Category: Aviation

Short N.2B Seaplane (1917)

Short N.2B was designed and produced by Short Bros Ltd. It was planned as the improved version of those seaplanes which were used during World War I. However, Short N.2B was presented only in 1917. Short N.2B was worked out as a powerful patrol bomber seaplane with one engine, two-bay wings, and two seats (Barnes 1967). According to the military characteristics, Short N.2B could use one 7.7mm machine-gun and two 100kg bombs which were carried under its fuselage. Moreover, Short N.2B Seaplanes wingspan was 16.81 meters, length of 12.24 meters, and height 4.19 meters (Short N.2B).

It is interesting that initially, the manufacturers planned to use the Rolls-Royce Eagle engine. Nevertheless, it was ordered to use 260hp Sunbeam Maori I water-cooled in-line engine for the project of Short N.2B (Barnes 1967). Its engine and speed of 148 km/h were considered as the advantages of the seaplane (Short N.2B). However, the technical characteristics of Short N.2B Seaplane were checked only in 1918 (Barnes 1967).

When the manufacturers had analyzed the results of the test flights they decided to improve the project because the characteristics of Short N.2B were just the same as of the first versions of Shorts Seaplanes (Barnes 1967). Initially, there were developed two variants of the project. They were N66 and N67 (Short N.2B). The producers worked out the necessary improvements to Short N.2B Seaplane according to the results of their testing.

They saw the main problem of the seaplane in its not powerful engine (Barnes 1967). The next version was produced with the Rolls-Royce Eagle engine. However, the technical characteristics of the seaplane remained as they were in the previous model. Thus, there was no necessity in the further development of the project, and later Short N.2B Seaplane and its variations were mostly used for the researches and investigations of the designers and manufacturers in Britain (Barnes 1967).

Short N.2B is worth our proper examination because of the unique history of its creation. It was designed as a powerful patrol bomber. However, there was no opportunity to check its possibilities during military actions because of the constant process of the improvement of its technical characteristics. The study of the peculiarities of this seaplane gives us the chance to concentrate on the challenges of seaplane-producing in the period after World War I.

V-1 Flying Bomb (1944)

The V-1 can be considered as one of the most powerful bombs of this type in World War II which was designed by Robert Lusser and produced by Fieseler for the needs of Nazi Germany. The V-1 was a pilotless monoplane that was powered by a pulse-jet motor and carried a one-ton warhead (V-1 Flying Bombs). The appearance of this bomb on the war arena in 1944 had a great impact on the course of the military actions.

V-1 Flying Bombs were mostly created for the German attacks which were directed toward London. Thus, the V-1 was launched from a fixed ramp and traveled at about 350mph and 4,000ft and had a range of 150 miles (240km). It was 8 meters (25 feet) long and had a wingspan of about 5.5 meters (20 feet) (V-1 Flying Bombs). These characteristics of the V-1 Flying Bomb were the results of the process of a constant improvement of the project.

The first variant of the V-1 was planned with two engines. However, Robert Lusser developed the project, and now the V-1 had only one engine (V-1 Flying Bombs). The manufacturers used Argus As a 109-014 pulse jet engine for producing an effective flying bomb (V-1 Flying Bombs). To test the effectiveness of the V-1, there were worked out some first variants of the bomb. The designers and manufacturers were improving the technical characteristics of the V-1 and the possible tactics of its use according to the data of these tests during 1944-1945 (V1 Flying Bomb).

To have the opportunity to attack London and its suburbs successfully, Germany launched its new weapon from Pas-de-Calais on the northern coast of France (V-1 Flying Bombs). These attempts were taken in June of 1944 by Luftwaffe. The first ten attempts were not effective. However, the next ones gave their results. These attacks created panic in Britain and between mid-June and the end of July; around one and a half million people left London (V-1 Flying Bombs).

Moreover, the V-1 was capable of killing large numbers of people, inflicting terrible injuries and causing huge material damage to buildings and homes (V1 Flying Bomb). Even though the whole number of people who were killed by the V-1 was more than 6,000, by August only 20 percent of these bombs were reaching England (V1 Flying Bomb). Thus, the damage caused by these flying bombs was considerable.

The history of the development and use of V-1 Flying Bombs is worth examining because of the effects which were provided by the use of the V-1 for the course of the military actions between Germany and England during World War II. These effects depend on the peculiarities of the technical characteristics of V-1 Flying Bombs. Moreover, the V-1 Flying Bomb is characterized by unusual exterior and remarkable technical characteristics.

Vickers Valiant B.Mk.1 (1955)

The series of Valiant bombers was worked out during the 1940-1950s by the Vickers-Armstrongs in Britain. The first of the RAFs V-class bombers, the Valiant flew for the first time on 18 May 1951 and entered service with No. 138 Squadron early in 1955 (Vickers Valiant). Vickers Valiant was produced as a strategic long-range medium bomber and three versions of it were presented. Three prototypes and 104 productions of the Valiant were built, the last of these being completed and flying on August 27, 1957 (Vickers Valiant).

The history of creating and improving the technical characteristics of Vickers Valiant is rather long. Thus, they were planned as main bombers which could present the nuclear force of the Royal Air Forces of Britain. However, they were developed greatly and their functions were changed. The first Valiant B.1 was produced at RAF Gaydon which was re-opened to be the first V-Force base after World War II (Vickers Valiant).

Thus, the first of the new V-Bombers, the Vickers Valiant, entered service with No. 138 Sqn at RAF Gaydon, Warwickshire in January 1955. 138 moved to RAF Wittering and became fully operational in July 1955 (Vickers Valiant). The process of working out the powerful bomber was not finished. New versions of the improved Vickers Valiant were presented in the next years (Jones 2007). The most important advantages of the Valiant are using four Rolls-Royce Avon 204 turbojets and its ability to carry a 10,000-lb. nuclear bomb internally and 21 1,000-Ib. bombs (Vickers Valiant).

The power of Vickers Valiant was tested during the Suez Crisis when the first Valiant of 138, 148, 207 and 214 squadrons were deployed to RAF Luqa in Malta (Vickers Valiant). Vickers Valiant was used as one of the most significant military forces which were involved in the conflict. The attacks began in October of 1956 when there were the first attempts to stop Egyptian and Israeli fighting around the Suez Canal (Vickers Valiant). These airfield attacks were no occurring, and they continued until 4 November, by which time the Egyptian Air Force had been decimated (Vickers Valiant).

Vickers Valiant produced by the Vickers-Armstrongs presented the most significant nuclear forces of the Royal Air Forces of Britain during the 1950-1960s. That is why the process of their working out and developing requires our proper consideration. These aircraft were rather unique in their technical characteristics in that period and affected the development of some more similar bombers.

English Electric Lightning F.Mk.1 (1960)

The most significant aircraft of the period of the Cold War was English Electric Lightning F.Mk.1. The only all-British supersonic aircraft to enter production, and the last all-British single-seat fighter, the English Electric Lightning defended United Kingdom air space for more than twenty-five years (English Electric Lightning). It was first designed and produced by English Electric which later became part of the British Aircraft Corporation (McLelland 2009).

The technical characteristics of English Electric Lightning F.Mk.1 are worth our examination. All the versions of English Electric Lightning were constantly developed by the manufactures to gain the highest technical qualities. However, almost canceled at one point, it suffered from chronic underdevelopment throughout much of its career and this adversely affected its export potential (English Electric Lightning).

The first aircraft of this series was produced in July of 1948 as the result of a long research process and of working out the plan and its definite design. It was known as Project 1 (McLelland 2009). The next versions were produced during the next some years. They were characterized by high-speed qualities. XM134 was the first full production Lightning F.Mk 1, making its first flight on 29 October 1959 (English Electric Lightning).

However, this version was also improved, and later the manufacturers presented their F. Mk 1A version served with Nos.51 and 111 Sqns (English Electric Lightning). The producers paid much attention to the improvement of the armament possibilities of the aircraft. Thus, the main advantages of English Electric Lightning F.Mk.1 are in such characteristics as using two engines of Rolls-Royce Avon 200R class, two 30 mm ADEN cannons, and Ferranti Al-23 radar (McLelland 2009).

English Electric Lightning F.Mk.1 was worked out for use by the Royal Arms Forces of Britain during the Cold War because of the threat of Russian bombers (McLelland 2009). Moreover, this aircraft was also widely used in numerous airshows. The latest variations of English Electric Lightning were used not only by the Royal Arms Forces of Britain but also by the Royal Saudi Air Force (McLelland 2009).

The history of developing the English Electric Lightning series and especially of English Electric Lightning F.Mk.1 is quite notable. This type of aircraft is prominent because of its high speed and remarkable metal exterior design which allows distinguishing it from the other aircraft successfully.

Schempp-Hirth Cirrus (1973)

Schempp-Hirth Cirrus is a great example of a glider that can be widely used for city needs. The most prominent variations of Schempp-Hirth Cirrus were produced during the period of 1970-1980s. Initially, Schempp-Hirth Cirrus was designed and built by Schempp-Hirth in Germany, and later it was produced according to the license in Yugoslavia (Schiff 2007).

The history of working out the glider and of its improvement is very long. Every year the manufacturers put some new modifications into the process of creating Schempp-Hirth Cirrus. The technical characteristics of Schempp-Hirth Cirrus are rather unique. The length of its wings firstly was planned as 17.74 meters, and in the next variations, this number was changed (Schiff 2007). Thus, the main advantages of Schempp-Hirth Cirrus models are in the improved wings, bigger airbrakes, and longer nose in comparison with the other projects (Hirschel, Prem and Madelung 2004).

