Category: Aviation

The question of aviation safety has been discussed for a long period. People try to pay much attention to this item because of a number of direct and indirect costs may take place. Nowadays, the term “ramp rash” or a ground accident is not new. This type of incident happens when the aircraft is parked or moved from a passenger terminal to the required runway/taxiway. The true value of “ramp rash” is that it is hard to predict or avoid due to the possible anomalies, some malfunctions, or the errors that may take place and increase the damage chance. Another important factor is that a ground accident usually happens because of a certain chain of events.

It does not happen because of a single cause that can be analyzed. In spite of the fact that specialists try to analyze and report on such accidents, not much information is known on this issue, and that is why it remains to be crucial for consideration.

As a rule, ground accidents may be characterized by two types of costs: direct and indirect. It is usually hard to predict and measure indirect costs; that is why they are greater than direct costs. To understand the difference and worth of direct and indirect costs, it is possible to imagine the iceberg because of which the Titanic sank. The visual part of the iceberg is the direct costs that can be observed and even overcome. However, it is impossible to think about the size of the same iceberg under water. The same situation is observed with indirect costs of “ramp rash”. It is impossible to identify them at once.

There are many different components that may be mentioned in each category of costs. Still, the direct cost category is usually easy to predict and calculate because they are connected with the repairing details. The components of indirect costs vary considerably and differ in every situation. Indirect costs may depend on the value of passengers’ baggage lost, or freight-related income, or even the reputation of the company, etc. The only positive aspect of such accidents is that they do not usually take human lives. Of course, there are the cases when people may be injured. Still, such cases are rare. As a rule, the aircraft or the territory is damaged considerably. It is also necessary to consider the emotional factors and financial losses associated with “ramp rash”.

However, even if the losses of such accidents are usually of a financial nature, it is still necessary to take some precautionary steps and analyze the situations thoroughly. In fact, it is worthwhile for airlines and various aviation companies to invest in ground operations safety because of a number of reasons.

First, people should be aware of the possibility of “ramp rash” and get ready for the consequences. Second, as soon as people know about the danger, they become more serious, attentive, and responsible for each step and thought made. Finally, people have to realize that their lives and safety may be under threat if they deal with huge mechanisms that are not always possible to control. People have to know how to behave in various situations and be ready to make fast decisions to protect the lives of many people and save their own lives. That is why the investments in ground accident prevention have to be considerably and regular to make sure aviation is not dangerous for ordinary people.

Introduction

System Engineering belongs to that category of Engineering that deals with the progress and association of composite simulated structures. System Engineering incorporates other regulations and specialty factions into a team endeavor, forming a prearranged expansion procedure that advances from perception to construction to procedure and clearance. Going back to the 1940s, in the time of Bell Telephone Laboratories, when Systems Engineering was first mentioned. The requirement to recognize the characteristics of a system on a larger scale, which is multifaceted manufacturing ventures may to a great extent, vary from the sum of its parts, prompted many engineering disciples and correlated manufactures across the world to concede and make use of System Analysis.

Discussion

Whilst it was no more probable to depend on design progression to improve, leading to an organization, and the presented apparatus were not adequate to assemble increasing demands, new methods began to expand that dealt with this intricacy face-to-face. The development of Systems Engineering as it persists till date encompasses growth and recognition of innovative techniques and replication procedures; techniques that can support the enhanced conception of engineering frameworks like UML, QFD, and IDEF0 have been industrialized throughout this period. In 1990, we saw the National Council on Systems Engineering (NCOSE) being established for the purpose of maintaining Systems Engineering. The sole reason for the foundation of such a society was to cater to the development of Systems Engineering practices and learning. This should be kept in mind, that now the same organization has been renamed in 1995, as International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE). The seven main tasks that constitute the process of Systems Engineering are “state the problem”, “investigate alternatives”, “model the system”, “integrate”, “launch the system”, “assess the performance” and “re-evaluate”. In detail, starting with “state the process”, we see that how it is the most significant systems engineering job. It involves recognizing the consumers, considering consumer requirements, instituting the requirement for modification, determining necessities, and signifying system utilities. Second is the investigation of alternatives, where alternatives are examined and assessed supported on presentation, price, and hazards. The third is the modeling of the system, where running models elucidate necessities, disclose blockages and disjointed behaviors, decrease the expenditure, and depicts the replication of attempts. Fourth is the integration that basically defines the planning boundaries and transportation of system fundamentals collectively so they exert as a group. This entails widespread contact and harmonization. Fifth is the actual launch of the system, where initiation of the system means operating the system and creating products that make the system do what it was proposed to accomplish. Sixth is the assessment of the performance, where presentation is reviewed by means of appraisal standards, procedural performance methods and trials measurement is the answer. If you cannot determine it, you cannot be in charge of it. If you cannot be in charge of it, you cannot bring progress to it. Lastly, is the re-evaluation where re-evaluation should be a recurrent and repetitive procedure with numerous equivalent loops.

