Category: Aviation

Introduction

In the 1930s, it became obvious that the conventional type of aircraft with a piston engine and propeller approached the limit of its capabilities. The aircraft, which existed in that form for almost half a century, exhausted itself in the sense of the possibility of further progress. The desire to increase the speed and altitude of flights forced scientists and designers to look intensively for new ways to develop aviation. As a result, through the experiments and efforts of many aircraft manufacturers, the era of jet aviation began, which made a genuine technical revolution. The worlds first passenger jet aircraft appeared only in the middle of the last century, when the development of aviation continued actively, although the first jet fuel engine was successfully tested back in the 1930s (Millbrooke 38). Due to World War II, particular attention was paid primarily to military aircraft, and after the war ended, engineers began to construct passenger liners. The advent of the jet engine in civil aviation marked the transition to faster and more convenient passenger transportation, thus ushering in a new era in the aircraft industry.

Prerequisites for the Development of the Jet Engine

The many unresolved issues in the use of the steam engine marked the need for more technically efficient solutions, which eventually led to the advent of the jet engine. Obsolete liners could not fly at high altitudes and were characterized by a relatively low speed of movement, which was not only unsafe but also unprofitable (Millbrooke 74). Interest in the idea of a jet aircraft arose largely due to the fact that the thrust of such an engine was independent of flight altitude. In this regard, the first practical work on the creation of new constructions, which began in Germany in the late 1920s, was considered a step toward stratospheric aviation (Decher 36). However, rocket engines whose experimental flight models already existed in the 1930s were uneconomical and had an extremely short duration of operation for use on civil aircraft (Decher 49). Therefore, the most suitable type of power plant seemed to be an air-jet engine, which, despite the first unsuccessful attempts at testing, closely entered the civil aviation industry. Thus, the aspects of economy, safety, and performance were the key drivers for developing new types of engines.

Better Fuel Consumption Outlook

When speaking about the aspect of ecology, traditional steam engines running on combusted fuel caused enormous harm to the environment. Although the issue of climate change did not fascinate humanity at that time, the awareness of the damage caused was one of the incentives for the development of a new design. Modern jet aircraft use renewable energy sources, which is effective not only from an economic standpoint but also from the perspective of reducing the harmful impact on the environment (Yakovlieva et al. 231). Kroyan et al. opined that jet fuel, especially its early alternatives, was characterized by high viscosity, which negatively affected performance due to poor atomization (7). Nevertheless, even those developments proved to be more efficient than the obsolete mechanisms of using engines operating on the principle of the internal combustion. Particular attention to fuel safety began to be paid in the 1970s when projects were approved for the development of more environmentally friendly and less noisy jet engines (Decher 158). Those solutions marked the emergence of aircraft that were characterized by high speed, the ability to fly high, and significantly less environmental damage, which were real achievements.

Political Incentives for the Transition to Jet Engines

Along with technical, economic, and environmental aspects, political incentives were also critical in the move toward jet engine development. Bednarek considers the second half of the 20th century, namely the period of the Cold War, and notes the technological race between the USA and the USSR, which determined the emergence of many scientific developments (584). The energy sector today is closely associated with geopolitical nuances and the distribution of influence of individual states in the international arena. In this regard, the development of alternative fuel production mechanisms is a tool for achieving political advantage through the optimization of national aviation sectors (Yakovlieva et al. 232). At the same time, modern opportunities offer more flexible ways of development. In the 1970s-1980s, political determinants were decisive in the development of the airline industry because tensions between superpowers called for caution (Bednarek 534). Today, economic factors weigh more heavily in determining the potential of national aviation sectors. Therefore, the widespread use of jet engines in civil aviation at the present stage is a consequence of a market economy in which making a profit and addressing customer needs are more important than interstate competition.

Conclusion

The transition to a new era in civil aviation with faster and more convenient air travel was largely due to the introduction of a jet engine in the production of aircraft. Outdated steam engines could not cope with the growing demand and, in addition, caused great damage to the environment. Jet engines have higher technical characteristics and are less harmful. Their mass development was largely due to political tensions in the second half of the 20th century. Today, the massive demand for air travel and the need to achieve a competitive advantage from an economic perspective are the main drivers of jet aircraft production.

Works Cited

Bednarek, Janet R. Daly. Civil Aviation and the Globalization of the Cold War by Peter Svik. Technology and Culture, vol. 63, no. 2, 2022, pp. 583-585.

Decher, Reiner. Powering the Worlds Airliners: Engine Developments from the Propeller to the Jet Age. Air World, 2020.

Kroyan, Yuri, et al. Modeling the Impact of Sustainable Aviation Fuel Properties on End-Use Performance and Emissions in Aircraft Jet Engines. Energy, vol. 255, 2022, pp. 1-17.

Millbrooke, Anne. Aviation History. Jeppesen, 2006.

Yakovlieva, Anna, et al. Evaluation of Jet Engine Operation Parameters Using Conventional and Alternative Jet Fuels. International Journal of Sustainable Aviation, vol. 5, no. 3, 2019, pp. 230-248.

Introduction

The Federal Aviation Administration is an important organization in the aviation industry. It has always played a critical role in aviation regulation and control of the air safety. This essay provides a brief history of aviation as it appeared earlier than the Federal Aviation Administration. Knowledge of the aviation history will help to understand its origins and the background of this institutions development. Moreover, the history of the Federal Aviation Administration is described to discover the chronology of its appearance.

Reasons for the establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration

The flying history began a long time ago. People always had the intention to learn how to fly. Even the legends were told about this phenomenon during the ancient times (Brady, 2000). Before the invention of the first plane model, people used to utilize hydrogen gas balloons (Petreschu & Petreschu, 2013).

Wrights were recognized as the first creators of the plane (Hallion, 2003). They were smart photo-engineers, who were working on the details and continuously revising the blueprints (Hallion, 2003). These facts helped them to create the first flying plane. Meanwhile Wrights demonstrated the plane, European pilots were already making flights (Hallion, 2003).

Although, it has to be mentioned that Wrights impact on the aerial age was not to establish another plane but to improve the flying techniques. As Europe was developing faster than the United States of America, it was using the planes during the First World War (Hallion, 2003). After that, the development of the flying machines continued as people had a desire to decrease the time required for the transportation. Another important aspect was to boost safety as flying involved high risk.

Soon it became a vital part of the life. Planes were widely used, especially, during the war times. Although, during these times, the planes were still considered dangerous (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). Pilots needed to fly as low as possible to navigate in the air and understand the locations (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).

However, low flying could not exist for the long period as many accidents happened (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It was necessary to launch the first airlines to start the flying business. The primary air traffic control was established to increase safety (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).

The attempt was primitive as people were standing on the runways and showing signals to the planes (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). Another important factor had the influence on the establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration. It was the growing demand for the air travel (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It occurred that more people started considering traveling by air as it was beneficial.

All these aspects are the crucial reasons for the Federal Aviation Administrations origin. It was necessary to make the flying process organized since it still seemed dangerous and chaotic. Systemization of the takeoffs, landings and flights is the essential part of the traffic control procedures today. Nevertheless, it was not on the same level of development in the past that is why the Federal Aviation Administration was established.

The History of the Federal Aviation Administration

After the first airlines had been introduced, it was necessary to establish the federal institution, which would control the safety regulations of the flights (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It was clear that it was not possible to gain a market share without the federal support. As the importance of the airline industry was growing, more air traffic control centers were being established (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It helped to increase the safety and allowed to make flights to the diverse destinations.

The federal aviation continued evolving as President Franklin Roosevelt decided to establish the independent Civil Aeronautics Authority (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015, para. 7). It increased the level of control of the federal aviation, as it supervised the majority of the flights. However, the accidents still occurred as not all of the air space was covered by the air traffic control towers.

The Civil Aeronautics Authority was transformed into the Federal Aviation Agency in 1958 (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). As the number of employees was growing, it was not possible to locate all of them in one building. It was the main reason for the agencys relocation to the Federal Office Building (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).

It could be said that these facts implied that the institution was gaining importance on the national level. As the air traffic was developing, it was essential to create a new agency, which would be fully responsible for the aviation safety.

President Johnson was the key person who was responsible for the transformation of the agency into administration (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). It was necessary to give extra duties to the administration, as it seemed that there was a lack of safety (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). The high level of the required safety was a vital reason for the creation of the Federal Aviation Administration. Furthermore, it was critical to organize the transportation and avoid accidents and complications.

The Role of the Federal Aviation Administration Today

Today the Federal Aviation Administrations has the same attitudes regarding the safety regulations and organization of the transportation as it had before (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). Nonetheless, it is strict about the aircraft safety and certifications (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015).

It pays close attention to the air traffic control and the organization of the flights (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). Additionally, the Federal Aviation Administration performs its duties on the international level (Federal Aviation Administration, 2015). The key reason for this matter is the globalization (Oum, Park, & Zhang, 2000). As people have a tendency to travel around the world in case of business and vacation, it is necessary to have international air traffic control.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it could be said that the aviation is rapidly developing. It is a constant process as it continues today. People always have a tendency to search for solutions and innovations in different industries, and aviation is one of them. The history of aviation provided a better understanding of the origins of aviation control. Safety was one of the main reasons why the Federal Aviation Administration was established.