The manufacturers also paid much attention to the development of Schempp-Hirth Cirruss tailplane (Schiff 2007). Moreover, Schempp-Hirth Cirrus was produced according to the standards of the first-class gliders. That is why it can be considered as the most comfortable variant for gliding in the sky of Europe with its mild climate (Schiff 2007). Its technical characteristics are as following: Schempp-Hirth Cirruss length is 7.20 meters, and its capacity is 98 kg water ballast. Furthermore, its rate of sink is 0.5 m/s, and there can be used airfoil FX 66-196/161 (Hirschel, Prem and Madelung 2004).

Schempp-Hirth Cirrus is very remarkable in its exterior with very long wings. Moreover, it can be characterized by quite notable technical qualities. It is also significant that despite the fact Schempp-Hirth Cirrus has a long history of its development its latest variations are still used for the city needs in Europe.

References

Barnes, C (1967) Shorts Aircraft since 1900. London, Putnam.

English Electric Lightning, n.d. Aeroflight. Web.

Hirschel, E, Prem, H, and Madelung, G (2004) Aeronautical research in Germany: from Lilienthal until today. New York, Springer.

Jones, B (2007) V-Bombers: Valiant, Vulcan, and Victor. Malborough, UK, Crowood Press.

McLelland, T (2009) English Electric Lightning: Britains first and last Supersonic Interceptor. Surrey, UK, Ian Allen Publishing.

Schiff, B (2007) Dream aircraft: the most fascinating airplanes Ive ever flown. The USA, Aviation Supplies and Academics, Inc.

Short N.2B, n.d. Virtual Aircraft Museum. Web.

Vickers Valiant, n.d. Aviation: the first 100 years. Web.

V1 Flying Bomb, n.d. FlyingBombsandRockets. Web.

V-1 Flying Bombs, n.d. Spartacus Educational. Web.

Executive Summary

The following report aims to observe and analyze the current functions of automation within the aviation industry. As such, the primary goal of the paper is to address the exact processes by which automation enhances or modifies the experience of pilots, flight attendants, and passengers through qualitative literature analysis. Using industry-relevant and academic literature, the study aims to categorize the various functions of automation and their advantages to the current operations within the industry. The report provides an analysis of the relevance and efficiency of these functions. Further, the paper will aim to find gaps in the current application of automation and potential approaches for future interventions in order to improve the presence of automation in the industry. Currently, available research suggests that automation functions promote safety through cohesion with human interference but interfaces are underdeveloped.

Introduction

Automation is one of the more novel facets of modern-day aviation. While many processes have been aided by automation throughout flights, the concept continues to evolve and appear within commercial travel. As such, automation in the field of aviation can be characterized as the use of multiple control systems and devices to improve flights and reduce the necessity of human interference. Air traffic control systems are one of the current areas which are undergoing a substantial adoption of automation (Meryeme et al., 2019). Similarly, the use of automation in cases of dangerous weather conditions frequently reduces the risks of air crashes and collisions.

This report aims to outline the facets of automation in aviation at present which includes the integration with human factors, pilot and computer interfaces, and flight management systems. Additionally, this work aims to explore the current known advantages and disadvantages of implementing automation in flights. Current academic research is also used to inform the potential trends and future developments of the concept within the field of aviation.

Human Factors Integration

The introduction of automation in relation to human factors refers to the use of technology in place of human interference. One of the most common implementations of automation in such a way is the use of autopilots. A pilots work throughout a flight includes the operation, handling, and monitoring of issues that relate to control systems and engines. They are also responsible for the flight to a destination in a safe and efficient manner). Such tasks over prolonged flights are often significantly exhausting, and exhausted aircraft workers may result in dangerous or even deadly outcomes (Banks et al., 2018). The introduction of the autopilot system had vastly reduced the risks as it works to assist and continue the flight without manual input from the pilot, allowing them to retain more energy and perform in a safe and appropriate way.

Auto-throttle is another component of the automation system that allows for an improved flight. The management of the flow of fuel allows the system to have control over the thrust from the engines. The system is able to identify engine parameters and control the engines in all areas of the flight, including takeoff (Zhang et al., 2021). The anti-skid braking system also improves the safety of traveling as they have the ability to control pressure by releasing braking wheels without manual interference before skidding or locking up. The primary goal of minimizing human interference with the use of automation is to mitigate fatigue and workload away from human workers (Gawron, 2019). The productivity and quality of work of the individuals in the aviation industry may then also improve.

Pilot and Computer Interfaces

The current assessment of pilot and computer interfaces has deemed the systems to be underperforming, and increased automation has the potential to ease these issues. This is often a result of poor integration of more modern technology with prior systems and devices. For instance, the control modes proliferation has caused issues with modern systems, especially in cases in which autopilots are controlling flights. However, modern approaches and capabilities can allow for improved automation of flight warning systems (Ancel et al., 2022). Automated warning systems are a growing trend within aviation, with only certain firms currently implementing them.

The warning system presents many advantages, such as the ability to notify a pilot of the need for monitoring and assessing the aircraft. These interfaces can allow the pilot to be informed of the state of the aircrafts hydraulic, electrical, and other systems while in the cockpit. Environmental threats can also be monitored and considered in regard to the safety of the flight. Currently implemented automation systems include the wind shear avoidance system, GPWs, enhanced ground proximity warning system, and a number of other integral elements available directly through a cockpit interface (Gawron, 2019). Proper flight configuration, gear-related warning, and landing gear competitions warning are other vital features of the current automation interface approaches.

Flight Management System

Flight management systems, or FMS, rely deeply on the adequate implementation of automation. Most variations of FMS are highly specialized and allow for the automation of nearly all in-flight tasks and jobs that were performed by pilots and air hosts prior. Flight engineers and navigators benefit from FMS as a substantial amount of their work has been reduced and allows them to focus on tasks that require manual labor (Kelly & Efthymiou, 2019). Specific tasks such as the determination of the position of the aircraft during flight, sensor management, and additional automated tasks are currently controlled by an FMS throughout a journey. The FMS itself is controlled by pilots through a control display unit, which is located in the cockpit like the majority of other devices. Its management is simplified by its physical design which is usually a small touch-screen device that allows for easy access.

Advantages of Automation in Aviation

The automation system currently in place has often been questioned in regard to its effectiveness. While they reduce or mitigate tasks and relieve workers from exhaustion, they are similarly prone to error and can instigate accidents. As such, the modern use of automation requires further adaptation and development to ensure that risks of error are minimized. However, despite the instances of error, the majority of automation functions are more efficient in reducing risk factors than human factors (Alvarez et al., 2020). As such, the systems offer a variety of advantages. The primary benefits include the ability of automated systems to inform the crew of the situation and status of the flight as well as the significant improvements in operating costs of an aircraft.

Automation is more efficient in recognizing and observing issues that may occur within an aircraft. Similarly, the processes by which automation operates are more consistent and therefore less error-prone than inconsistent and variable human interferences (Özkan et al, 2021). As such, the systems are able to provide the crew with appropriate and relevant information during the flight, the take-off, and the landing. This process directly contributes to the reduced risk of collisions, crashes, the flying of incorrect routes, and other incidents.

Conclusion

The use of automation results in the focus of human labor on specific tasks and does not need additional human interference. As such, airlines are able to observe a noticeable reduction in operating costs due to the performance of computer systems. The cohesion of multiple systems, such as the flight function, fuel management, and weather controls, allows for ease and cohesion that could not otherwise be achieved. Such effectiveness provides passengers with better flight experiences and contributes to the overall performance of an airline company. The report has observed the ways in which automation is present in aviation, primarily through the assistance of human factors, the pilot and computer interfaces, and flight management systems. Automation works to reduce errors and create consistent operations which increase the safety, and productivity of workers, and reduce operating costs for airlines.

Recommendations

In order to consider relevant recommendations, it is vital to assess current academic literature and research in relation to gaps in automation within aviation. The central theme that recurs during most works is focused on existing advantages, disadvantages, and better adaptation to human factors within flight operations. As such, the primary issue in automation within the aviation industry is focused on the creation and facilitation of better interfaces (Osunwusi, 2019). These devices must utilize an intuitive and consistent design that provides pilots with easy transitions between planes, or even airlines. There is currently a lack of universality among automated technology within the industry, though it may prove beneficial in the long run. The recommendations that have been observed in this report suggest that industry-wide intervention and design creation is necessary to improve the experience of pilots with automation interfaces.

References

Alvarez, A., Gonzalez, M. I., & Gracia, A. (2020). Flight procedures automation: Towards flight autonomy in manned aircraft. 2020 AIAA/IEEE 39th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC). IEEE. Web.

Ancel, E., Young, S. D., Quach, C. C., Haq, R. F., Darafsheh, K., Smalling, K. S., Vasquez, S. L., Dill, E. T., Condotta, R. C., Ethridge, B. E., Tesla, L. R., & Johnson, T. A. (2022). Design and Testing of an Approach to Automated In-Flight Safety Risk Management for sUAS Operations. AIAA AVIATION 2022 Forum. Aerospace Research Central. Web.

Banks, V. A., Plant, K. L., & Stanton, N. A. (2018). Driving aviation forward; contrasting driving automation and aviation automation. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 20(3), 250-264. Web.

Gawron, V. (2019). Automation in AviationAccident Analyses. MITRE. Web.

Gawron, V. (2019). Automation in AviationGuidelines. MITRE. Web.