The main function of systems engineering is to generate systems that gratify the clientele requirements, amplify the prospect of system accomplishment, diminish threat and lessen total-life-cycle expenditure. The systems engineering procedure is supported by a recurring, top-down, pecking order of breakdown of system necessities supported by trade learning that documents the origins for momentous verdicts and the alternatives judged. The iterative, top-down, hierarchical decomposition methodology includes the parallel activities of practical examination, provision, and production. The recurring procedures commence with system-level disintegration and then advance in the course of the foremost subsystem stage, the practical subsystem stage, to the hardware/software configuration item (CI) or assembly/agenda stage. As every stage is industrialized, the behavior of practical examination, provision, and production will be concluded prior to the schedule to the subsequent lesser stage. (Kenneth Crow, 2007).

Systems engineering with support from the additional production authorities institute the baseline system plans; assign system necessities; launch procedures of efficacy for grading unconventional plans, and assimilate the plan along with the design regulations. Systems engineering is in charge of authenticating that the system industrialized meets up all necessities identified in the system requirement and for supplying the study which guarantees that all necessities will be assembled. This subsequently summarizes the systems engineering development stages.

System engineering productions frequently entail input from different industrial orders. Like for instance, look at Aviation and Aerospace the 2 industries which are relevant to the deeper context of system engineering tools to achieve intricate system ventures. The formation of CAST in 1991, in the course of the collaboration with quite a lot of international aviation and aerospace corporations in several combined expansion plans, CAST has at the moment accrued a good deal of understanding of system engineering knowledge on Aviation and Aerospace application. If we give a glance to the more developed and comprehensive nations like the United States of America, Japan, and Germany, we can see that they have advanced to a great extent in exhibiting the role of a genuine System integrator. They have the ability to handle the two ends of the product life cycle (PLCM), which are client prerequisite and system assimilation service. It is hence, evident that system engineering technology is one of the key technologies to direct the leading businesses of the world to promote enterprise’s competence from original equipment manufacturer exhaustive production to advanced value-added original design manufacturer and system assimilation production.

The major fundamentals of systems engineering illustrate the actions and procedures that transpire over the life cycle of a system. As illustrated in recent times, the major fundamentals refer facets of information security (for example computer safety measures and infrastructure protection) to forte engineering grounds – engineering proficiency that is employed on a few however not all system efforts. This difference may have been suitable at various instances, although is progressively more a precarious provocation to take no notice of an essential facet of each system engineering attempt. By typifying information safety measures as a forte ground, program administrators and systems engineers are completely given the autonomy to settle on whether or not information safety measures are an essential ground for their explicit endeavors. “Integrated logistics support (ILS) is defined as ‘a disciplined, unified and iterative approach to the management and technical activities necessary to (a) integrate support considerations into system and equipment design, (b) develop support requirements that are related consistently to readiness objectives, to design, and to each other; (c) acquire the required support; (d) provide the required support during the operational phase at minimum cost”. (Julie Ryan, 1998).