Before its presence, the landings and take-offs were controlled physically as no mechanical systems were involved in the process. People used to stay on the runways and provide the required signals to the landing plane. Nowadays, the air traffic control is highly automated.

Nonetheless, the accidents still take place, but the amount of them is dramatically lower as it was in the past. Today the Federal Aviation Administration performs similar duties as in the past. Nevertheless, they are focused internationally and pay even closer attention to the safety regulations.

References

Brady, T. (2000). The American aviation experience: A history. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Federal Aviation Administration. (2015). History.

Hallion, R. (2003). Taking flight: Inventing the aerial age from antiquity to First World War. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Oum, T., Park, J., & Zhang, A. (2000). Globalization of strategic alliances: the case of the airline industry. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishing Company, Inc.

Petreschu, R., & Petreschu, F. (2013). The aviation history. Norderstedt, Germany: Books on Demand.

Introduction

In the last several decades, aviation has experienced a significant number of challenges that arose because of its strategic importance for the modern world. As an integral part of the international discourse and relations, air transportation becomes the primary target for malefactors and terrorist groups trying to destabilise the situation and spread panic by introducing multiple security concerns and causing severe harm, including victims among the passengers and population. For this reason, there is a corresponding growth in the sphere of security to be able to resist all dangers and provide appropriate responses to emerging issues to guarantee safety to all individuals.

Unfortunately, there is a tendency towards a constant appearance of new threats to civil aviation and their diversification regarding the war against terrorism and its forms. Today, developed security systems are expected to eliminate the majority of existing loopholes and protect aviation from the outsider attacks. However, there are still multiple concerns that should be considered, and insider threat should be taken as the most dangerous of them because of the improved knowledge of prevention measures and how they can be avoided.

Background

One of the factors preconditioning the high relevance of the given issue is the increased sophistication and effectiveness of existing security measures that are employed by civil aviation. The combined efforts of various regulatory agencies such as IATA and ICAO and the cooperation with governments contributed to the creation of a practical approach to managing all known hazards, minimising risks, and preventing terrorist acts (ICAO 2018).

The correct understanding of the nature of vulnerabilities, methods utilised by terrorists, and other problematic issues contributes to the creation of a knowledge base and framework that is used to design innovative security systems deprived of serious drawbacks and protected from outside attacks (Coles-Kemp & Theoharidou 2010). That is why malefactors look for new methods to bypass all countermeasures and damage civil aviation.

Under these conditions, an insider threat acquires the top priority as it is one of the possible ways to destroy barriers from inside and create new loopholes offering opportunities for attackers. The importance of the given problem is evidenced by the fact that it is recognised by the IATA and ICAO and other authorities that provide guidelines for the minimisation of these risks and the creation of appropriate strategies to resist them.

Current Security Systems

The existing security systems are centred around the necessity to resist attacks that come outside the aviation sector. It means that their effectiveness in dealing with external risks remains high due to the sufficient work of all its components and elements of the framework. However, the adherence to the given model means that a loophole or flaw can be created if some of its parts work inappropriately, or there is an intentional use of specific information to provide an opportunity for attack (Siao 2017).

The absence of a systemic approach to dealing with this sort of risk and responding to them can become one of the greatest problems for air travel as it leaves a chance for the destruction of any protection (Coles-Kemp & Theoharidou 2010). Moreover, the improved understanding of how modern systems work can contribute to the creation of new ways to minimise their effectiveness and damage critical areas (Siao 2017). That is why there is an essential need for addressing this question and its discussion.

Problem of Insiders

There are multiple approaches and definitions of the insider threat and its nature. In general, it can be described as the existence of one or a group of individuals who possess or have access to insider knowledge that can be used to exploit vulnerabilities of the current security systems with the primary goal to cause severe damage (Bean 2017). The given problem firstly appeared in the late 80s with the first attempts to sabotage aircraft and transformed into one of the growing concerns with the tendency to rapid self-radicalisation that is observed in many states today (Cole & Ring 2006).

One of the difficulties associated with this question is that there is a variety of forms that can be peculiar to insider threats, and there is a need to consider this diversity (Bean 2017). Malefactors can share data crucial for the effective work of the protection system, corrupt information systems, smuggle goods or people, outline all existing loopholes or enter terrorist groups to help them perform violent actions aimed at the destabilisation of the situation (Bean 2017). The broad scope of the issue shows the necessity for appropriate interventions to avoid the deterioration of the situation and help aviation to survive and resist attacks.

Associations with Terrorism

Another serious problem of insider threat is its association with terrorist groups. Because of the complexity of security systems mentioned above, and their effectiveness, malefactors change their tactics and start to analyse objects that are selected as the aim for new attacks. The data collection presupposes the use of their own agents who often work in airlines and have access to essential data that can be employed to find or create a loophole that can be later used for various purposes (Probst et al., 2010).

That is why IATA (2018) aims at the creation of increased awareness among companies, partners, and authorities about the insider threat to engage in cooperation and create a framework that can help to eliminate potentially problematic areas. Moreover, due to the diversification of methods used by insiders and the use of innovative technologies to corrupt the work of the sector, an appropriate change in the approach to cybersecurity should also be aligned to ensure the positive outcomes and guarantee the high level of protection to all stakeholders.

Types of Insiders and Misuse

The in-depth analysis of the problem also shows that there are various types of insiders, which is critical for the ability to introduce appropriate responses and eliminate a potential threat. Differences among this cohort include the physical and logical presence, as there can be malefactors working in different environments (Neman 2010). Moreover, there are various degrees of insiders regarding the level of their access, the information available to them, and their role in the company (Neman 2010).

In such a way, the ability to work with essential data portions or impact decision making creates the basis for the appearance of multiple chances to intervene with the work of systems and corrupt them (Neman 2010). Both categories of malefactors possess an opportunity to cause severe harm to the company and make it vulnerable to terrorist attacks. For example, a multi-level security system can be bypassed by using insider data available both for logically or physically present malefactors (Neman 2010). It means that there are no effective measures to resist attacks if the company disregards the given sort of threat and avoids additional security measures.

Additionally, there are different types of insider misuse, such as intentional and accidental ones. Although both these forms are dangerous for airlines, more attention should be given to the first one as it poses a serious threat to existing security systems. The occurrence of accidental insider threats can be explained by the human factor and mistakes that can be found in the work of any specialist because of such factors as tiredness, low motivation, stress (Neman 2010). However, the intentional insider misuse indicates the existence of the desire to cause serious harm to the company or passengers either by providing information to third parties or by using it on his/her own (Neman 2010).

In some cases, it can be hidden or concealed by emphasising its accidental nature, which can help to reveal existing vulnerabilities and how companies cope with them to find the most effective way to use the current loopholes. In such a way, the significance of the given problem comes from its scope, the existence of various forms, and challenges in detecting the source of maleficent actions if it comes from employees who possess critical information or access to it.

IATAs Recommendations

That is why, similar to USTSA, IATA also considers insiders one of the greatest threats to modern aviation. The agency emphasises the fact that the productive and successful work of any security system is possible only if all vulnerabilities are considered, including internal and external ones (IATA 2018). For this reason, IATA cooperates with international companies, airlines, and governances to create guidelines that can be offered to all actors in the civil aviation sector to minimise possible threat and eliminate loopholes that can be used by malefactors. The current objectives offered by IATA to create an insider risk-based approach presuppose:

• Provide assistance in developing the paradigm to all member airlines
• Provide guidance on the proactive approach to address this sort of threats (IATA 2018)

These are the core activities that should be given specific attention to ensure that there is a framework characterised by the decreased risk of insider threat. Moreover, IATA also introduces the basic principles that should be taken into account when establishing a framework for the effective management of the problem. They include

• Focus on security outcomes
• Devoted attention on security measures under the influence of the operator
• Outline all current operator responsibilities
• Implement the insider risk management in the security system
• Offer a unified approach, strategy, roadmap, and methods to improve the systems resilience against emerging threats (IATA 2018).

The observation of the given principles is a fundamental demand for the modern security system, which is also focused on the consideration of various forms of insider threat and maleficent actions that can be performed by workers of companies with the purpose of deteriorating the work of the framework.

Policy for Insider Risk Management

The policy for the sufficient work with this sort of risk and mitigation of its negative impact on the aviation sector presupposes that the primary source for the appearance of the given threat should be eliminated. In other words, the more productive work with staff should become one of the most important activities of recruiting specialists (IATA 2018). Moreover, there is a need for the reconsideration of security systems with the primary goal to introduce measures that will help to determine any potentially dangerous activity performed by employees and report it.

Additionally, IATA (2018) acknowledges the significance of additional training for specialists responsible for the monitoring of the work of security systems for them to be able to work both with insider and traditional threats, recognised vulnerabilities, and provide appropriate responses. Under these conditions, the need for these elements shows the demand for the multi-layered protection system and approach to mitigate the risk of maleficent actions performed by workers who have access to essential data portions. The complexity of the proposed structure also proves the great scope of the discussed problem and the need for its consideration to achieve positive outcomes.