Kelly, D., & Efthymiou, M. (2019). An analysis of human factors in fifty controlled flight into terrain aviation accidents from 2007 to 2017. Journal of Safety Research, 69(1), 155-165. Web.

Meryeme, H., Mohamed, B., & Salahddine, K. (2018). Optimization and automation of air traffic control systems: An overview. International Journal of Engineering, Science and Mathematics, 7(3), 104-116. Web.

Osunwusi, A. O. (2019). Aviation Automation and CNS/ATM-related Human-Technology Interface: ATSEP Competency Considerations. International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace, 6(4). Web.

Özkan, Y. D., Mirnig, A. G., Meschtscherjakov, A., Demir, C., & Tscheligi, M. (2021). Mode Awareness Interfaces in Automated Vehicles, Robotics, and Aviation: A Literature Review. AutomotiveUI 21: 13th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications. Association for Computing Machinery. Web.

Zhang, Z. T, Liu, Y. & Hußmann, H. (2019). Pilot Attitudes Toward AI in the Cockpit: Implications for Design. 2021 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Human-Machine Systems (ICHMS). IEEE. Web.

Introduction

Meteorological hazards, such as floods, storms, earthquakes, and rising seas, can endanger lives and have a negative impact on economies. Such events as wind, shear, turbulence, and severe thunderstorms are particularly harmful to aviation. For example, according to Goodman (2019, p. 479), weather was responsible for 32.6% of the total number of delay minutes recorded in the US. In the paper, the impact of the most adverse meteorological hazards is determined, which is linked to construction and financial losses, which prediction methods and alternative transportation should prevent.

Prevalence of Meteorological Hazards in Aviation

Weather is among the most important factors influencing how an airplane operates and how securely it can fly. Downpours, thunderstorms, windstorms, and cyclones seem to be prevalent, resulting in expenses in the aviation business and flights that are either delayed or canceled (Oo & Oo, 2022). The researchers discovered that thunderstorms, rain, and fog occur the most frequently (Oo & Oo, 2022; Wang, 2019). For example, thunderstorms occurred with a maximum frequency of 22% in July and a low of 1% in January (Oo & Oo, 2022, p. 3). Annual frequency research found that thunderstorms are becoming more prevalent yearly due to worldwide climate change (Oo & Oo, 2022). The coastal regions are more prone to rain and thunderstorms, but the systems in the continental areas are more sensitive to snowstorms (Wang, 2019). The worst weather phenomena include poor vision, low ceilings, and rainstorm and fog weather conditions. The impacts of considerable flight icing or in-flight disturbance are among the most severe risks to an aircraft. According to accident records, these incidents might be caused by a thunderstorms immediate or indirect influence.

The Impact of Meteorological Hazards in Aviation

Meteorological hazards can cause significant delays in air transportation, resulting in the canceling or postponing tens of thousands of flights and disrupting the plans and finances of millions of individuals. Furthermore, poor weather conditions may result in a plane crash. As a result, some of the adverse effects of hazards include loss of aerodynamic forces and velocity, causing the aircraft to crash into the earth before the flight staff takes corrective measures (Zhou & Chen, 2020). Next, turbulence, particularly in a small airplane, causes structural failure to the aircraft. Low visibility causes flight cancellations, fuel waste since planes cannot land at their intended location, aircraft damage in midair crashes, and deaths resulting from aircraft casualties (Zhou & Chen, 2020). The damage produced by these events sometimes necessitates costly repairs or entire equipment replacement.

Recommendation and Limitations

One can recommend several enhancements in the aviation industry to prevent cancellations, accidents, and economic losses. As such, aviation weather predictions must also be produced in order to give precise information that incorporates both predictable and statistical methodologies (2019, Sharman et al.). The studies reveal that modal replacement is a successful transportation system resilience approach. Namely, the restoration speed of air service was shown to be quicker if an alternate mode, including such high-speed rail service, was also available nearby (Zhou and Chen, 2020). Hence, it is suggested that for intense awareness campaigns, aviation safety stakeholders propose better prediction methods and the construction of alternative transportation. However, the initiatives limitations might involve the aviation companies financial incapacities to follow the guidelines.

Conclusion

To conclude, the paper has examined the meteorological hazards linking them to the recommendations for the aviation industry, including financial limitations. Shifting climatic and meteorological circumstances substantially influence airport aircraft performance, which cannot be avoided. As a result, until new solutions are developed, the influence of weather on aircraft is expected to grow throughout time. Hence, designing and implementing prediction strategies and employing alternative transportation is essential.

References

Goodman, C. J. (2019). Meteorological impacts on commercial aviation delays and cancellations in the continental United States. AMETSOC. Web.

Oo, K. T., & Oo, K. L. (2022, April 15). Analysis of the most common aviation weather hazard and its key mechanisms over the Yangon flight information region. Advances in Meteorology, 2022, 115.

Sharman, R., Williams, P. D., Zhou, B., Ellrod, G., Minnis, P., Trier, S., Griffin, S., Yum, S. S., Gharabaghi, B., Feltz, W., Temimi, M., Pu, Z., Storer, L. N., Kneringer, P., Weston, M. J., Chuang, H. Y., Thobois, L., Dimri, A. P., Dietz, S. J.,& Neto, F. L. A. (2019, May). A Review of high impact weather for aviation meteorology. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 176(5), 18691921.

Wang, Y. (2019). Impacts of severe weather events on high-speed rail and aviation delays. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 69, 168183. Web.

Zhou, L., & Chen, Z. (2020). Measuring the performance of airport resilience to severe weather events. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 83, 102362. Web.

Abstract

There is a long-lasting debate on the benefits and shortcomings of extensive automation in aviation security. Contemporary technologies allow the security staff to perform most of the operations without any specialized knowledge. On the one hand, such an approach results in much more convenient passenger experience. However, on the other hand, some people argue that technology is associated with the reduction of skills. It should be noted that there is no clear answer to whether excessive dependence on technology is favorable or disrupting. Studies suggest that it is not possible to isolate the positive influence of technology from its negative effects. Instead, the professionals in the industry should develop ways of mitigating some of the unfavorable consequences by integrating new approaches to security technology, such as adaptable automation. Technology will always have adverse effects, but it is up to the industry professionals to alleviate disadvantageous impacts.

Introduction

Due to increasing levels of risk and threats, airports around the world and aviation companies are forced to invest in the development of advanced ways of ensuring safety and security. Because the primary purpose of airports and flight carriers is to serve passengers, contemporary security solutions are taking a customer-centric approach. They are all designed to speed up the inspection process while delivering accurate results. However, due to substantial automation, some people claim that security officers will be adversely affected because the new machines will take away many of the responsibilities, and the professionals will lose their skills over time. This paper provides information on the motivation behind automated security systems, how they affect personnel expertise, and whether there is a way to make technology and human expertise complement each other.

Motivation Behind New Security Technologies

The introduction of new technologies to the airport and aviation security is not motivated only by a thirst for technological development, but also by security requirements that are to counter new security threats. Much of the innovations are aligned with the concept of usable security  customer experience is viewed to be the most critical, and new devices are designed to take a customer-centric approach to safety (Nowacki and Paszukow, 2018). The reason is that points of passport control and security screening are the most distressing environments for passengers (Nowacki and Paszukow, 2018). While legal requirements call for more security and vigilance, passenger convenience should not be neglected (Nowacki and Paszukow, 2018). Therefore, both airports and aviation companies are continuously looking for ways to improve the customer experience while maintaining the required level of security. Without advancements in security technology, it is not possible.

Passenger screening is among the most critical pieces of aviation and airport security. At the time being, all customers must be screened before they are admitted to exit gates (Skorupski and UchroDski, 2019). This requirement assumes that all security personnel is acquainted with the procedures (Skorupski and UchroDski, 2019). However, some advancements in security technology may ease the demands (Korbelak et al., 2018). For instance, trusted traveler programs exist that allow low-risk passengers to pass through expedited screening (Nowacki and Paszukow, 2018). Not only it improves the customer experience, but it takes away some amount of pressure from security officials. In turn, individuals with a low qualification will be able to handle the load (Nowacki and Paszukow, 2018). The introduction of CCTV powered by artificial intelligence may further lead to the degradation of skills because many of the responsibilities, such as identifying people with weapons, will be accomplished by the automated system (Nowacki and Paszukow, 2018). However, advocates for advanced security technology claim that new enhancements not only increase employee effectiveness but also improve customer convenience.

Current Technologies

To understand how new technology affects employee skill set, it is reasonable to discuss some of the most critical elements of todays airport security. In the early days of aviation, passengers were screened with metal detectors (Karoly, 2017). Security officials were responsible for all other work, such as inspecting the customers for the presence of prohibited non-metallic items. Today, however, Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT) allows officials to detect hidden objects without any physical contact (Karoly, 2017). AIT uses non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation and processes the reflected signals to construct the image (Karoly, 2017). Manual screening may be omitted entirely if no anomalies are found.

Advanced Technology X-ray is the primary means for inspecting personal and checked bags. Electromagnetic radiation is used to enter the inside of containers and to detect prohibited items (Karoly, 2017). These X-rays used to construct an image that security officials needed to inspect carefully. It required alertness and the knowledge of shapes of potentially dangerous objects (Karoly, 2017). Contemporary systems, however, outline the potential threat using a different color (Karoly, 2017). Explosives Trace Detection (ETD) machines, as the name suggests, help identify explosive substances. These machines require human expertise because they are not easy to operate (Karoly, 2017). However, new Explosives Detection Systems may entirely replace ETD machines because they are fully automated and do not require any expertise on behalf of a security official.