As distinguished before as well that information safety measures for resolutions and supervision envelop the life cycle of the system. As an effect, it is a necessary part of the logistics plan for the system. Moreover, standard and cyclic advancement to agendas, for example; bug inspections have got to be an element of the logistics plan. Multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) is a branch of engineering that utilizes optimization procedures to decipher design tribulations integrating a number of regulations. It is, in addition, to be accepted as multidisciplinary optimization and multidisciplinary system design optimization (MSDO). MDO permits planners to integrate all applicable regulations at the same time. The most favorable of the instantaneous difficulty is greater to the plan origination by optimizing all regulations in succession, in view of the fact that it can take advantage of the communications flanked by the regulations. On the other hand, as well as all regulations concurrently much augment the complication of the problem. (Stanzione, Kaydon Al, 1987)

We may ask what Feasibility analysis in system engineering is. Simply stated, it is the assessment of how advantageous or realistic the progress of an information system will be to an institution. It is a vital means to assist in reviewing the feasibility of initializing an innovative value-added trade, or restructuring or increasing an on-hand production. It offers imperative information required to construct the significant resolution of whether to go ahead with a production scheme.

The study over and over again obtains the appearance of a prescribed reading carried out by some external forces of the trade (i.e. advisor). On the other hand, it is decisive that the production scheme originators are caught up in the learning and query its hypothesis and findings. Information systems improvement assignments are more often than not focused on one or additional viability examinations before and for the duration of their existence.

In an information systems improvement venture framework, feasibility is the appraisal of how favorable the improvement or augmentation of an information system would be to the industry. Feasibility analysis is the procedure through which feasibility is calculated. It is a continuous procedure done regularly throughout systems expansion schemes with the objective of achieving a creeping pledge from the consumer and repeatedly review the existing position of the venture. A creeping pledge is one that persists over time to add force to the consumer’s obligation and possession of the information system being industrialized. Deliberating an assignment’s present standing at tactical spots in time provides the system engineer and the consumer the prospects to carry on the assignment as intended, formulate amendments to the assignment, or call off the task at hand.

Referring to the Operational functions of system engineering, it should be noted, “Any system, when operational and providing the requirements defined in the design, and needs degrees of support to maintain the operational functions. Supportability engineering is an analytical process that determines the optimal mix and distribution of support resources. By using the reliability aspects of the system and through isolating failure modes, causes, and effects, the system’s maintainability can be designed. A properly designed maintenance plan determines support resource capacities, such as trained support staff, documentation, spare parts, test equipment, repair facilities and contracted support, necessary to reduce the mean system downtime”.(Harold Chestnut, 1967).

There are innumerable ways to evaluate and test systems in system engineering. Testing is a procedure of methodological exploration; executed in aid of stakeholders, that is anticipated to divulge quality-related information about the production with regard to the framework in which it is projected to function. This comprises of, however, is not restricted to, the procedure of carrying out an agenda or function with the aim of pronouncing inaccuracies. Quality is not fixed; it is of value to some individual. With that in knowledge, testing can by no means entirely ascertain the precision of subjective computer software; testing provides an analysis or contrasts that measure up to the state and performance of the creation alongside a requirement.

An issue with testing is that the number of faults in a product can be very huge, and the number of designs of the product bigger at a much larger scale. Bugs that arise occasionally are complicated to come across in testing. According to the system engineering testing procedures, a system that is anticipated to work devoid of errors for a definite span of time must have previously been tested for at least that span of time.

This has a relentless penalty for assignments to write long-lasting dependable software, in view of the fact that it is not frequently profitably feasible to test over the projected time-span except this is a comparatively small phase. However, this testing can be done by 3 different methods: (1) white box testing (2) grey box testing, and (3) black-box testing. These are 3 effective methods of testing that consist of acceptance testing, unit testing, system-based testing, functional testing, and integration testing and system integration based testing.

For example, Aerospace engineers devise, build up, and test aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles, and oversee the manufacture of these products. People who work with aircraft are termed aeronautical engineers, and individuals working purposely with spacecraft are astronautical engineers.

Aerospace engineers build up innovative tools for utilization in aviation, defense systems, and space exploration, over and over again focusing on regions for instance structural design, regulation, direction-finding and organization, instrumentation and communication, or construction technique. They in addition possibly will focus on a particular category of aerospace merchandise, such as commercial aircraft, military fighter jets, helicopters, spacecraft, or missiles and rockets, and can turn out to be specialists in aerodynamics, thermodynamics, celestial mechanics, propulsion, acoustics, or guidance and control systems. (U.S. Department of Labor, 2007) Contemporary businesses are familiar with that construction, and for this reason ready for action, depending unswervingly upon their proficient and effectual usage of computers and information systems. In this regard, emerging trends in just-in-time inventory management, electronic data interchange, computer-based controlled and monitored testing, computerized information systems.