Pre-Employment Interventions

One of the fundamentals of the policy dealing with the insider threat is the introduction of effective employment practices. As it has already been stated, today, there is a practice presupposing the use of individuals who start working for airlines with the primary goal of acquiring access to critically important information and then give it to third parties or use to create loopholes (IATA 2018). One of the potential solutions to this problem is the prevention of the recruitment of a person who cannot provide information about his/her background or cannot meet the operators requirements (IATA 2018).

This data includes travel history, criminal records, employment history, identification profile, and financial status (IATA 2018). Consideration of these factors is critical when hiring a new worker with access to important elements of a security system as it helps to minimise the change of poor outcomes.

Moreover, the requirements should differ depending on the level of risk that a persons role might presuppose, his/her access to areas, decision-making activities, and strategical planning (IATA 2018). For this reason, comprehensive recruitment might also include cooperation with the governmental agencies to collect information about a person, his/her past, and general reliability (IATA 2018). This approach becomes one of the practical methods to minimise insider threat and guarantee that only loyal and skilled workers are hired.

Spot and Stop Measures

IATA also recommends to devote more attention to the development of measures that can be used by specialists to identify an insider at the first stages and prevent him/her from doing harm to airlines. For this reason, there are two useful options:

• SPOT measures. The strategy that presupposes the identification of behaviours, actions, or activities that can be potentially dangerous, or discovery of changes or suspicious behaviours that might help to find an insider and isolate him/her (IATA 2018).
• STOP measures. The method focused on the prevention of undesired or dangerous actions via the determent of an insider from exploiting his/her role for unauthorised processes (IATA 2018).

The effectiveness of these approaches rests on the idea that any person might become an insider because of the changing circumstances or new factors impacting his/her life. Personal crises, the need for money, or other motifs can be used by the third parties to recruit a specialist and acquire access to protected data or areas.

That is why for security specialists or managers, it is critical to monitor employees behaviours and note any changes that occur. IATA (2018) offers the most common factors that might cause personal problems such as financial difficulties, pressure from peers, family issues, and perceptions of unfairness at work. These factors can be used to identify an insider by management and personnel via the supervision and teamwork. In collectives with the high level of cooperation, the risk of insider threat is much lower if to compare with other groups (IATA 2018). For this reason, SPOT practice can be an effective measure to deal with the outlined problem.

The STOP measures can be employed to support SPOT methods to prevent the development of a critical situation. It rests on the effectiveness of reporting practice and if it can be used for whistleblowing on strange behaviour or unusual moods. The combination of these two measures can help to prevent malefactors from causing harm to the company and avoid the emergence of vulnerabilities, which is one of the main goals of any security system.

Awareness of the Staff

The complexity of the current challenges presupposes that the most effective response can be achieved only by the collaborative effort of all actors engaged in the process. For this reason, the involvement of staff members in activities to resist insider threat is essential for the creation of a safe environment. The awareness of the existing problem among the senior management and the collective help them to acquire models of behaviour, skills, and competencies required to detect any suspicious activity and report it to ensure that the security system remains protected (IATA 2018).

For teams working in airports or airlines, attentiveness for the environment and changes is fundamental against the insider threat as it contributes to the appearance of another protection level. That is why managers should focus on the knowledge generation related to the issue via the provision of demanded training for staff members who play key roles in the existing environment (IATA 2018). Their ability to determine problematic areas, note changes in colleagues moods and behaviours, and communicate should become an integral element of the contemporary security culture.

Granted Access

Another possible way to solve the problem of insider threat and minimise the risk of incidents is the reconsideration of the approach to granting access to workers. At the moment, the work of any airline company presupposes the existence of a high number of employees who have an opportunity to interfere with some essential processes or process data that is vital for the effective work of security systems. From one hand, it helps the company to spend less time and function faster by involving numerous persons in all processes; however, from another, it creates the basis for the emergence of loopholes in security systems and possible incidents.

The practice of granted access is one of the strategies offered by IATA (2018) to minimise the risk of insider threat. Only experienced workers who are examined for their loyalty to a company and have an appropriate background should be provided with access to core elements of security systems. It will help to improve the current situation and protect airlines from attacks.

Training

Finally, all international agencies working in the sphere of aviation and creating guidelines for the effective work of the sector consider training a core component of the modern response to insider threat. As stated above, the creation of specific awareness helps to avoid misunderstandings and engage employees in struggling against the insider threat. At the same time, there are different levels of training that should be offered to managers and operators regarding of the position they hold and their role in the work of the security system (IATA 2018). The provision of knowledge about how modern approaches function can help them to recognise the significance of the issue and become elements of a certain proactive method detecting any alterations and providing the in-time response.

For this reason, there is a critical need for special courses aimed at the explanation of the existing risks and ways to manage them. It will be an effective measure to struggle against the insider threat and cooperate to attain improved outcomes.

Response

Dealing with the outlined problem, it is also critical to provide the in-time and appropriate response that will help to find the vulnerability in a security system and eliminate it. That is why IATA (2018) recommends immediate and robust reactions created in accordance with relevant safety and security standards. Because of the existence of multiple scenarios and options, at the very first stages of the possibility of non-intentional infringement of rules should be accepted. However, there is still some level of concern and risk, which means that measures should be applied when the first signs of any possible intervention are detected (IATA 2018).

The response should include the determination of the primary reason for the appearance of a risk and if it should be addressed (IATA 2018). The results of these investigations should be used to inform an employee responsible for the emergence of a problem and select an appropriate punishment which might include termination of employment and even a trial (IATA 2018).

The existence of the given response practice is vital for operators to realise the fact that there is an effective system that will detect their inappropriate actions and all pieces of evidence of a criminal offence will be collected and reported to special authorities. This cooperation is another essential part of the response to insider threat as it helps to investigate all similar cases, find common motifs or organisations that might be responsible for hiring employees with the goal to organise acts of terror or introduce instability and chaos by damaging aircraft.

Conclusion

Altogether, insider threat remains one of the most significant threats to the modern civil aviation sphere. The existing security systems are focused on the effective management and mitigation of risks that come outside airlines, which means that they remain extremely vulnerable to maleficent actions performed by employees and resulting in the appearance of loopholes. The central risk is that these drawbacks in protection can be used by the third parties or terrorist groups with the primary goal to cause severe damage to airlines and passengers. For this reason, organisations such as ICAO and IATA provide their guidelines to address this problem and minimise risks associated with the insider threat.

These recommendations presuppose enhanced recruiting techniques, special staff checks, and an increase in the awareness levels to guarantee the early discovery of a potential threat. Unfortunately, the risk of insider threat is still high and remains one of the fundamental problems of modern aviation and should be considered when designing sufficient security systems.

Reference List

Bean, B 2017, Mitigating insider threats in the domestic aviation system: policy options for the Transportation Security Administration, Masters thesis, Naval Postgraduate School. Web.

Cole, E & Ring, S 2006, Insider threat: protecting the enterprise from sabotage, spying, and theft, Syngress Publishing, Inc., Rockland, MA.

Coles-Kemp, L & Theoharidou, M 2010, Insider threat and information security management, in C Probst, J Hunker, D Gollmann & M Bishop (eds), Insider threats in cybersecurity, Springer, London, pp. 45-70.

International Air Transport Association (IATA) 2018, Insider threat in civil aviation. Web.

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 2018, Insider threat awareness. Web.

Neman, P 2010, Combatting insider threats, in C Probst, J Hunker, D Gollmann & M Bishop (eds), Insider threats in cybersecurity, Springer, London, pp. 17-45.

Probst, C, Hunker, J, Gollmann, D & Bishop, M 2010, Aspects of insider threats, in C Probst, J Hunker, D Gollmann & M Bishop (eds), Insider threats in cybersecurity, Springer, London, pp. 1-17.

Siao, D 2017, The aviation insider threat: An assessment of vulnerabilities and countermeasures. Web.

Costs incurred in the warehousing of aviation and aerospace materials and parts include handling and storage charges, and operational and general administrative expenses. Handling costs are related to moving the materials either in or out of the warehouse. Storage expenses comprise all the costs associated with occupying a facility and are incurred whether the products such as engines or radars are moved. Operational expenses are overheads sustained to facilitate operations at the distribution center. General administrative costs include all the expenses not accrued for a particular distribution center, such as remunerations for nonoperating staff and general office expenses.

Each of the expenses associated with warehousing materials and parts linked to aviation or aerospace impacts overall operational productivity. The nature of material stored determines the rates charged for storage, for instance, items such as engines are enormous and require an ample space to safely store. Therefore, when looking for a facility to keep engines, airlines may have to look for big warehouses or pay more for the space occupied by the item. Additionally, some aviation items are sensitive and delicate and require special handling and storage hence attracting higher handling fees during warehousing. Further, aviation-specific storage can be expensive due to the bulkiness and high cost of the items to be kept, which translates to higher operations administration expenses as well as general administration costs.