Risks of Automation

Complete autonomy in operations is not always beneficial despite introducing many advantages for security and convenience. However, contradictive as it may sound, too much automation inevitably leads to security risks. That is because any automated system heavily depends on some piece of software, and software is never perfect (Neumann, 2016). Such systems will always be a potential target for hackers and terrorists (Neumann, 2016). Therefore, systems need intensive monitoring, and despite taking away many of the responsibilities of security officers, maintenance of such systems requires other people with more sophisticated skill sets.

The importance of the fact that the automation of security components leads to skill degradation should be emphasized. People with no appropriate qualifications will not be able to conduct quality security screening if there is a breach or failure (Chavaillaz et al., 2019a). Therefore, automation may sometimes harm instead of enhancing security (Chavaillaz et al., 2019a). However, contemporary systems rarely fail and jeopardize the safety of the airport (Karoly, 2017). Another source of concern is how well computer networks are protected (Karoly, 2017). This point is critical because much of the infotainment equipment resides on the same network as aircraft controls (Karoly, 2017). In this context, the security of the network becomes vital. One way of mitigating the risk is to protect the network by all means (Karoly, 2017). A more favorable approach would be to isolate infotainment and aircraft controls from each other by putting them into different subnets.

Automation Failures

One of the most vital aspects of aviation security is the interaction of humans with automated systems. Despite the fact that security systems are designed to protect the safety of passengers, dangerous circumstances may be caused if systems fail (Vidulich and Tsang, 2016). A crash may lead to a situation where a security officer is required to react immediately to new conditions (Vidulich and Tsang, 2016). Such pressure can only be overcome by mastery of necessary skills (Vidulich and Tsang, 2016). However, it is discovered that time pressure may have a significant adverse impact, even on extremely high-level experts (Vidulich and Tsang, 2016). A 2009 crash of the Air France plane heading from Rio de Janeiro to Paris is an example of an automated system component failure along with the inability of the responsible personnel to mitigate the consequences of the fault (Vidulich and Tsang, 2016). Due to storms, the planes automated flight control system ceased to function, and the pilots had to switch to manual control (Vidulich and Tsang, 2016). However, as it was later noted, because of shock, the crew could not conduct a proper analysis of the situation (Vidulich and Tsang, 2016). Approximately after four and a half minutes from the moment the autopilot stopped working, the plane crashed into the ocean.

The described situation can be transferred to aviation and airport security because security officials more and more have to interact with automated systems. Despite the consistent performance, these systems may fail, and humans will need to take responsibility and control (Vidulich and Tsang, 2016). Without proper training, expertise, and experience, it is almost impossible for an individual to react adequately and timely to critical situations.

Degradation of Skills and Ways for Improvement

Human Factors

Skills and expertise are only a part of what affects the performance of security personnel in critical circumstances. Human errors are primarily contributed by repetitive jobs, neglected work procedures, and monotonous activities (Arcúrio, Nakamura and Armborst, 2018). Prior to massive automation, work as a security officer at an airport used to be repetitive, but due to the dynamics of the work, it was not monotonous (Arcúrio, Nakamura and Armborst, 2018). However, with recent advancements in technology, previously existing high dynamics are becoming non-existent (Arcúrio, Nakamura and Armborst, 2018). Therefore, it can be supposed that automation leads to a higher percentage of human mistakes, which can jeopardize the whole aviation security system.

Attention is also critical for people working as security officers. Depending on circumstances, automation may have positive effects on human performance or may not have any impact at all (Arcúrio, Nakamura and Armborst, 2018). Manual work requires more attention and focus from employees, and if there are many items that should be tracked simultaneously, performance level decreases (Arcúrio, Nakamura and Armborst, 2018). Automation generally solves this problem, but concurrent activities may negatively impact the workers performance. It is an interesting fact that experienced security officers make more errors than other professionals (Arcúrio, Nakamura and Armborst, 2018). The primary reason is complacency and neglect of the procedures (Arcúrio, Nakamura and Armborst, 2018). In summary, it can be argued that a significant portion of human errors is a result of automation. New technologies make the job of security personnel easier but also more monotonous, leading to a more considerable number of mistakes.

Trust and Expertise

Opportunities that automated systems provide affect novices differently than experienced workers. On the one hand, beginners, benefit more from the system because their experience level does not allow them to perform well without some aid tool (Chavaillaz et al., 2019a). On the other hand, more experienced individuals show consistent results, both with and without an automated detection system (Chavaillaz et al., 2019a). These results support the claim that automation systems do not adversely impact the skill levels of security personnel (Chavaillaz et al., 2019a). This proposal can be supported by the fact that more experienced individuals that had worked with automated diagnostic aid tools for a substantial amount of time demonstrate better compliance and reliance. However, it is not true for all automated systems, as the majority of them, as was discussed earlier, negatively impact a workers attention.

Automated diagnostic aid tools serve different purposes for varying expertise levels. They are designed to teach novices, as they are inclined to rely on the recommendations of the device significantly (Chavaillaz et al., 2019a). They also provide an opportunity for more skilled workers to confirm their opinions based on the systems results. However, the way professionals use these machines is entirely based on trust. Should the system make a mistake, it can negatively impact professionals with little experience who cannot yet rely on their own expertise.

Adaptable Automation

The notion of adaptable automation can be an effective way of solving many of the problems introduced by the automated system in regard to worker skill sets and expertise. The term represents the idea that a security professional is able to adjust the level of automation he or she wishes to receive (Chavaillaz et al., 2019b). For instance, the majority of security professionals prefer to be guided by the system instead of being directed. It is more favorable for a system to hint at the potential location of a prohibited item instead of explicitly pointing at the exact position (Crespo, 2019). When professionals are tired, they may want to switch to a higher level of automation. Systems should be flexible in terms of the level of automation not to harm the workers development and not to contribute to the degradation of workers skills (Filippov, Elisov and Ovchenkov, 2019). Operator autonomy has significant benefits; therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that full automation without any opportunities for adjustments is harmful to security officials.

Conclusion

There are many benefits of automation, such as faster inspection times, lower pressure on security personnel, and customer convenience. However, in the event of device failure, security professionals will need to take the entire responsibility and respond in a timely manner. Therefore, expertise is critical, but personnel skills are lessened when automation takes away all of their responsibilities. There should be a balance between the level of automation and skills level of workers and their condition. Adaptable automation is a significant attribute of contemporary security systems because it allows security officers to adjust the level of automation according to their needs. Such an approach not only facilitates more effective inspection but also personnel skill retention.

Reference List

Arcúrio, M. S., Nakamura, E. S. and Armborst, T. (2018) Human factors and errors in security aviation: an ergonomic perspective, Journal of Advanced Transportation, 2018(1), pp. 1-9.

Chavaillaz, A. et al. (2019a) Expertise, automation and trust in X-ray screening of cabin baggage, Frontiers in Psychology, 10(1), pp. 1-11.

Chavaillaz, A. et al. (2019b) Work design for airport security officers: effects of rest break schedules and adaptable automation, Applied Ergonomics, 79(1), pp. 66-75.

Crespo, A. M. F. (2019) Less automation and full autonomy in aviation, dilemma or conundrum?, 2019 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC). The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Bari, Italy, 6-9 October. Bari: IEEE, pp. 4245-4250.

Filippov, V. L., Elisov, L. N. and Ovchenkov, N. I. (2019) A new approach to the human factors assessment in the automated control system of aviation security in the airport, Security & Future, 3(2), pp. 41-42.

Karoly, S. (2017) Technologies to counter aviation security threats, AIP Conference Proceedings. AIP, Washington, USA, 21-22 April. Washington: AIP Publishing LLC, pp. 1-7.

Korbelak, K. et al. (2018) Teaming with technology at the TSA: practical methods for enhancing human performance with automation in operational environments, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, USA, 25-27 September. Los Angeles: SAGE, pp. 639-640.

Neumann, P. G. (2016) Risks of automation: a cautionary total-system perspective of our cyberfuture, Communications of the ACM, 59(10), pp. 26-30.

Nowacki, G. and Paszukow, B. (2018) Security requirements for new threats at international airports, TransNav: International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 12(1), pp 187-192.

Skorupski, J. and UchroDski, P. (2019) An analysis of the cabin baggage security screening process incorporating automation elements, Archives of Transport System Telematics, 12(1), pp. 42-48.

Vidulich, M.A. and Tsang, P. (2016) Expert performance and time pressure: implications for automation failures in aviation. Web.

First, Safety Management System (SMS) is directly related to the provision of safety to the staff that is largely founded on the adherence to and advocating of the established standards by the personnel themselves. Hence, the human factor will be integrated by the related activities of your workers who  to an exact extent  will be responsible for the implementation of SMS. The crucial point here is that SMS cannot operate appropriately without the due diligence of your employees.

Second, an SMS program cannot be brought into life properly if it functions only at the exact departments of your aviation company. In aviation, all the departments are intersected and interconnected; thus, if there is the absence of SMS at one of them, there is the absence of SMS at the others (Britton, 2018). As stated above, human factors integration is vital for SMS, and given such unity within aviation companies structure, the entire organization should receive human factors training.

Third, managers are required to be involved in human factors training. Your managers will be a crucial element of one of the four pillars of SMS  safety risk management (SMS Pro, n.d.). They need to demonstrate an in-depth understanding of human factors and related issues because the responsibility to evaluate risks and provide possible solutions lies with them.

