enhanced. Lastly, measurement activities using appropriate indicators to monitor social media tools in use many facilitate the continuous evaluation of current crisis management plans to optimize operational efficiency, organizational insights, and benchmarking efforts.

Conclusion

Leveraging different social media technologies for aviation crisis management and emergency response provides stakeholders with expansive roles in managing and preparing for a crisis. Social media has unique characteristics such as connectedness, clarity, collectivity, completeness, and collaboration. These features have expanded the use of social media increasingly in supporting different crisis management and emergency response functions in the aviation industry. As a result, airlines can respond to crises through disaster training and planning, information dissemination, information gathering, and collaborative decision-making, and problem-solving.

Reference List

Austin, L & Jin, Y (eds.) 2017, Social media and crisis communication, Taylor & Francis, New York, NY.

Cohn, R 2014, How social media is elevating airline crisis communication.

Coombs, T 2014, Ongoing crisis communication: planning, managing, and responding, 4th edn, SAGE Publications, California, CA.

Fla, T 2014, Malaysia airlines flight 17: does social media help or hurt disaster response.

Haddow, G & Haddow, K 2013, Disaster communications in a changing media world, 2nd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

Hatcliffe, M 2018, Three recent crisis management case studies that we can learn from.

Hayes, B & Kotwica, K 2013, Crisis management at the speed of the internet: trend report, Elsevier, New York, NY.

Zhi, L & Kaoru, O 2017, Smart technologies for emergency response and disaster management, IGI Global, New York, NY.

Defining the costs of poor quality for an aviation company, one must admit that the risks are far too high. Seeing that the quality of an aircraft or certain devices used by the pilots defines the safety of the flight and the landing, it can be assumed that poor rates thereof may lead to accidents. Therefore, maintaining quality rates at a consistently high level is crucial. Unless the appropriate measures are taken, the organization is likely to suffer the costs related to the loss of customers, reduction in the workforce drops in revenues, reputation issues, and even possible lawsuits in case of injuries or deaths.

A drop in the companys revenues is the first and the most likely outcome to follow the reduction in quality rates as a result of non-compliance with the Six Sigma approach. As soon as the clients realize that the organization no longer delivers the products of the required quality, the will most likely switch to purchasing aircraft from the organizations with higher quality assurance standards.

With the reduction in revenues, a decrease in staff salaries is expected. Consequently, staff satisfaction rates will also drop. Therefore, resignations are to be expected (Cost of poor quality  COPQ. iSix Sigma, n. d.). Another obvious cost that the firm will have to pay sooner or later if the quality rates drop concerns the impressive reduction in the reputation rates of the organization in the realm of the global economy. While the reputation issue might seem not as big a threat as it seemed several decades ago, the situation has changed drastically now. Because of the numerous tools for ranking specific services on a certain scale, the lack of quality control in the company will be exposed to all those concerned or interested within days or even hours.

The loss of clients, which the Sikorsky organization will suffer as a result of the negative reviews that it is highly likely to receive is another negative effect of refusing from applying the principles of Six Sigma to the framework of entrepreneurship. Not only will the firm fail to attract new customers but also most likely lose the ones that it has now. With a drop in customer loyalty rates, Sikorsky is expected to sink in the highly competitive environment of the global economy (Pyzdek, & Keller, 2014).

Finally, the possibility of having a legal issue to face needs to be brought up as a highly likely consequence of failing to follow the Six Sigma principles. In case the customers suffer damages or injuries in the course of transportation, they are likely to file a lawsuit against the organization. Thus, the aircraft company will have to confront the organizations that purchased the aircraft and suffered accidents due to the firms negligence.

The necessity to maintain high-quality rates is obvious for an aviation organization, as low rates thereof will lead to not only a drop in customer satisfaction rates but also lack of enthusiasm among the staff members, reduction of the firms profit margins, a poor reputation, and even the possibility of a lawsuit, not to mention the need to pay refunds to the customers. Therefore, the principles of Six Sigma framework must be applied to the key processes and operations. As long as there is a solid foundation for entrepreneurship to convince the staff to assure quality, entrepreneurship will flourish.

Reference List

Cost of poor quality  COPQ. iSix Sigma. (n. d.). Web.

Pyzdek, T., & Keller, P. (2014).The Six Sigma handbook (4th ed.). New York City, NY: McGraw Hill Professional.