The costs associated with warehousing aviation-specific items may cause trade-offs in decision-making among managers. Trade-offs involved may include the choice of warehousing location and the type of products to be stored. For efficiency, a warehouse should be located relatively close to the center of the airlines operations even if it may be costly compared to another potential location. Additionally, administrators must critically examine the type of aviation materials to store since the nature of items significantly impact the costs involved in storage and handling. Further, the business executive must make the most rational decision on the warehouse management system (WMS) to implement at the desired warehouse since it dramatically influences the operations efficiency.

In the aviation industry, most companies use rigid rather than non-rigid containers since they offer the most secure storage for products. Airlines primarily use rigid containers for this form of containerization since it offers excellent protection for both passenger and freight cargo. Further, the structure of the containers allows stacking hence making it possible to handle several small consignments of air cargo (Drljaca et al., 2020). Rigid containers can quickly and comfortably be loaded, offloaded and moved in and out of a storage facility without pilferage or causing any damage to the contents. In the aviation industry, rigid containers are skillfully made to match the cargo area within aircraft thus promoting maximum utilization of the available space. In some instances, non-rigid containers are used in the aviation industry, particularly where the objects to be moved have irregular shapes.

The cargo industry is changing and innovations are influencing the materials and packaging of items, including aircraft maintenance parts. In the future, there will be more airlines opting for new-age composite materials for storage. The products are strong, lightweight and low-cost and are more efficient compared to the conventional rigid containers (Rajak et al., 2019). The materials are produced sustainably and are set to transform the future of the packaging and handling industry. Innovative substances are undergoing research and their favorable characteristics will make them suitable for applications beyond the aviation industry.

References

Drljaca, M, Stimac, I, Vidovic, A, & Petar S. (2020). Sustainability of the air cargo handling process in the context of safety and environmental aspects. Journal of Advanced Transportation Volume, 1-13.

Rajak, K. D, Pagar, D. D, Kumar, R & Pruncu, I, C. (2019). Recent progress of reinforcement materials: a comprehensive overview of composite materials, Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 8(6), 6354-6374.

The case filed by Celio Diaz Jr. in the court of appeal as the plaintiff versus Pan American World Airways on April 6^th, 1971 ushered in an era of equality on employment for prospective airline employees. Before this ruling, airlines had a hiring policy that ensured only female airline stewardess such as Terry Mason was hired for the job. Preferential treatment of women went against Title VII that required At Will employment of personnel. Previously, being female was treated as a bona fide occupation qualification (BFOQ) for employment as a flight attendant. As a result, male applicants such as Diaz suffered prejudice and were wrongfully disqualified.

The main findings of the appellate court established that Diaz and male applicants suffered discrimination. The first determination of the ruling was that employers and employees at will liberty to engage in a contract or quit at will with minimal legal implications. This ruling was in line with Section 703 of Title VII of the civil rights act of 1964 (Farnsworth, 2018). However, section 703 (a) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 puts a limitation to the extent to which an employer can apply Title VII. According to The Pennsylvania State University (August, 2021) Section 703 (a) (1) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, terms discrimination of employees based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin as unlawful and a violation of human rights. Therefore, the court of appeal was in agreement with Diaz that his rights as a male job applicant had been violated, and the airline had made selective application of the law by citing BFOQ as the guiding principle (Morgan, 2021). The jury further observed that due to cumulative years of discrimination against men for the job, there would be fewer successful male applicants for the job.

On the other hand, Terry Mason was pursuing her career as an airline stewardess having been preferred for the job as her gender resonated with the industrys preference for female employees. Although the airline industry operated on At Will basis, Terry Mason had little freedom as she felt Objectified b her job. The airline industry believed that female employees were endearing to customers, and as such, they gave clients a wonderful experience flying with the airlines. As a result, the young girl from Nebraska, Terry Mason, was flying around the world and living her dream. Unlike Terry Mason, Diaz had unsuccessfully applied for a flight attendant position owing to his gender. Diaz suffered prejudice due to the selective interpretation of the law that gave female applicants an edge over their male counterparts.

Secondly, before the ruling, flight passengers were used to female employees such as Terry Mason. According to Shannon and Hunter (2020) female employees seemed acceptable for the job that had become stereotyped as a female preserve occupation. In flight attendant colleges there were hardly any male students. Therefore, Terry Mason enjoyed a privilege that Diaz would not get as a flight attendant due to existing stereotypes. Therefore, although the court of appeal had come into agreement with Diaz, changing perceptions amongst passengers would still pose a challenge to him and other male flight attendants. Male would appear rather odd for the job as was the case in subsequent years.

In conclusion, the findings of the court of appeal in the case of Cello Diaz versus Pan American World Airways, were significant towards employment equity. The judgment gave a clear interpretation of BFOQ preference and the true intention of section 703 (a) of the civil rights act of 1964. As a result, discrimination of flight attendant employees based on sex was brought to an end.

References

Farnsworth, L. (2018). Inferentialism, Title VII, and legal concepts. The University of Chicago Law Review, 85(7), 1775-1818.

Morgan, S. (2021). Working twice as hard for less than half as much: A socio-legal critique of the gendered justifications perpetuating unequal pay in sports. The Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts, 5(2), 17-118

Shannon, J. H. & Hunter Jr. R. J. (2020). The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Beyond race to employment discrimination based on sex: The three letter word that has continued to vex society and the United States Supreme Court. Journal of Social and Political Sciences, 3(3), 18-161.

The Pennsylvania State University (2021) HR Fundamentals LER305 Retrieved from lesson 3: The Legal Environment of Work, World Campus; The Pennsylvania State University. Web.

The medical community has long recognized the importance of implementing safe and effective policies and procedures to provide patients with the best care. In recent years, the medical community has turned to the aviation industry for inspiration, adopting many policies and procedures to improve patient safety and outcomes. This collaboration has resulted from the shared focus on risk management and error prevention and the recognition of the potential benefits of using proven strategies from other industries. The aviation industry strongly focuses on safety, with strict rules and regulations in place to prevent accidents and ensure the smooth operation of flights. By adopting similar policies and procedures, the medical community has improved patient care and reduced the risk of medical errors and complications. This includes implementing processes such as checklists, crew resource management, safety culture, and technological advancement to ensure that medical professionals are always prepared and able to provide the best possible care to their patients.

The medical community has adopted the use of checklists from the aviation industry to improve patient safety and reduce the incidence of medical errors. These checklists typically include a list of key steps that need to be performed during a procedure and any potential risks or complications that may arise. By using checklists, healthcare providers can ensure that all necessary steps are performed and that potential risks are identified and addressed before they become a problem. In surgeries, for example, checklists are used to ensure that all necessary steps are completed before, during, and after the procedure. This includes verifying the patients identity, checking equipment, and confirming the surgical site. According to Papadakis et al. (2019), checklists promote cooperation and communication among team members hence an effective tool in the healthcare sector. In addition, checklists are also used in other medical practices, such as in administering medications and managing patient care. Using checklists has therefore helped reduce the incidence of medical errors and improve patient outcomes.

The medical community has also embraced Crew Resource Management (CRM) as a critical tool to improve patient safety, optimize team performance and reduce errors. CRM is a set of techniques and principles that optimize the use of all available resources, including personnel, equipment, and information, to achieve the best possible outcome in any given situation. In the medical field, CRM has been adopted in various settings, from hospitals and clinics to ambulances and emergency rooms. It was introduced to enhance patient safety through a multidisciplinary learning approach that focuses on improving communication, coordination, and collaboration among healthcare workers and enhance their decision-making and problem-solving skills (Man et al., 2019). One of the key ways in which CRM has been adopted in the medical community is through the use of training programs. These programs are designed to teach healthcare workers the principles of CRM and provide them with the tools and strategies they need to implement them in their daily work effectively. This includes teaching them how to communicate effectively with one another, how to share information and resources, and how to work together as a team to achieve the best possible outcomes for their patients. In addition to training programs, many medical organizations have also implemented CRM-related policies and procedures. These guidelines provide clear direction on how healthcare workers should approach their work and interact with one another, focusing on improving communication, coordination, and collaboration.

The medical community has increasingly adopted a focus on safety culture from the aviation community, which aims to ensure that patient care is performed to minimize the risk of harm. According to Lawati et al. (2018), there are millions of people who suffer injuries and various disabilities annually because of unsafe medical practices. Therefore, this shift has been driven by several factors, including the increasing complexity of medical procedures and treatments, the increasing frequency of medical errors, and the growing awareness of the importance of patient safety. One of the key ways in which the medical community has adopted the focus on safety culture is through the implementation of standardized protocols and procedures. In the aviation industry, standard operating procedures are well-established and widely followed, designed to ensure that all pilots perform consistently and safely. In the medical community, standardized protocols and procedures have been developed for multiple procedures, including surgical procedures, medication administration, and infection control. By following these protocols and procedures, healthcare professionals can reduce the likelihood of errors and improve patient safety. In addition, the medical community has also incorporated the use of incident reporting systems. In the aviation industry, pilots are required to report any incidents or near-misses, allowing airlines to identify potential safety issues and take steps to prevent them. In the medical community, incident reporting systems have also been implemented, allowing healthcare professionals to report emergency incidents such as accidents, allowing hospitals and other healthcare facilities to identify potential safety issues and take steps to prevent them from occurring in the future.