Fourth, the concept of SMS might be considered broader than the traditional notion of risk management. SMS includes four primary components, or pillars  safety policy, safety risk management, safety assurance, and safety promotion (SMS Pro, n.d.). It seems apparent that risk management is the integrated element of SMS; however, it still requires substantial effort, knowledge, and experience to be implemented appropriately and expediently.

References

Britton, T. (2018). 3 most important human factors in aviation SMS  theyll surprise you. SMS Pro.

SMS Pro. (n.d.). Definition of aviation safety management system.

Introduction

Nowadays, Global Positioning System (GPS) is a common and popular navigational instrument implemented in many fields of human life. For instance, it can be highly effective in aviation and aerospace navigation due to its efficiency in terms of aircraft positioning. However, GPS users in the United States can often confront various issues, such as spoofing. The system might require additional hardware to operate efficiently, including means of detection.

Global Positioning System in the United States

The goals of aviation in the 21st century have caused a necessity to create an effective method of aircraft positioning. GPS is one of many instruments implemented in the satellite technology of the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GPSS) (Krasuski & Savchuk, 2020). However, not all of them are certified to be used for general purposes in civil aviation. GPS is one of two such systems that have received certifications based on various efficiency parameters, including accuracy, availability, continuity, and reliability (Krasuski & Savchuk, 2020). The primary reason is the dangers associated with navigational systems, especially their potential vulnerability to multiple interferences on radio frequencies. Some of them are unintentional, like signals coming from TV or radio stations, but others are intentional, like spoofing attacks or jamming (Miralles et al., 2020). Nowadays, researchers and scientists recommend different detection methods, such as power monitoring metrics, to provide the most effective spoofing detection algorithm (Miralles et al., 2020). GPS becomes a highly efficient navigational tool with some assistance from additional hardware.

Conclusion

Overall, GPS in the United States requires additional means of detection to be able to deal with issues like spoofing and keep its effectiveness. GPS is one of the most common global navigational systems, especially in aviation and aerospace navigation. Given that it has its own tools to address potential problems, GPS can significantly help aircraft and people working with them.

References

Krasuski, K., & Savchuk, S. (2020). Accuracy assessment of aircraft positioning using the dual-frequency GPS code observations in aviation. Communications-Scientific Letters of the University of Zilina, 22(2), 23-30.

Miralles, D., Bornot, A., Rouquette, P., Levigne, N., Akos, D. M., Chen, Y. H., & Walter, T. (2020). An assessment of GPS spoofing detection via radio power and signal quality monitoring for aviation safety operations. IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine, 12(3), 136-146.

Introduction

Commercial aviation, which is a component of civil aviation, is the business of operating aircraft to transport people and goods on hire. The airliners used in the transportation of passengers and cargo range from single-engine freight planes to the Boeing 747. Commercial aircraft were accepted after the Second World War. Since then, it has been experiencing steady growth. For instance, in the 1950s, most European countries started manufacturing new aircraft such as The Beech and Cessna.

The Cessna was the most used aircraft since it had a greater production volume and could earn revenue of between $10,000 -$ 30,000 annually. In the 1960s, commercial airliners adopted planes that had turbo-powered engines, jet engines, and pressurized cockpits and cabin. As the paper reveals, although such developments have been in use up to date, the ever-changing technology and customer demands or preferences leave commercial aviation with no choice other than incorporating changes in the industry to remain relevant in the current business world. Hence, commercial aviation is expected to change significantly in the next 5 years.

Analysis of Forecasts in Commercial Aviation

With the expected change in commercial aviation, the financial analysis forecasting tools that will contribute to analyzing the industry can be classified into four classes. According to Hansen (2003), the market share financial analysis is a top-down tool where activity at an airport is regarded as being directly proportional to growth in the combined external measure. Hence, to produce correct predictions, it is vital for the airport activity and the larger aggregate link ratio to remain constant over a specified duration.

Most airport economic forecasts use econometrics, which relies on explanatory variables that discuss the impacts of the demand and supply of commercial aviation activities. These variables are categorized into macroeconomic and demographic elements, aviation market forces, innovation and production costs, and technology. Other variables include legal factors, capital investment constraints or upgrades, and substitutes for air travel. The third financial tool is the Time Series analysis that involves extrapolating the current data or graph into the future.

This financial analysis tool considers the values of the factors that need to be forecasted. It aims to predict future profit or outcomes based on existing or past trends. This financial analysis tool is a low-cost approach to forecasting compared to the econometric tool. Even though the method is easy to use and understand, individual statistical theories that are adopted to enhance the accuracy level can be quite complex.

This financial analyzing approach is necessary when unusual forces hinder the stability of the relationship between local activity and other external variables. The simulation method is another technique of analysis that captures high-fidelity pictures of traffic flows in a channel or at an airport. Such a technique imposes strict regulations that dictate how people, cargo, and aircraft are routed. It then calculates the results in a manner that the management can analyze the establishment requirements of the system or airport with the view of establishing mechanisms to sustain the estimated traffic flow.

Despite the drastic decline in activities throughout the last decade, the use of financial analysis tools to forecast commercial aviation has maintained a positive outcome. The challenges of forecasting the aviation industry activities led to the need for an advanced understanding of the components that have an impact on this business.

The Expected Changes

In the next five years, commercial aviation is bound to change significantly. The first expected change will revolve around its customer relationship strategies. The rising competition in the airline industry, which is expected to be at peak in the half-a-decade period, brings with it the need for new strategies that commercial aviation should adopt to retain its clientele or attract new ones from its competitors. To implement its Customer Relationship Management (CRM) framework, commercial aviation will need to take into account the elements that characterize successful CRM as shown in Figure 1.

In other businesses, customer knowledge, tastes, and preferences, and other consumer-related activities are important to offer personalized products and services. Therefore, airlines must change or improve on their reliance on the current loyalty models, which can enhance critical customer data that includes increased spending activities through branded credit cards. It may reveal the real situation about the travel patterns and preferences of customers.

In the 1997-2001 period, commercial aviation recorded significant losses because of the then financial crisis that discouraged many clients from using airlines. Economic meltdown and fuel costs are the primary factors that are currently hindering the growth of the aviation industry. According to Boland, Morrison, and ONeill (2002, p. 2), On a global basis, airlines saw a US$12 billion operating loss in 2001 before taking into account various government bail-outs. Graph 1 below shows the financial performance during this period.

In the next five years and based on the above results, airliners will need to invest in more sophisticated customer analytics. Advanced technology alone will not solve this issue. Eriksson and Steenhuis (2015) assert that commercial aviation must reorganize its structure and procedures to suit its customer service into its organizational mission and vision. Commercial airlines will need to reframe every point of contact between the client and the airline personnel, especially in the areas of booking up flights, check-in, and in-flight experiences.

These points will assist the airline management not only to collect vital data about customers tastes and choices but also to adopt ways to meet and surpass their expectations. More customer knowledge and affection aim to realize better customer service experience and good revenues (Boland, Morrison, & ONeill 2002). Hence, commercial aviation will need to examine its clients demands and worth addressing or serve them efficiently.

The improved customers experience such as the recommended flights to customers destinations of choice will present the airliner with a bigger chance to generate the targeted revenue while attracting loyal customers. The strategy will result in a higher percentage of sales through direct channels. These changes will also allow full-service carriers to maintain existing services and/or charge fees for specific flight features that include fast-tracking security measures or pre-boarding.

The next five years will be marked by the adoption of digitization in commercial aviation to minimize operating costs. Aircraft manufacturing companies must make use of the latest technology and innovation to improve internal systems and/or reduce costs.

An airline system that can allow regular resource distribution and allocation enables its greater utilization. Digital engines can send alerts to the maintenance and operations desks if mechanical problems arise while an aircraft is on a flight. It can also request assistance when it lands. This change will not only minimize the downtime but also enhance performance in a huge way. Besides reducing operational costs, it will increase customer satisfaction through frequent on-time arrivals and departures. According to Linden (2002), the majority of these costs shot up in the 1980s because of increased itinerant operations.

Consequently, both local and itinerant service costs went up following the same upward trends. After the recent innovation, improvements, and the digitization of aircraft, the aviation operations expenses and the operation cost dropped dramatically during the 2006-2011 period. The drop led to the profits that were recorded in the same period as shown in Graph 2 below (The US Department of Transportation 2012).

Irrespective of the challenges that are expected to come with increased fuel expenses and reduced customer requirements, the next five years call for key airlines to cooperatively move from a sequence of yearly working losses, as it was witnessed between 2002 and 2006, to breaking even in 2016 and more importantly recording operating profitability that surpasses the 2010-2011 returns. Commercial aviation will need to cut costs to enhance operational efficiency.

The current business world is characterized by a growing need for airlines to make large innovations to function more efficiently. The most profitable airlines have the strictest cost regulations. The biggest lever to minimize costs lies in fuel consumption. For instance, in most airliners budget, jet fuel amounts to between 40 to 50 percent of the operational cost. Airliners with surplus funds are now digitizing their fleet to make space for the more fuel-efficient fleet.

As Dixon (2006) asserts, the rapid rise in jet fuel prices has significantly changed the matrix of airline business plans, which have resulted in an unprecedented urge for fuel-efficient aircraft. Hence, a decrease in fuel prices will most likely alter the carriers business plans. Since the short-term financial goals for many airlines are achieved, the new change may result in a mixed expectation for airliners and fleet manufacturers over the years.