Conclusion

Concluding, these technical alterations have resulted in enhanced network services, presentation, dependability, and accessibility in addition to drastically condensed service expenses owing to the added well-organized consumption of network assets. They have also formed a massive safety crisis. In support of the system engineer, this is a realization of a genuine confrontation in view of the fact that information technology is developing at a quicker rate than information security technology. If truth be told, information technology is so fast-paced that system designers can hardly complete system design estimations prior to the company wants to revise definite terms. Databases, controlled environments, and even operating systems are being disseminated. Computer and network security, conversely, does not at present have the massive market forces motivating ever more smart goods and results. On the other hand, existing security hypotheses and tools are progressing with the identical speed of a glacier. (Systems Engineering Fundamentals, 2001) Finally, we can see that additionally to the market-driven development of fundamental information technology, we are also experiencing an upheaval in data processing that is generating unparalleled information systems safety confrontations. Like, the enlargement and processing of exceedingly corresponding dispensation and neural networks, AI systems, and multimedia system environments furnish difficulties ahead of any that shaped our introduced IS safety knowledge base. Paradigm shifts for example circulated conclusion making, groupware, and two-way settings theoretically leapfrog both security controls and security arrangement organization. In this regard, both standards and procedures associate with data formatting and data marking should be assessed and adjusted as essential to integrate the necessary information systems safety information.

Labeling standards for safety labeling of voice notes and files and video notes and files are required. The set of guidelines for maneuvering and merged formats have yet to be industrialized. And interoperability of different computers in MultiFinder surroundings is overlaying the way for clear information distribution ability and universal incorporated information communication. Classified ventures totally distinguish that bigger connectivity, at the same time as inevitable, makes information resources and systems gradually more defenseless to the vice, obliteration, or mistreatment. Electronic access to a gigantic quantity of information and significant communications power is now promising from more or less any place in the world. (Julie Ryan, 1998).

The absolute quantity of statistics in our information systems makes these systems rewarding goals for discontented human resources, hackers, opposing marketable interests, and maybe terrorists. Hence, being in the premature stages of relating and accepting the new information tools transversely our culture and many queries remain unrequited. Neither the principles for an intermitted society that describe adequate performance online nor the officially authorized organizations that would discipline misconduct have been fully industrialized. This is predominantly upsetting in the universal marketplace, in view of the fact that neither general limitations nor permissible authorities are evident in cyberspace. It is, consequently, imperative for the system engineer to reflect on the impact of information technology in the system altogether and to make a suitable verdict concerning the safety apprehensions that appear with such technology. Intricate (software) propositions problems that necessitate more understanding than any single person or any single group holds for the reason that the information pertinent to a problem is circulated amid several diverse stakeholders. Software reprocessing utilizes an alliance development in which designers toiling on the latest tribulations can take benefit of the work of designers who have stumbled upon analogous problems in the times of yore. Not only practical problems however also cognitive and social aspects restrain the extensive accomplishment of methodical software reprocessing. An imperative standard modification is to reconceptualize reprocessing as a mutual procedure, in which software designers should not only take help of on-hand reprocessing warehouses, except, through their individual vocations, adapting mechanisms and developing reprocessed storage areas. When software designers move towards a problem, they time and again start in on at a high stage of generalization and conceptualize the plan in terms of the functional problem to be unraveled [Curtis et al., 1988].

This preliminary conceptualization is required to be then deciphered into requisites and concepts that the computer can comprehend. The breach amid the submission stage and structure point in predictable software engineering background is huge. The fundamental problem can be distinguished as a disparity amid the system model supplied by the computing settings and the state of affairs replica of the consumer [Kintsch, 1998]. It is, consequently, very significant to the system engineer to judge the force of information technology in the organization en bloc and to formulate suitable verdicts concerning the safety measures alarms that appear with such knowledge.

References

An Exploration of Information Security Aspects in the Thirty Elements of Systems Engineering By Julie JCH Ryan. (1998). Web.

Stanzione, Kaydon Al (1987). “Engineering”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Published by McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math.