The technological advancements in the aviation industry have greatly influenced the medical community. One significant way in which this has occurred is through the use of advanced imaging technologies. In the aviation industry, advanced imaging technologies such as Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) are used to diagnose issues with aircraft and ensure their safety before takeoff. These same technologies have been adopted and adapted by the medical community for use in diagnosing and treating various medical conditions in humans. For example, CT scanners and MRIs allow doctors to view detailed images of the inside of the human body, providing them with crucial information about a patients condition. This allows for greater conformity and effective delivery of dosage to illnesses such as tumors, ultimately improving patient outcomes (Beaton et al., 2019). Additionally, the medical community has adopted the aviation industrys use of advanced data analysis and monitoring systems. These systems allow doctors to track and analyze a patients vital signs and other health metrics in real time, allowing for early detection and intervention in potential medical emergencies.

The medical community has improved patient care by adopting similar policies from the aviation industry, such as checklists, crew resource management (CRM), safety culture, and technological improvements. These strategies have helped improve communication and coordination among healthcare workers and enhance their decision-making and problem-solving skills. Checklists are used in surgeries or other medical practices as a key tool to ensure that all necessary steps are performed correctly without any potential risks or complications arising. In addition to using checklists and CRM, the medical community has also adopted a focus on safety culture and technological advancements from the aviation industry to ensure that patient care is performed to minimize the risk of harm.

References

Beaton, L., Bandula, S., Gaze, M. N., & Sharma, R. A. (2019). How rapid advances in imaging are defining the future of precision radiation oncology. British Journal of Cancer, 120(8), 779-790. Web.

Lawati, M. H., Dennis, S., Short, S. D., & Abdulhadi, N. N. (2018). Patient safety and safety culture in primary health care: A systematic review. BMC Family Practice, 19(1), 1-12. Web.

Man, A. P., Lam, C. K., Cheng, B. C., Tang, K., & Tang, P. (2019). Impact of locally adopted simulation-based crew resource management training on patient safety culture: Comparison between operating room personnel and general health care populations pre and post course. American Journal of Medical Quality, 35(1), 79-88. Web.

Papadakis, M., Meiwandi, A., & Grzybowski, A. (2019). The WHO safer surgery checklist time out procedure revisited: Strategies to optimise compliance and safety. International Journal of Surgery, 69, 19-22. Web.

Introduction

In the last decade, social media has experienced a paradigm shift as an online communication category where content is created, shared, bookmarked, and networked at a prodigious speed. This report examines social media tools to comprehend how they are utilized to facilitate analytical response capabilities by airlines for effective crisis management and emergency response. The paper explores the main social media roles in aviation crisis management and emergency response. These functions are mapped in the primary crisis and response phases in aviation, which are preparedness, response, and recovery. Several case study airlines are mentioned in relation to the effective use of social media in managing past crises and emergency response strategies.

Crisis Management in the Aviation Industry and Social Media

As a critical function of an airline, crisis management involves strategic planning and proactive incident response to unpredictable situations as they unfold. These events have cascading effects that may undermine an airlines ability to effectively operate in addition to causing serious harm to reputation, assets, structures, and customers (Cohn 2014). The emergence of a plethora of different social media tools has redefined the crisis management landscape in the aviation industry in the last ten years with possibilities for a quantifiable social action quickly becoming a reality. With the advent of many online software tools such as news aggregators and discussion platforms, airlines are now in a position to acquire, disseminate, and review information more comprehensively and efficiently (Coombs 2014).

For instance, effective use of social media tools could prevent a developing crisis from escalating out of control because of its ability to efficiently aggravate a situation when it is unfolding. As a catalyst, social media is undeniably a force for communication and planning in the modern aviation industry. This is because the speed of its impact is fast and predictable. Ultimately, social media is a critical tool that can instigate positive outcomes through accelerating and facilitating the breath and speed of communication, when utilized properly. Specifically, social media is an instrumental aspect of crisis preparedness, response, and recovery in the aviation industry.

Comprehending the Social Media Landscape in the Aviation Industry

According to Haddow and Haddow (2013, p. 41), social media devoid of purpose and content would do little to enable people to prepare, respond and recover in the face of disasters. Since social media facilitates communication and social interaction via the online Internet-based platforms, the aviation industry may use different tools such as bookmarking sites, social blogs and networks, content communities, collaborative projects, and social reviews to develop and plan different crisis management and emergency response strategies. For instance, social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter are significant tools for channeling communication in the form of relevant updates about unfolding situations during a crisis is the aviation industry.

Bookmarking sites are the airline websites where information could be posted, stored, shared, and classified using folksonomy techniques (Haddow & Haddow 2013). This means that the visibility of websites of different airlines could be increased when people share and tag content. Collaborative projects such as communal databases are instrumental in generating and sharing content with the global Internet community. Moreover, content communities such as YouTube and Flickr are ideal for sharing different information such as videos, audio, and photos. Lastly, social reviews are websites enabling users to rate, share, and search information besides providing recommendations (Zhi & Kaoru 2017). Thus, social reviews could be used to influence inclinations and perceptions at the mass-market level. Unlike traditional media forms that are restricted to a place and limited in reach, the above social media tools are capable of overcoming place barriers to reach and influence the perception of many people within a shorter time.

In terms of unique characteristics of social media tools, the aviation industry may gain through differential effect in the application when disseminating information internally or externally before, during, and after a crisis to take full command of every situation. In contrast to traditional media that limiting, social media tools have the merit of increased collectivity, which serves to connect the entire global population irrespective of time zones or geographical boundaries via various common platforms. This wider appeal may be used to foster the expansion of online communities by airlines, depending on the interest at hand (Haddow & Haddow 2013). Connectivity traits may enable airlines to reach users through a single link that can be shared. Since social media is capable of capturing contributions from many users and storing them in a persistent state, the aviation industry is empowered to exploit the complete nature of this communication tool to effectively manage crisis and respond to an emergency (Coombs 2014). Moreover, the clarity nature of social media websites makes it highly visible and content posted may quickly go viral. Besides, social media encourages collaborative interaction in different online platforms through feedback tracking.

Harnessing Different Social Media Tools: Augmenting Capabilities in Crisis Management and Emergency Response within the Aviation Industry

Crises with the aviation industry are complex and characterized by disproportionate impacts changing at varying speeds. Through the effective harnessing of social media tools, airlines are able to significantly enhance their organizational capacities in demonstrating resilience in responding to these crises. For instance, social media platforms could be used to create new avenues for active collaboration to create strong communities in the short and long term (Haddow & Haddow 2013). At the onset of any crisis, responders and managers may be able to access information from social blogs and networks to identify its source and severity. This information may then be distributed consistently among affected communities. Moreover, as links and other consistent resources are shared and tagged, crisis managers can evaluate its magnitude from the recommendations made by experts. This means that social media is a critical tool in gathering and search for information besides responding to preceding developments promptly.

Social media tools may also be used by airlines to expand their online community capacity in preparing and anticipating crises. For instance, the collaborative project sites could be expediently initiated in different social media platforms to empower expert communities with a rich database of content to analyze and validate the information that could support intervention opportunities during a crisis (Austin & Jin 2017, p. 56). Moreover, the aviation industry crisis responders, and managers will be in a position to effectively monitor these content communities to highlight any potential hotspots or emerging trends, which are flashpoints in crisis management. Over time, different crisis management groups in the aviation industry will be able to timely mine different databases for relevant content based on social reviews to pinpoint themes and concerns being conveyed online (Hatcliffe 2018). At the same time, the crisis management committee may contact the key contributors to gain insightful feedback for supplementary investigation.

Understanding social medias role in crisis management and emergency response requires examining its purpose, core activity, stakeholders, information content, treatment of information, software tools, and output (Fla 2014). In terms of purpose, social media is ideal in engaging a wider aviation community using different interactive and creative social platforms to increase association with like-minded people for effective response. The aspect of core activity is significant in generating actionable knowledge using the robust capabilities on social media platforms to sustain timely insights and decision-making systems. It is inherent to bring all stakeholders on board since a single airline cannot have a monopoly of information.

This means that an ideal crisis management strategy involves collecting a myriad of information that is transmitted to different audiences using social platforms (Austin & Jin 2017). Therefore, the aviation industry may use social media to undertake a strategic crowdsourcing as an alternative in gathering different perspectives of resulting challenges and their effective or innovative solutions to enhance crisis management and emergency response. The element of information content is critical in analyzing emerging issues as a result of a crisis and its effects. Focusing on discrete data is not sufficient in generating meaningful insights that might be used to guide response to a crisis (Hatcliffe 2018). Thus, social media capabilities are ideal in enabling aviation industry crisis managers to review existing interdependences of factual discrete data to foster a comprehensive knowledge of the emergent effects of these emerging issues.