Experts believe that the aviation industry will expend roughly $70 billion less on jet energy in 2016 compared to 2015, which is a 33% decrease (Flottau et al. 2015). Even though these planes are expensive to manufacture or buy, this change has a real value, especially if the idea is formulated in line with commercial aviation business long-term investment plans of configuring its system. The change will have an impact on the programmatic diversification of particular routes over time. Cost-cutting changes will also be attained through improvements in management structures, operating methods, and job practices.

Fuel-efficient planes are more profitable compared to the ordinary. Hence, in the coming five years, most banks will be willing to finance the buying or manufacture of these modern planes at low-interest rates. According to Bubb (2012), a reduction in fuel prices will be a huge exception, which will increase the carriers fortunes while disrupting the current market dynamics in the short run. The situation will lead to a significant shift in the cost gap between European, U.S. airlines, and Gulf carriers. For instance, the Fly Emirates, which is completely unhedged, will be among the largest carriers to witness the immediate advantages.

Overall Outlook of Commercial aviation after the Changes

As commercial aviation ushers in a new era of profit-making planes, it is relying on the manufacturers modification of improved performance, fuel-efficient engines, and better maintenance techniques, for instance, longer intervals between checks ups. New planes such as the Boeing 737 have advanced computer-based health monitoring systems as one of the crucial maintenance techniques and cost-cutting features. Most of the new planes are glossy.

They come with an intrinsic safe and secure network file server that undertakes many self-diagnostics functions. Such systems reduce operational costs. Regarding customers and airport security, airplane checkpoints are currently sorting passengers and grouping them through digital screening technology. Risk assessment of travelers is crucial progress towards arresting terrorists and anyone who possesses a security threat.

According to Chow (2005), this change will lead to positive customer response since much time will be saved in the checkpoint areas. The new modernized inspection will work in a manner whereby passengers walk to the checkpoint will be directed to various lanes, depending on the data collected from their passports or travel tickets. At the lane, a biometric check such as an iris scan will be used to search passenger identity. After the biometric test, the next security check will be the advanced x-ray scanners and chemical sniffers that will clear passengers before they proceed. This innovation will guarantee convenience to customers since they will not be required to remove shoes, clothing, gadgets, or any liquids they carry.

It will also eliminate physical contact when searching. Such changes will improve service delivery and security in most airports. As a result, the commercial aviation industry is expected to increase tremendously in air traffic in the coming years. Also, the increased emissions of greenhouse gas, thanks to the full electrification of commercial planes, will lead to ensuring that the aircraft becomes environmentally friendly through its zero or no CO2 emission plan.

Due to the increased usage, parts of the plane can malfunction at any time. However, the new Airbus design has made innovations and improvements in terms of reliability and operational efficiency. Hence, in the next five years, manufacturing companies will start producing engines with better terms of inspection intervals. Besides being built with lighter materials, the engines will be much more fuel-efficient and less noisy.

Conclusion

The paper has discussed in detail the status of commercial aviation as an important aspect of the national airspace and airport system. Even though the industry faces operational expenses, commercial aviation is an important part of the community as a whole, including other stakeholders. These stakeholders include pilots, plane manufacturers, and a reliable workforce. These stakeholder groups are among the factors that drive commercial aviation activity.

They help to forecast its future. Based on the findings of the paper, it is indeed clear that commercial aviation will change significantly in the next five years. The paper has discussed how financial tools can be used in forecasting commercial aviation activities whose primary aim is to obtain the future perspective of the industry as a whole. The paper has also discussed the previous levels in the aviation industry operations concerning trends and historical events, which brought to light what drives this huge industry. As seen in the paper, fuel costs and operational expenses will have a significant impact on the activity levels of the industry.

Even though the airline industry struggles with revenue margins, the current growth rate in most markets in conjunction with advancing innovation and customer preferences present the industry with a real opportunity. Hence, it is likely to advance in the next half a decade.

References

Boland, D, Morrison, D & ONeill, S 2002, The future of CRM in the airline industry: A new paradigm for customer management, IBM Corporation, Somers, NY.

Bubb, D 2012, Landing in Las Vegas: Commercial Aviation and the making of a Tourist City, University of Nevada Press, Reno.

Chow, J 2005, Protecting Commercial Aviation against the Shoulder-fired Missile Threat, Rand Corp, Santa Monica, CA.

Dixon, M 2006, The Maintenance Costs of Aging Aircraft: Insights from Commercial Aviation, RAND, Santa Monica, LA.

Eriksson, S & Steenhuis, H 2015, The Global Commercial Aviation Industry, Routledge, London.

Flottau, J, Broderick, S, Unnikrishnan, M & Schofield, A 2015, Drop In Oil Prices Means An Airline Profitability Boost Now. Web.

Hansen, O 2003, Commercial Aviation, Crabtree, New York, NY.

Linden, R 2002, Airlines and Airmail: The Post Office and the Birth of the Commercial Aviation Industry, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.

The US Department of Transportation 2012, Aviation Industry Performance-A Review of the Aviation Industry, 2008-2011. Web.

Introduction

Modern aviation constantly faces the challenges of growing competition and rising fuel costs. An obvious solution to these problems is to reduce the weight of aircraft through the use of composite materials. Currently, the share of composites in the structures of modern aviation is not very high, but in a new generation of aircraft, this percentage will increase significantly. The development of new materials and the introduction of innovative technologies into the manufacturing process are potentially valuable for optimizing production and increasing safety. This work aims to highlight which composites are used in aviation and what advantages these materials have compared to traditional ones.

Features of Composite Materials in Aviation

Composites are heterogeneous materials composed of two or more components that differ in both chemical and physical properties. Among their features, one can single out reinforcing elements providing the necessary mechanical characteristics and a matrix, or binder, that ensures the joint work of reinforcing elements (Composites in the aircraft industry, n.d.). As a result of the combination of these components, new materials appear with unique properties, and due to their high-density indicators, their use in aviation is permissible.

Microdamages are inherent in traditional homogeneous materials, which makes them vulnerable to pressure and load. To get rid of them, such materials are used in the form of a thin fiber, and the smaller the thickness, the fewer defects remain in its section (Wood, composite, and transparent plastic structures, 2017). According to Kesarwani (2017), such fibers are enclosed in a matrix that ensures the joint work of the fibers in compression, tension, and bending. The properties of the fiber allow achieving high strength and stiffness values. The names of many composites include the types of fibers and matrices: carbon fiber reinforced plastics, fiberglass, and other materials (Kesarwani, 2017). The first word characterizes the type of hardeners, for instance, carbon, glass, and other fibers and fabrics, and the second one  is the types of bonding material, for example, plastics based on various resins or adhesives. These properties contribute to producing safe and relatively light details for aircraft manufacturing.

Benefits of Using Composites in Aviation

Composites are used as replacements for steel and aluminum because they are durable and resistant to corrosion, which makes their use in aviation profitable and safe. Another important advantage is the ability to independently choose the type of material, orientation, and volumetric content of fibers when designing (Kesarwani, 2017). This makes it possible to obtain structural materials with the desired functional properties and makes the use of composites a valuable and promising direction in aircraft construction. A relatively low weight of raw materials plays a critical role, as well as the ability to create complex aerodynamic surfaces of the highest quality.

The use of composites in the creation of the power section of the aircraft structure allows not only reducing weight but also its aerodynamic perfection. Moreover, when using this raw material, about 20% of fuel is saved, which is an objective reason for the transition to such components in aircraft production (Composites in the aircraft industry, n.d., para. 15). The use of composites provides an increase in the power of engines and the reduction of machines and devices weight. High-modulus carbon fiber is used for the manufacture of aircraft parts, for thermal protection, aircraft brake discs, and chemically resistant equipment (Wood, composite, and transparent plastic structures, 2017). Boron fiber products are utilized to create profiles, panels, rotors, and propeller blades (Wood, composite, and transparent plastic structures, 2017). The range of the use of composites is extensive, which explains the relevance of the transition to a new production model.

Aramid Composites in Aviation

One of the common composites used not only in aviation but also in other industries is aramid. Kevlar is its alternative name that may be better known (Wood, composite, and transparent plastic structures, 2017). This material belongs to the groups of organic polymers, and structural organic plastics reinforced with aramid fibers are lightweight composites (Wood, composite, and transparent plastic structures, 2017). As Kesarwani (2017) notes, due to these fibers, which are characterized by an extremely energy-intensive nature of destruction, organic plastics have a high resistance to damage after mechanical shocks of various degrees of intensity. Structures made of aramid are lightweight, impact-resistant, and erosion-resistant plating of helicopters, rotors, airplane wins, shock-resistant protective screens, and other details. The disadvantages of aramid are increased moisture absorption and stretching (Wood, composite, and transparent plastic structures, 2017). Therefore, working with this material requires following precise processing instructions on professional equipment.

Conclusion

The analysis of composites in aviation proves that these materials have numerous advantages over traditional ones and are the future of the aircraft industry due to the quality of production and potential savings, including fuel. Lighter weight, strength, and other features reflect the value of utilizing composites and the relevance of switching to them as the main manufacturing materials. Aramid, better known as Kevlar, is one of the most common composites and, despite some disadvantages, has high impact-resistant characteristics.

References

Composites in the aircraft industry. (n.d.). Web.

Kesarwani, S. (2017). Polymer composites in aviation sector. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, 6(06), 518-525.

Wood, composite, and transparent plastic structures. (2017). Web.