Boris Beizer: Software Testing Techniques. Second Edition, Published by International Thomson Computer Press, (1990).

What is Systems Engineering? A Consensus of Senior Systems Engineers-By A. Terry Bahill. [2007]. Web.

Roger S. Pressman, Software Engineering (A practitioner’s approach), 5th edition, 2000, Mc Graw-Hill Education.

Avriel, M., Rijckaert, M.J. and Wilde, D.J. (eds.), Optimization and Design, Published by Prentice-Hall, 1973.

Automated Software Testing Tools. Web.

The Software Technology of the 21st Century: From Software Reuse to Collaborative Software Design. By Gerhard Fischer.

Introduction

Shiftwork is essential in managing busy schedules in airports. Airport Traffic Controllers (ATCs) are involved in directing the movement of airplanes both on-air and on the ground and monitoring traffic (Samà et al., 2018). They communicate with pilots to provide them with instructions for landing and takeoff. They are supposed to take control of air traffic that is arriving at the airports and transfer control of the flights leaving their zone. Airports use shifts to manage the control of traffic at airports and prevent workloads (Gupta et al., 2019). However, the work done by ATCs requires significant mental and emotional preparedness because of the coordination needed on different levels. Shiftwork enhances the ability of the employees at air traffic control to be well-prepared to handle the tasks (Read & Charles, 2018). This study is carried out to investigate the implications of air traffic controller shift works on aviation safety.

The purpose of the research is to study the impacts of shiftwork on overall safety in airports. Workloads often cause burnouts which affects the cognitive abilities of people. Studies have shown that burnout can result in poor decision-making on the part of air traffic controllers which can lead to the development of accidents. Fatigue is considered a potential risk factor in human errors (Samra, 2018). The International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers Associations (IFATCA) has provided recommendations for airports to manage fatigue. This study will provide insight into how airport authorities can design work schedules for ATCs to avoid the development of fatigue, burnout, and exhaustion.

Case Study Background

In areas where operations run 24/7 appearance of fatigue and exhaustion is a significant challenge. The two factors have a considerable impact on the productivity, performance, and safety of the people involved. Banks et al. (2019) notes that fatigue may manifest itself as poor decisions, overreacting, being distracted, falling asleep, and poor communication (Banks et al. 2019). All these issues can cause huge damage in areas where safety is paramount. Fatigue in one individual may affect the whole team as the group will have to do more work to cover for the failures of one person. In an airport environment, the presence of fatigue in one of the ATCs may create confusion which can cause irreversible damage.

Shifts are used by airport management to ensure that ATCs can handle their duties and responsibilities with the right frame of mind. The schedules ensure that employees do not work more than eight hours which is the recommended maximum duty period. Chang et al. (2019) indicate that fatigue levels vary depending on the shifts, periods for shifts, and work schedules. The air traffic controllers working in a work schedule with a significant number of air traffic are likely to experience higher fatigue levels (Chang et al., 2019). Timing of pauses and time taken on different tasks are viewed as important aspects to consider when creating shifts.

High traffic volumes are a normal occurrence in most airports. Most people consider air travel to be their preferred way of moving from one place to another due to its quickness and comfortability. In major airports, high traffic capacities can be present during the day and night. The minimum required number of ATCs in a single shift is two. Li et al. (2021) indicate that the effects of shiftwork are concerning because it impacts sleep quantity and quality. This affects the air traffic controllers’ health and safety and limits their ability to be continuously alert (McKenna & Wilkes, 2018). High-traffic occurrences may enhance the development of fatigue because of the need for ATCs to be vigilant for a specific period (Li et al., 2021).

Methodology

Participants

The main purpose of this study is to understand the implications of air traffic controller shiftwork on safety. The focus group for the research is air traffic controllers working at a busy airport. The choice for a place to administer the survey is the Los Angeles international airport. The airport handles over 40 million passengers which means that the air traffic controllers have a busy schedule. The participants for this study understand how shifts work and can provide better insight into their implications for safety. Air traffic controllers are crucial to the safety of an airport as they handle both incoming and outgoing traffic. A simple random sampling method will be applied when administering the survey. This is because the population being targeted is large and this method will enable the selection of participants that represent the entire population. Due to a range of factors, the online survey was returned by 10 air traffic controllers.