Adopting different social media platforms that have capabilities of supporting information sharing and transparency in aviation industry crisis management may facilitate proactive streamlining and integration of response processes to meet stakeholders information needs and improve the accuracy and speed of crisis communication. According to Hayes and Kotwica (2013, p. 87), a crisis response formulated by considering special assessments, stakeholder perspectives and crowdsourced opinions using social media would enable stakeholders to make better decisions. For instance, unlike in-house systems used by airlines that cannot be integrated with external networks, social media has many open-source platforms laden with flexible tools for gathering information. These platforms also equip crisis responders with management capabilities for enhanced workstreams and analytical processes.

Applying Social Media Tools in Crisis Management and Emergency Response

The process of crisis management and emergency response in the aviation industry is categorized into three phases, which are crisis preparedness, crisis, response, and crisis recovery. In these phases, as captured in figure 1, social media tools are significant in information gathering, disaster training, and planning, collaborative decision-making and problem-solving, and information dissemination.

In the phase of crisis preparedness, which is focused on primary preventive activities aimed at reducing known and unknown risks that might escalate into a crisis, social media could be used as a tool for providing information on training and planning the existing crisis management teams in the aviation industry. At the crisis response phase, social media could be used to speed up the initial response strategies for general effectiveness (Zhi & Kaoru 2017). For instance, social platforms such as Facebook and Twitter could be used by airlines to communicate situational awareness, which is an essential aspect of proportional response in the event of a crisis. Using these social networks is critical, especially in engaging the stakeholder networks as part of data gathering, analysis, and timely dissemination of information. Moreover, the crisis recovery phase in the aviation industry is very complex since it requires strategic and prolonged planning to effectively restore the crisis situation back to normalcy.

Information dissemination through social media in aviation crisis management and emergency response is an ideal platform for the provision of reliable information to crisis responders. For instance, this information facilitates proactive preparedness in responding to a crisis situation. This means that information dissemination effectiveness is dependent on penetration and research of relevant social media platforms. For instance, Malaysia was able to provide information via social media during the management of an air accident over Syria in 2013. Based on information gathered, crisis responders were empowered by the disseminated communication through a focused and streamlined response mechanism (Fla 2014).

Social media is a significant tool in disaster planning and training within the aviation industry. This platform has gamification leverages that could be tapped for planning and facilitating training to proactively promote scenario, personnel, and collaborative exercises during or before a crisis. Social media sites could be used to manage the partnering agencies during the crisis by enhancing risk handling practices. For instance, the Cubana de Aviacion Flight 972 accident on May 18^th, 2018 was effectively handled through a social media site created to bring together aviation disaster response experts (Hatcliffe 2018). These groups were able to work as a team to quickly address the crisis and develop recommendations that will be essential in handling a similar occurrence in the future.

Crowdsourcing via social media may facilitate collaborative problem-solving or decision-making in aviation crisis management and emergency response. Specifically, crisis responders have an access to various information streams available on web-based and mobile technologies to fill the perceived sense-making and information gaps as well as to aggregate, analyze and plot data about urgent crisis needs (Coombs 2014, p. 49). Over time, the knowledge base will grow and response authorities will be in a position to better respond and manage different scenarios leading to a crisis. For example, airlines across the globe have made it a policy on situational awareness as driven by emerging trends to guarantee an informed decision-making process when handling the crisis.

Since information gathering is an important aspect of disaster assessment, airlines across the globe may use social media to effectively coordinate any response. For instance, Emirates Airline has integrated the use of a social community platform that has capabilities of leveraging mobile texts, emails, and applications on smartphones to enable all the stakeholders to communicate their perceptions, concerns, and thoughts about on-going situations that might turn into a crisis (Hatcliffe 2018). As a result, this airline has enhanced its capabilities in crisis management based on the gathered data.

Aviation Industry Frameworks in Enhancing Social Media Capabilities: Strategic Crisis Management and Emergency Response

Since the current crises in the aviation industry are complex, it is important to integrate an effective framework with the capacity for enhancing the use of social media in crisis management and emergency response. The framework may foster a coordinated and systematic approach to communication, planning, and responding to a crisis. Emirates Airline has integrated this framework to sustain the use of social media in managing unexpected situations. As captured in figure 2, this approach combines strategic guidelines, capability development, and measurement of response activities.

Section 1 involves integrating the value of different social media tools in the crisis management plan as a primary approach to the management of crisis situations. As a result, airlines will be able to send consistent and strong messages to multiple agencies managing a crisis-related occurrence (Hayes & Kotwica 2013). Section 2 is vital in establishing clear guidelines via social media to ensure that information is disseminated promptly to obtain needed intelligence or reassurance while harmonizing protocols and communication processes. Under capability development, the aspects of early detection, optimized task-handling, integrated feedback, and alert system via social media would facilitate straightforward and seamless communication to complement existing response processes (Zhi & Kaoru 2017). In the end, crisis management and emergency response will be enhanced. Lastly, measurement activities using appropriate indicators to monitor social media tools in use many facilitate the continuous evaluation of current crisis management plans to optimize operational efficiency, organizational insights, and benchmarking efforts.

Conclusion

Leveraging different social media technologies for aviation crisis management and emergency response provides stakeholders with expansive roles in managing and preparing for a crisis. Social media has unique characteristics such as connectedness, clarity, collectivity, completeness, and collaboration. These features have expanded the use of social media increasingly in supporting different crisis management and emergency response functions in the aviation industry. As a result, airlines can respond to crises through disaster training and planning, information dissemination, information gathering, and collaborative decision-making, and problem-solving.

Reference List

Austin, L & Jin, Y (eds.) 2017, Social media and crisis communication, Taylor & Francis, New York, NY.

Cohn, R 2014, How social media is elevating airline crisis communication.

Coombs, T 2014, Ongoing crisis communication: planning, managing, and responding, 4th edn, SAGE Publications, California, CA.

Fla, T 2014, Malaysia airlines flight 17: does social media help or hurt disaster response.

Haddow, G & Haddow, K 2013, Disaster communications in a changing media world, 2nd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

Hatcliffe, M 2018, Three recent crisis management case studies that we can learn from.

Hayes, B & Kotwica, K 2013, Crisis management at the speed of the internet: trend report, Elsevier, New York, NY.

Zhi, L & Kaoru, O 2017, Smart technologies for emergency response and disaster management, IGI Global, New York, NY.

Defining the costs of poor quality for an aviation company, one must admit that the risks are far too high. Seeing that the quality of an aircraft or certain devices used by the pilots defines the safety of the flight and the landing, it can be assumed that poor rates thereof may lead to accidents. Therefore, maintaining quality rates at a consistently high level is crucial. Unless the appropriate measures are taken, the organization is likely to suffer the costs related to the loss of customers, reduction in the workforce drops in revenues, reputation issues, and even possible lawsuits in case of injuries or deaths.

A drop in the companys revenues is the first and the most likely outcome to follow the reduction in quality rates as a result of non-compliance with the Six Sigma approach. As soon as the clients realize that the organization no longer delivers the products of the required quality, the will most likely switch to purchasing aircraft from the organizations with higher quality assurance standards.

With the reduction in revenues, a decrease in staff salaries is expected. Consequently, staff satisfaction rates will also drop. Therefore, resignations are to be expected (Cost of poor quality  COPQ. iSix Sigma, n. d.). Another obvious cost that the firm will have to pay sooner or later if the quality rates drop concerns the impressive reduction in the reputation rates of the organization in the realm of the global economy. While the reputation issue might seem not as big a threat as it seemed several decades ago, the situation has changed drastically now. Because of the numerous tools for ranking specific services on a certain scale, the lack of quality control in the company will be exposed to all those concerned or interested within days or even hours.

The loss of clients, which the Sikorsky organization will suffer as a result of the negative reviews that it is highly likely to receive is another negative effect of refusing from applying the principles of Six Sigma to the framework of entrepreneurship. Not only will the firm fail to attract new customers but also most likely lose the ones that it has now. With a drop in customer loyalty rates, Sikorsky is expected to sink in the highly competitive environment of the global economy (Pyzdek, & Keller, 2014).

Finally, the possibility of having a legal issue to face needs to be brought up as a highly likely consequence of failing to follow the Six Sigma principles. In case the customers suffer damages or injuries in the course of transportation, they are likely to file a lawsuit against the organization. Thus, the aircraft company will have to confront the organizations that purchased the aircraft and suffered accidents due to the firms negligence.

The necessity to maintain high-quality rates is obvious for an aviation organization, as low rates thereof will lead to not only a drop in customer satisfaction rates but also lack of enthusiasm among the staff members, reduction of the firms profit margins, a poor reputation, and even the possibility of a lawsuit, not to mention the need to pay refunds to the customers. Therefore, the principles of Six Sigma framework must be applied to the key processes and operations. As long as there is a solid foundation for entrepreneurship to convince the staff to assure quality, entrepreneurship will flourish.

Reference List

Cost of poor quality  COPQ. iSix Sigma. (n. d.). Web.

Pyzdek, T., & Keller, P. (2014).The Six Sigma handbook (4th ed.). New York City, NY: McGraw Hill Professional.