Executive Summary

Weather and meteorological phenomena have substantial effects on current aviation. Severe cases of weather events such as hail, thunderstorms, or cloud funnels can result in the limitation of flights, accidents, and even the loss of aircraft, equipment, and lives. As such, the following paper aims to observe the main components influencing accidents as a result of meteorological hazards. Present strategies of mitigation and prevention, and gaps in approaches to maintaining safety within the field of aviation are also vital elements of concern. Accidents often occur as the result of damage to the exterior of the plane or the accumulation of ice in inlets. Incidents may originate from human error even in the case that preventative equipment is fully operational and adequate.

Current measures focus on de-icing techniques, radars indicating turbulence, wind shears, and other harmful weather events, and the maintenance of successful navigation through synthetic vision systems and other modern devices. Ongoing studies suggest that modern systems are underutilized, and expected expansion into technology can be made in order to observe greater safety through prevention. Further research should focus on more efficient forms of de-icing and avoidance of particulates such as dust, heavy rain, and more. Improved automation, guidance services, and autopilot development may benefit aviation processes as human errors will be minimized.

Introduction

Aviation and related fields can be severely impacted by a manner of different meteorological phenomena and a multitude of functions in order to mitigate risks and damages caused by such hazards. Thunderstorms, hail, fog, and glaze have been cited as being the most detrimental to aviation and flights. A study done in a meteorological station revealed that fog and thunderstorms were the most hazardous atmospheric phenomena and would frequently hinder and prevent aviation ( (Arazny & Aaszyca, 2020). With an annual average of 71 days of thunderstorms and 14 days of fog in the region, this presents a prevalent threat to operations as well as the safety of those involved.

Severe thunderstorms, hail, or fog in areas more prone to such meteorological events create further risks and obstacles for local aviation organizations. The following paper aims to outline the severity of issues associated with meteorological hazards and current and potential solutions. Modern technology allows for a variety of problem-solving techniques and devices that mitigate or even prevent drastic consequences. However, the frequency of accidents as a result of weather events is diminishing at a slow pace and requires further intervention to assure the safety of personnel and passengers.

Primary Hazards and Impact on Aviation

Though thunderstorms and related phenomena may limit flights, they are more hazardous to aircraft already in the air. Thunderstorms have the potential to cause turbulence, wind shear, hail, and heavy rain, which is likely to destroy an aircraft depending on the severity of the meteorological features. Hailstones, usually those of larger size, can cause damage to the aircrafts skin which has an impact on the aerodynamics of the plane (Spiridonov & uri, 2020). Severe hail is able to damage propeller and engine blades or block inlets and deposit fragments in air intakes. Taxiways and runways are capable of becoming dangerously slippery by hail, showers, and other water-related meteorological phenomena. In especially harsh conditions, funnel clouds may contribute to the formation of water spouts or tornadoes.

The aforementioned occurrences greatly contribute to accidents and tragedies that take place in aviation. According to a study that observed data from the National Transportation Safety Board, or the NTSB, and the Aviation Safety Reporting System, of the 17,325 accidents yielded by the NTSB, 1,382 were weather-related (Long, 2022). As seen in Figure 1, maneuvering and en route were the two phases of flight that had the highest mortality rates throughout the investigation (Long, 2022). En route led to the phase with the highest number of weather-related incidents. The aforementioned data depicts that while safety trends are improving globally, aviation continues to suffer hazards and losses due to a lack of adequate resources, preventions, or responses due to meteorological phenomena. With certain phenomena being more common than others, the hazard of potential harm to aviation operations can only be avoided through effective prevention and mitigation strategies.

Current Strategies for Mitigation

Modern tactics and resources that aim to reduce hazards of weather and meteorological phenomena in aviation are usually defined either by actions of mitigation or prevention. Mitigation strategies are more frequently utilized and have been in place in many forms of aviation for prolonged periods of time. The current tactics include closed cabins with pressurization, lighting that allows for flight in reduced visibility, and pneumatic boots and heated leading edges that allow for de-icing of dispensers which contribute to ice removal and prevention on wings, tails, inlets, propellers, and other vital surfaces (Yamazaki et al., 2021). Electrical hardening and covers also contribute to reduced damage in the case of lightning strikes.

Anti-lock braking structures and thrust reversers also prevent potentially dangerous skidding on runways that are slick. Crosswind landing gear assures the safety of the aircraft when landing in crosswind conditions and gust alleviation systems limit the motions and turbulence experienced by the airplane (Chen et al., 2019). Wind shear detection systems allow for a safe escape from wind shear encounters. Mitigation strategies may appear to be similar to prevention tactics but vary in their execution. Essentially, mitigation strategies do not avoid or completely cease potential damage to an aircraft but work to incur as little damage as possible and reduce the risk of compromising passenger, staff, and pilot safety.

Current Strategies for Prevention

Prevention strategies focus on the identification of possible or incoming issues and work to completely avoid potential harm. Currently, these include heating and cooling systems that allow aircraft to fly above adverse weather, gyroscopic devices and tools that allow for improved flight in poor visibility, and weather radars that detect and illustrate the intensity of occurring or oncoming conditions. There is also a complex and diverse issue of human factors and the change in the effectiveness of the currently existing equipment and systems. Mitigation processes are often prone to extensive human error and therefore suggest a variety of variables that are present in aviation accidents (Johnson et al., 2019). Similarly, autopilots and auto-throttles function in order to maintain flight paths,s and airport lighting works to signal and outline surface markings to assure correct navigation even at night. Instrument landing systems that uphold precision and guidance even in situations with low visibility and advanced and synthetic viewing systems that improve situational awareness during landing are integral to safety. Aircrafts also possess lighting detection devices that allow pilots to spot the origins of lightning discharges and turbulence-mode radars that can identify convectively-induced turbulence as far as twenty miles ahead of an aircraft.

Modern equipment and strategies are successful in the reduction of many risks that are posed to aviation in terms of meteorological and weather phenomena. However, accidents and incidents continue to occur and cause damage and the loss of lives. As mentioned above, many of these are results of the aircrafts control during maneuvering and en route phases. In order to better understand the current gap in preventive and mitigating measures, it is essential to contrast existing policies and safety measures that are in theoretical or experimental phases.

Investigation into Novel Risk Management Measures

Research and development are vital in maintaining the continuous improvements to safety in aviation in regards to weather and meteorological factors. As such, five areas are of particular importance to any future and ongoing research. These are observation, forecast, dissemination, integration, and mitigation according to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Stough, n.d.). Mitigation is the primary component of any future change and current assessments focus on six areas which are turbulence, icing, obstacles to visibility, wake vortices, space weather, and atmospheric particulates. Measures that focus on control systems and the identification of turbulence have been cited to be more effective in informing other preventative measures (Wang et al., 2019). This can suggest that future designs of passenger and cargo airplanes require aircraft responses that prioritize alleviation.

Issues in propulsion, aerodynamics and control capabilities are usually adversely affected by issues in de-icing. Currently, enhanced vision systems are used throughout certain commercial and business sectors in aviation but present a greater potential, especially for terminal and ground tasks (Hecker et al., 2020). This is because they offer substantial benefits such as runway identification when approaching and taxiway identification for ground operations. However, there are still difficulties as real-time verification lacks accuracy and reliability in its current form.

Wake encounters have the potential to be detrimental to aviation operations, and as such, advanced configuration and control systems that reduce the impact of wake turbulence or introduce safe recovery have the potential to be instrumental in overall safer travel. Electromagnetic radiation or charged particles have the potential to cause issues for navigation systems. The current scope of space weather mitigation does not enable the use of higher altitudes, and therefore avoidance of poor weather, and the polar routes (Gultepe et al., 2019). Aircraft engines are likely to be frequently ruined by atmospheric particulates such as heavy rain, dust, sand, volcanic ash, or frozen precipitation. Preventive measures are currently lacking and do not effectively address the issue of avoiding damage from particulates. There are fundamental areas affected by meteorological events that either fail to utilize existing technology in the most efficient manner or have yet to introduce novel measures of prevention.

Conclusion

In this work, the primary issues associated with meteorological events were observed and thunderstorms and hail have been identified as especially detrimental. The following paper presented that advanced technology such as synthetic vision systems or improved de-icing measures should expand into all sectors of aviation. Current obstacles may include the cost of efficiently utilizing available technology. It is recommended that governmental authorities should consider pivoting focus to adapting greater safety measures and research into more efficient production of necessary utilities. The concern of human error in combination with weather-oriented mitigation equipment does not have a clear answer but does indicate that improved automation may be beneficial.

Maneuvering and en route errors are not moderated by available systems that focus on the identification of turbulence, wind shear, and electromagnetic radiation. Recommendations include further development in order to provide improved safety during phases of flights that make the crew and passengers especially vulnerable to potential errors. Improved training is essential in facilitating the progressive growth of employees along with the leaps in technology. The current body of work suggests that steady improvement is likely to continue as technology develops and becomes more efficient and less costly. Future endeavors must prioritize safety measures that contribute to the prevention of common weather-related accidents and incidents.

References

Arazny, A. & Aaszyca, E. (2020). Selected meteorological phenomena posing a hazard to aviation: a case study on Bydgoszcz airport, central Poland. Bulletin of Geography, 18(1), 61-71. Web.

Chen, Q., Wang, Z., Wan, J., Fen, T., Chen, P., Wang, C., & Zhang, C. (Eds.). (2019). Design of a turbulence prevention system based on ATG. IEEE. Web.

Gultepe, I., Sharman, R., Williams, P. D., Zhou, B., Ellrod, G., Minnis, P., Trier, S., Griffin, S., Yum, S. S., Feltz, W., Temimi, M., Pu, Z., Storer, L. N., Kneringer, P., Weston, M. J., Chuang, H., Thobois, L., Dimri, A. P., Dietz, S. J., Franca, B., Almeida, M.V., & Neto, F. L. (2019). A review of high impact weather for aviation meteorology. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 176(1), 1869-1921. Web.

Hecker, P., Angermann, M., Bestmann, U., Dekiert, A., Wolkow, S. (2020). Optical aircraft positioning for monitoring of the integrated navigation system during landing approach. Gyroscopy and Navigation, 10(1), 216-230. Web.

Johnson, I., Blickensderfer, B., Whitehurst, G., Brown, L. J., Ahlstorm, U., & Johnson, M. E. (2019). Weather hazards in general aviation: Human factors research to understand and mitigate the problem. 20th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, 421-425. Web.

Long, T. (2022). Analysis of weather-related accident and incident data associated with section 14 CFR part 91 operations. Collegiate Aviation Review International, 40(1), 25-39. Web.

Spiridonov, V. & uri, M. (2020). Meteorological hazards. In V. Spiridonov & M. uri (Ed.), Fundamentals of meteorology (pp. 303-314). Springer.

Stough, P. (n.d.). Aircraft weather mitigation for the next generation art transportation system. NASA. Web.

Yamazaki, M., Jemcov, A., Sakaue, H. (2021). A review on the current status of icing physics and mitigation in aviation. Aerospace, 8(7). Web.

Wang, Y., Wang, C., Sun, W., & Liu, X. (2019). Study on the training of risk prevention and control ability of flight trainees. 1st International Education Technology and Research Conference. Web.

Introduction

Regarding business operations and using current and emerging technology, the aviation sector has some distinct hurdles compared to other sectors. This is due to several factors, including past interactions between major airlines and governments, sector regulations, regulatory challenges, and safety concerns. This means that the promise of strategic undertakings is frequently underutilized. Furthermore, organizations that struggle to change, such as airlines, are often plagued with delayed transitions and increasing expenses. For example, airline X unveiled the outlines of a massive cost-cutting initiative in March 2021 and has yet to show the ability or culture to carry out its plan successfully one year later. Customers have been adversely affected, and expenditures have risen due to repeated strikes by disgruntled personnel. This suggests that, as the rate of change accelerates, airlines change capacity will become a more important prerequisite for long-term success.

Problem: Resistance to Change in Aviation

Airline X has been operating in major European markets for over 40 years. The corporation realized in 2021 that it needed to implement significant operational improvements to stay competitive in its industry. Notably, new airlines have emerged with more cost-effective and fuel-efficient fleets. Thus, the company believed implementing the proposed modifications would embrace fresh concepts that would boost its expansion. The changes were intended to promote acquiring new technology, customers, and staff. This would allow the firm to establish a competitive edge and strengthen its performance in the aviation sector. However, most changes have failed, and many stakeholders have opposed their adoption. Undoubtedly, this underscores the need to explore the possible causes of change management failure at Airline X.

Research Literature

The era of one significant organizational change every ten years is long gone. Today, businesses must be more flexible, responsive, and fast to change due to globalization and increased competition. Firms must be willing to adapt quickly and frequently to survive in todays financial world (Schoemaker et al., 2018). Hence, economic shocks, challenges with wealth creation, inflation, and sociopolitical and technological conditions are the most common external factors prompting the deployment of change management teams. However, as a McKinsey report illustrates, not all companies are built with the fortitude necessary to remain at the top (Bughin et al., 2018). The rate of change, complexity, interdependence, and interdisciplinary nature of todays businesses is unprecedented. Furthermore, stability is a myth and a non-linear process that seems to accelerate with time.

Conversely, specific adjustments, such as deploying a new software suite, can be modest. In contrast, most change management initiatives have a significant history, such as reorienting an entire marketing approach, stopping a predatory acquisition, or restructuring a firm in response to relentless global competitors (Smith et al., 2020). Executing change at different levels enables an organization to realize its strategic goal and thrive in the modern business environment. Thus, integrating change management enables firms to generate returns for each change more effectively. Additionally, it may support the development of competencies that increase the organizations ability to manage more changes concurrently.

The procedures, employment responsibilities, organizational frameworks, and types and applications of technology within a business frequently need to be adjusted when new initiatives or projects are launched. Often, such undertakings aim to improve performance, seize opportunities, or address critical challenges. It is crucial to manage and oversee these transitions inside the company effectively. This explains why the phrase change management is increasingly popular and entrenched in the contemporary corporate world. Change management is a systematic approach to dealing with change both from the perspective of an organization and the individual (Finlayson, 2022, p. 95). This definition is inadequate because it fails to consider some of the critical facets of change management: planning for the change, implementing the change, and measuring the success of the change. Each one relies on taking the initiative to adapt to changing circumstances. Therefore, to cope with changes in the corporate world, a firm must create and adopt new processes or technology. The objective is to take advantage of these possibilities faster while improving them.

Analysis of Problem

Many reasons can explain resistance to change. Three factors have been recognized as sources of resistance: distrust, inadequate communication, and anxiety over the unknown (Smith et al., 2020). Resistance will be inevitable due to uncertainty if the intended adjustments are executed without notifying the stakeholders of their advantages and disadvantages. Stakeholder opposition to the proposed changes might also stem from distrust. For instance, any process changes would face fierce opposition if they are forced by supervisors who employees do not trust. A lack of clarity in the desired changes could similarly meet resistance from those affected. Before implementing the reforms, all workers must be informed of the reasons, significance, and possible impacts (Smith et al., 2020). In addition, personnel must be allowed to share their thoughts on the upcoming changes. If effective communication is not implemented in advance, resistance to the changes is likely to occur.

Possible Sources of Change Plan Resistance

The three likely sources of the stated resistance are Airline Xs personnel, executive team, and stakeholders. The employees will resist the proposed adjustments if the administration does not clarify their potential consequences. Conceivably, the staff will oppose the reforms out of concern for the uncertainty. Additionally, if the airlines middle management and supervisors are not briefed on the advantages and implications of the changes, they may resist them. Therefore, they must be incorporated into decision-making before implementing any changes (Smith et al., 2020). Lastly, potential opponents of Airline Xs planned change may include the airlines shareholders. Investors may decide not to support the changes if they have limited information regarding how those benefits would accrue to their portfolios.

Problem Solution

Those overseeing the change initiatives at Airline X should be quick, use a good communication approach, gauge the workers preparedness for change, and identify any possible opposition. The top management can determine when and how the changes will be implemented by assessing the companys preparedness for change. This way, they can get the word out about the planned changes when necessary. For example, by adopting an efficient communication plan, the airlines CEO can proactively discuss the advantages and consequences of the imminent changes with staff and stakeholders (Amarantou et al., 2018). Such a plan may involve emailing everyone in advance or calling regular meetings to update the staff on the proposed changes and how they will be implemented. In those meetings, the management will have the opportunity to solicit input from staff and other stakeholders on potential solutions that might help with the successful implementation of the reforms. Furthermore, if all individuals are involved in organizational change, they will appreciate and accept the rationale behind the intended reforms. By participating, employees will experience a feeling of responsibility and ownership for specific elements of the change proposal and become advocates for the suggested amendments.

Recommendations and Possible Benefits

Upon initiating the imminent adjustments, airline X must establish measures to maintain them. To accomplish the abovementioned, the organization must foster a commitment to its mission and evaluate and reinforce the transition throughout its design stage. Building enthusiasm should be a deliberate purpose included in any approach (Smith et al., 2020). If the CEO lacked motivation for the improvement, the staff would similarly lack interest in the changes. For this reason, the group tasked with overseeing the changes execution must inspire enthusiasm for the adjustments among all parties involved. The management can ensure its success by regularly reviewing and updating the change plan (Smith et al., 2020). This approach ensures that the newly implemented system is regularly monitored and assessed. Accordingly, violations will be identified and corrected to ensure that the airlines operations are not affected in the future.

Conclusion

In the last several decades, senior executives at airline companies could make long-term plans and execute them without worrying about needing to make any changes. The twenty-first century provides a different viewpoint: Markets in constant flux, globalization, shifting government regulations, new technology, rising consumer demands, and more. The above inevitably leads to the conclusion that strategic management is highly challenging and crucial over time, necessitating commensurate business changes. This discussion emphasizes the steps in change management, particularly how they occur in the aviation industry and why resistance is unavoidable. To help businesses in the aviation sector overcome opposition and take advantage of innovative solutions to challenging change scenarios, it establishes a model for executing change while limiting process obstacles.

References

Amarantou, V., Kazakopoulou, S., Chatzoudes, D., & Chatzoglou, P. (2018). Resistance to change: An empirical investigation of its antecedents. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 31(2), 426450.

Bughin, J., Catlin, T., Hirt, M., & Willmott, P. (2018). Why digital strategies fail. McKinsey & Company. Web.

Finlayson, H. (2022). When things happen at work (revised): People, circumstances, and what to do now  A practitioners best practices compendium. FriesenPress.

Schoemaker, P. J., Heaton, S., & Teece, D. (2018). Innovation, dynamic capabilities, and leadership. California Management Review, 61(1), 15-42.

Smith, A. C., Skinner, J., & Read, D. (2020). Philosophies of organizational change: Perspectives, models and theories for managing change. Edward Elgar Publishing.