Introduction

Many industries today face the challenge of detecting and preventing terrorism. The challenge is not significantly different for the commercial air travel sector. However, it can be acknowledged that the aviation industry remains a high-profile target for terrorist organizations. Airport security and screening have, in response to increased threats, advanced to include technological innovations and behavioral detection mechanisms. These two approaches work together to improve the detection of suspicious activity and persons and help avert terrorism. This paper presents a critical analysis of aviation security paying attention to behavioral detection and other technological advancements. An examination of these developments leading to greater airport security will be presented considering the evolving nature of terrorism activities. Lastly, the critical analysis will explore the efficacy of current international conventions and other legislations in providing deterrence against modern aviation security threats.

Behavioral Detection and Other Technologies

The events of September 11^th, 2001 have resulted in significant developments in airport security and screening. Many studies of aviation safety examine the trade-offs for safety improvements. According to Sakano, Obeng, and Fuller (2016), the results have included longer waiting lines at the screening points. Additionally, passengers have expressed unpleasant experiences and other inconveniences which could potentially reduce demand for air travel. These inconveniences are a compromise the industry is willing to make to avoid serious breaches of security.

Behavioral detection has been used alongside other safety technologies to alleviate potential threats. Trained personnel can assess human actions and determine when malice is intended. The primary benefit of this approach is that, even though not conclusively, it can help determine further screening actions to make sure the risk is present or absent. The screening technologies are the more prominent ones in an examination of the advances in aviation security. An example given by Sakano, Obeng, and Fuller (2016) involves an online risk-based process where the customers are pre-qualified for different levels of screening. Behavioral detection, it can be argued, can also work with the security officers directing the passengers to different screening points based on their assessment of the level of risk involved.

Behavioral and cognitive sciences are the foundation of behavioral detection. Scientists in these fields are, therefore, poised for the security community in the identification of reliable behavioral indicators. These can then be used in the empirical examination of the threat performance (Sweet, Meisner, and Atkinson, 2017). Today, several studies illustrate how behavioral, cognitive sciences, and threat detection programs, can help law enforcers distinguish concealed objects which resemble threat devices both at a single target level and in the crowds. The most important idea behind behavioral detection and related programs is that threat markers are isolated through passive identification. However, further research may need to be undertaken to determine the success level of the officers using their behavioral judgment. Sweet, Meisner, and Atkinson (2017) emphasize that it is unfortunate that only a few studies have systematically assessed the nonverbal indicators of threat and concealment which is the primary screening method used by security personnel. Therefore, behavioral detection remains a vague area of scholarly exploration.

It is important to highlight that the behavioral approaches can be critiqued for various weaknesses, especially when subjected to scientific examination. Behavioral detection can be described as a collection of approaches based on social psychology (Maguire and Fussey, 2016). The ecological validity of these tactics is often questioned due to the use of small sample sizes. Additionally, the ontological and epistemological concerns further dispute many of the scientifically approved techniques for distinguishing suspicious behavior. For instance, people often assume a binary moral world consisting of good and evil, where all wrongdoers are supposed to be aware of their supposed turpitude. Additionally, there is also the self-awareness of the deceptive nature of certain behaviors. Therefore, the lines between illegal and legal are hard to determine among the transgressors.

Even with the weaknesses mentioned above, behavioral detection can still be appreciated for its contribution to improving aviation security. The main goal of behavioral detection is to identify high-risk individuals and to subject them to further scrutiny. The main advantages, therefore, include that the approaches are unobtrusive and are applied in real-time (Dynon, 2018). Additionally, they help the security officers to focus on the person rather than the weapon which allows behavioral detection to be deployed in various settings configurations. They are also free of large equipment footprints since only the intelligence of the personnel is needed. It is easier for security officers to identify suspicious behaviors because offenders are known to have fear of being discovered or anxiety and stress often preceding a terrorist attack. A checklist developed in the United States by the Transport Security Authority (TSA) highlights behaviors such as excessive yawning, throat clearing, and complaints regarding the screening process. Other behaviors include late arrival for a flight, gazing down, pale faces, visible disguise, and the pretense not to understand questions.

Without the statistical and empirical evidence, however, the deficiencies of behavioral detection will dominate the current discussion. Firstly, the approach has been labeled unscientific and described as having less or the same effectiveness as chance (Dynon, 2018). According to Maguire and Fussey (2016), behavioral detection hardly achieves a 50% accuracy in identifying deception. Deception, therefore, becomes the greatest point of weakness in these approaches. Sweet, Meisner, and Atkinson (2017) find that there is inadequate research in lie detection to show the success of identifying reliable nonverbal or passive indicators of deceptive responses. Additionally, there is no evidence of officers training on deception detection via nonverbal channels. The researchers also support that nonverbal indicators have the same impact as chance.

Behavioral detection, however, is often not implemented on its own, especially in the current era of the digital revolution. There currently exist some algorithms used for behavioral detection that could work better than human judgment. Even so, there would need to be empirical evidence to suggest that these new technologies have significantly improved aviation security. The technological developments have been fuelled by advances in computational power and data. The application of artificial intelligence and robotics has led to enormous enhancements in capabilities which have provided security-sensitive environments comprising lie detection and non-invasive threat identification. Additionally, they help in the prediction of criminal activity and tracing diseases and illicit intentions (Blum, 2020). With these technologies, it can be argued that behavioral detection becomes easier and more effective in providing aviators with the ultimate security.

The use of innovative technologies in aviation security systems has several advantages. Apart from improved success, the airlines can also benefit from speedier screening processes and avoid the inconveniences and unpleasant passenger experiences such as long wait times. These benefits have been highlighted by Sakano, Obeng, and Fuller (2016) who state that the TSA is already deploying these technologies to increase passenger satisfaction and reduce wait times. New screening equipment is faster and more effective and involves the use of a computer-assisted passenger prescreening system (CAPPS). This approach works by categorizing air travelers into two risk classes. Further development in this technology, labeled CAPPS II, comprises three classes, including one containing those individuals who are not permitted to fly. In the United States, the TSA also requires airlines flying into the country to submit to the immigration department the list of passengers 30 minutes before departing. Such an arrangement allows the authorities more time to pre-screen all people going into the US before their arrival. The low or no-risk individuals can be allowed into the nation while those classified as high-risk can be subjected to further screening upon arrival.

With behavior detection technologies, the most important question asked regards the type of information processed. To emphasize the concept, the basic idea in behavioral detection is that the internal emotional processes tend to produce detectable physical changes which can be captured using sensors. These indicators can then be processed and understood, as well as used to create alerts depending on the algorithm used (Blum, 2020). The technologies offer a multi-modal approach in which every factor can be taken into account. Blum (2020) expresses that in aviation, behavioral detection depends on both nonverbal and verbal elements and is based on the premise that criminals tend to show signals which differ from normal behavior. In addition to the TSA checklist mentioned earlier on, Blum (2020) adds other aspects such as biometrics, facial expressions, perspiration, temperature, and lack of eye contact and classifies them under micro factors. At the macro level, hiding faces and entire bodies or even attempting to conduct surveillance are key indicators of criminal intent.

The combination of behavioral detection and technological tools can have led to the emergence of the concept of tech-science as applied in counter-terrorism. Researchers such as Maguire and Fussey (2016) describe counter-terrorism techno-science as the contemporary response to the events of September 11^th, 2001, and the shoe-bomber attack. Techno-science provided counter-terrorism apparatus which deviate from the traditional threat detection and prevention. The United States remains the best example of how techno-science is deployed with projects such as the Automated Virtual Agent for Truth Assessments in Real-time (AVATAR). AVATAR is a behavioral-psychological examination combined with facial recognition systems housed in an ATM-sized machine. Other developments by the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) include Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST), which is a mobile security infrastructure that individuals pass through in high-risk areas such as mega-events and airports (Maguire and Fussey, 2016). Regardless of the functioning of these techno-science apparatus, the basic idea is that persons with criminal intent can be identified using the signals they display.

It can be argued, therefore, that behavioral detection deployed on its own cannot assure any significant improvements in aviation security. It is indeed the new technologies that make behavioral detection a feasible approach. The new equipment, as evidenced by the deployments by the TSA, makes it possible to conclusively determine those behaviors which point toward a potential terrorist. Without the help of the digital apparatus, human judgment becomes less effective than chance as insisted by researchers such as Maguire and Fussey (2016). It has been expressed earlier that detecting deception is the one area in which behavioral detection fails almost entirely. According to Dillon, Burns, and John (2018), computing detection probabilities have eliminated the need to rely on expert assessments in securing critical infrastructure such as nuclear power plants. In this discussion, airports are considered key infrastructure with global importance and, therefore, the computing systems should replace human judgment in behavioral detection.

The current research shows that behavioral detection and counter-terrorism techno-science has the potential to prevent security breaches and terror attacks. However, the inadequate scholarly work on behavioral detection and the fact that the new technologies are still novel means that the extent to which these apparatuses are effective is yet to be fully understood. The TSA has developed several projects but their success is either not yet documented or availed to the general public. Other innovations such as fuzzy knowledge base and equipment-specific methods discussed by Gladkikh et al. (2019) are merely propositions and theoretical frameworks without hard evidence. The concepts, however, are feasible from a theoretical point of view and the fact that TSA invests heavily in them means there is either the potential or the organization is recording great success in the new methodologies.

Efficacy of Current International Conventions and Legislations

International conventions and legislations are often pursued by global entities such as the United Nations (UN), European Union (EU), and major industry-specific organizations such as International Air Transport Association (IATA) representing the aviation industry. These bodies have developed multiple policies on anti-terrorism, often in cooperation with major world governments. Aviation is a global industry meaning terrorism in one airline or airport could affect more than one country. Therefore, the examination of the efficacy of the current international conventions and legislations in averting terrorist threats will focus majorly on these global aviation institutions.

It is important to emphasize that international aviation organizations often work jointly with others with similar interests. For example, a press release by International Air Transport Association (2020) indicated that IATA seeks to cooperate with the United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism (UNOCT) to inhibit terrorist travel. The memorandum of understanding between these two bodies was signed to initiate a flagship program that uses advanced passenger information (API) and passenger name records (PNR) among other traveler data as per the Security Council resolutions such as 2178 of 2014, 2396 of 2017, and 2482 of 2019 (International Air Transport Association, 2020). These resolutions provide conventions agreed to by international governments as globally-accepted counter-terrorism frameworks and conventions.

The efficacy of the international conventions can be examined by looking into how each convention is framed and implemented, as well as any empirical data showing success levels. The conventions have been developed since 1963 and over 16 of them have been initiated and approved under the auspices of the UN (Einsiedel, 2016). One of the most current conventions is the 2005 Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. Their framing indicates that the UN and its members agree that all acts of terrorism should be suppressed. However, they fail to offer a clear implementation plan or guideline meaning they remain relatively ineffective. Therefore, each country is left to deal with the internal terrorism problems using its own counter-terrorism infrastructure, policies, and methodologies. According to Einsiedel (2016), efforts to develop a comprehensive and all-encompassing counter-terrorism convention have dodged the UN. The explanation for this observation is that the world nations cannot agree on how to define terrorism and on whether the definition should include the term state terrorism denoting the terror acts conducted by armed forces on non-combatants.

The UN Charter is the basis for all international laws, including laws about state terrorism. However, some authors feel that terrorism can also be a tool for the dispossessed meaning that countries mostly have to deal with non-state actors (NSAs) (Trapp, 2016). The international resolutions, therefore, provide the governments with a cooperative framework for suppressing terrorism which involves the formulation of criminal law enforcement agreements which seek to secure individual responsibility (Trapp, 2016). In civil aviation, conventions such as the 1971 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, which came into effect in 1973, allow the aviation authorities to undertake measures to prevent crime and related acts. This Act was passed in Montreal and was agreed upon by 188 member states. The main purpose was to help address acts of unlawful interference against civil aviation which were not addressed in the Hague Convention. It is important to acknowledge that the Montreal convention was in many ways similar to the Hague convention and the only need for a separate one was due to fears regarding the possibility of the conclusion of the Hague Convention.

Other agreements include the subsequent Protocol on the Suppression of Unlawful Act at Airports Serving International Aviation. It outlines how the 1971 treaty is to be implemented (Nesi, 2016). These treaties generalize all unlawful actions and it can be argued that acts of terror are included in the framing of the convention. One of the legislations which best addressed terrorism was the European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism which was passed in 1977. It made significant alterations to the extradition exercises between the member states and provided for the exercise of jurisdiction where extradition does not occur. In other words, it eliminated or eased the barriers to extradition by allowing those specific offenses cannot be classified as political and could, therefore, be subject to extradition. The provisions of this international legislation, it should be noted, include those offenses within the scope of both the Montreal and Hague conventions in addition to several others, such as liberty of internationally protected persons, the attack against life, and physical integrity.

These conventions have not necessarily be specific to the aviation industry and those focusing on the sector deal with general unlawful behavior. There has not been any empirical examination of their efficacy and any judgment will majorly lie within the extent of the application by the individual countries. Scholars and experts explain that the differences in ideologies cause different applications and implementation, as well as interpretations of certain aspects. One major issue observed by Sinnar (2019) is that countries find it hard to tell between acts of terrorism and those of violence, and many of them cannot decide whether to treat these two behaviors differently or as the same thing. Most importantly, policymakers in certain countries such as the United States have been shown to display bias and stereotypes either in the application of the conventions or in developing counter-terrorism policies. For example, counter-terrorism in the US has often led to the monitoring of Muslim communities with law enforcers intercepting phone conversations and obtaining secret internet records among other things. Without better guidelines and protocols, therefore, the international conventions remain largely ineffective in preventing breaches and attacks.

In essence, it is hard to tell how much of the international conventions and other legislations are implemented by individual countries. As mentioned earlier on, the activities and initiatives by international aviation agencies such as IATA and UNOCT remain the most visible applications of international counter-terrorism resolutions. However, it is important to acknowledge that the composition of treaties such as the Hague and Montreal conventions, or even the European convention on the suppression of terrorism, is plausible and commendable. This is because it provides a general agreement among states that all offenses are to be suppressed effectively to allow for a smooth operation of the aviation industry. Therefore, unless more research is done on the subject, it will remain difficult to appreciate the efficacy of the international conventions and other legislations in averting terrorism in aviation.

Conclusion

This paper discussed why the aviation industry is a high-profile target for terrorist organizations. For this reason, the aviation authorities and the national governments have pursued multiple mechanisms and strategies to secure critical infrastructures such as airports and airlines. Behavioral detection has become a widely used approach where security personnel identify suspicious activity and prevent potential terrorist acts. Without empirical evidence, this critical analysis paper finds it hard to explain its efficacy. However, the emergence of new technologies has given behavioral detection a new outlook and greater success potential. Also discussed is the extent to which conventions and legislations are effective in preventing terrorism. The conclusion reached is that these offer a framework through which local efforts in crime and terrorism prevention can be implemented.

Reference List

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This study analyses the involvement of women in the Nigerian Aviation Industry in historical perspective. It highlights the contributions, problems, roles from inception of the Nigeria airways in 1958 up to 2014. The Aviation industry involves all aspects of aviation, including airlines and training centers, vendors, flight crews ,Administrative and regulatory authorities.

The Aviation Industries works to transport people and products (cargo) throughout the world1.significant step in aviation came with the construction of the first powered airplane by the Wright brothers on December 17, 1903.2 However ,the aviation story began with an almost forgotten contributor to that great effort, their sister Katherine Wright. In remembering the financial and moral support, she provided to them, her brother Wilbur said “If ever the world thinks of us in connection with aviation, it must remember our sister3”.

As years and decades rolled by, the highly male-dominated industry in Nigeria experienced significant changes to incorporate female aviators; Though the pilots are the fundamental personnel in the industry known as aviatrix, women are found almost in all areas of the industry and have made significant strides and contributions as pilots, engineers, Air crew ,aviation training instructors, ground staff, Aviation minsters, in the administrative sector and the informal sector.

That being said, Women are a minority group in the Aviation industry, they faced and are still facing various challenges in their push to forge ahead, which resulted in setbacks to their effective growth in the industry4. In fact, many vital issues encountered in the past are still present and often overlooked in today’s aviation industry.5Their roles and contributions have mostly being left largely unnoticed and unsung.

This study chronicles the contributions and achievements, challenges and prospects of women in the Aviation Industry within the time frame specified.Women had made great contributions in the Aviation sector in Nigeria which should not be wished away. Women have always been wonderful builders ,hence there is need for more active involvement of the female gender to help grow the Industry . I contend that if Women are given better enabling position in the Aviation industry in Nigeria, they could significantly unlock their potentials and future growth.Therefore, identifying the problems encountered by women with effective corrective measure is necessary to keep, increase and motivate women in Aviation Industry in Nigeria. Likewise, I will discuss their contributions to the economic growth of Nigeria.

This study falls within the subfield of Socio-economic history. It depends on data which will be systematically collected from primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include Oral interviews of relevant people within (those who had worked and still working) and outside of the Aviation Industry. Also structured interviews with travel agencies and travelers during the period of study. Also I need to visit as many places that are relevant to this study to obtain information and documents. I will visit two important repositories; the National Archives in Ibadan and Lagos state research and Archival Bureau. I will visit Airline offices, Airports, Aviation Agencies.I will source documents from FAAN Training school Library.I will collect data from the Federal Airports Authority of Nigeria Training school databases.Necessary documents would be obtained from ministries and parastatals. Interviews and documents will be obtained from the regulatory agencies :This is the Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority (NCAA). The NCAA watches over the entire industry. It is the apex regulatory body, overseeing the activities of all airlines and their pilots, engineers, cabin staff, airports, airstrips and heliports, all airport authority and the air traffic service providers including the aviation training institutions.

Scholarly works relevant to the topic would be employed with some level of objectivity. And these sources of information will be rigorously checked for authenticity and quality assurance.

In conclusion, this study will show the impact of women in the Aviation industry in Nigeria ,the problems hindering their moving forward, their different roles, during the time frame specified; to state that women as human resources in the industry are indispensable to the growth of the Aviation industry and should therefore be given adequate attention they deserve. We are in the 21st century, a time for women to be well footed in every area of the Aviation Industry without dogged challenges over the years. A time of consideration and re-evaluation is imminent.