Survey Instrument

The instrument used for this study was a questionnaire of 10 questions. Issues on fatigue management, breaks, off days, effects on sleep quality and quantity, and the scheduling regulations are discussed. The questions take into consideration the Federal Aviation Administration guidelines on shift schedules and the requirements for shiftwork. The questionnaire is developed with the view of evaluating shiftwork and the impact it has on air traffic controllers. The majority of the questions provided on the questionnaire have multiple choices. To understand the implications of shiftwork on safety, certain factors are considered. High traffic volumes, schedules are chosen, provision of breaks and sleep quality and quantity are considered. This study is related to the issue of fatigue development in air traffic controllers.

Survey Results

The survey was administered online to air traffic controllers from Los Angeles international airport. The survey results are presented as follows

Table 1: Gender of Participants.

Table 2: Age of Participants.

Figure 1 outlines the concept of recuperative breaks for air traffic controllers. It is important to understand whether the facility offers the employees breaks to recover during shiftwork. This is because such breaks can enhance the ability of the air traffic controller to concentrate and provide quality work. The data indicates that the majority of the respondents felt that they were provided with breaks to recover when handling high traffic shifts.

Figure 2 illustrates the views of participants on the number of hours that should be scheduled off between any two shifts for air traffic controllers to have adequate rest. It is important to note that shiftwork for ATCs is demanding and requires the use of cognitive skills to coordinate between various activities. Having enough rest between two shifts can be essential in regaining the energy needed to continue providing quality work. The majority of the respondents indicated that at least 10 hours can be enough in ensuring adequate rest is achieved.

Airport management utilizes scheduling to create shifts for their workers at air traffic control towers. Scheduling minimum is intended ate ensure that workers get enough rest while still ensuring that airports can continue functioning. The results indicate that even with the current scheduling minimums employees still feel fatigued while on duty. Fatigue is a huge impediment and can result in poor decision making which may lead to disasters.

Figure 4 illustrates the concept of quality sleep for air traffic controllers. In most cases, shiftwork limits the ability of the ATCs to get enough sleep which is normally 8 hours. The need to prepare for the next shift may limit the time that the ATCs have for sleep. The results indicate that majority of the participants were able to have enough sleep (8hrs) even with the tough schedules.

Figure 5 outlines the results of the question on whether the participants feel the facility provides non-punitive ways of reporting fatigue. The results indicate that majority of the participants feel their place of work has provided ways to report fatigue. It is common for employees to develop fear in the workplace because of the management’s ways of handling issues. Fatigue is an issue that has to be given priority to ensure the safety of aviation.

Figure 6 illustrates the answer to the question of whether participants have ever taken a day off to rest due to the current scheduling regulations. The results indicate that most of the participants are comfortable with the scheduling regulations that are in place. Taking a day off would mean that the employees are not getting enough rest. With the changes that have been made by various organizations, rest has become integral to the work of ATCs.

Figure 7 displays data from the question on whether if the participants are given the power, they could extend the time between shifts. The time between shifts is crucial because it contributes to their ability to have adequate rest. The majority of the participants would extend the time between shifts which indicates a lack of enough time.

Figure 8 displays answers to the question of whether home responsibilities limit adequate rest between shifts. Most of the participants indicated that their home responsibilities affected the time they had for adequate rest between shifts. This shows the challenge that many ATCs face during their shift work and the likelihood it impacts their health.

Discussion

Air traffic controllers operate in a highly intensive environment that requires awareness. In demanding tasks, the development of fatigue and exhaustion is a common issues (Mélan & Cascino, 2021). The provision of enough recuperative breaks is crucial in assisting ATCs during their shift work (Ferguson et al., 2019). Providing ATCs with the ability to report fatigue without any fear is essential in identifying workers who are exhausted. Airport management needs to consider the ATCs who have home responsibilities because it becomes difficult to balance work and family matters. Extending the number of hours between shifts is one of the changes that can benefit air traffic controllers. However, due to human resource needs, it might be difficult for airports to extend the hours.

Conclusion

In summary, shiftwork has a huge impact on the health of air traffic controllers. Airport management has initiated measures to ensure that the ATCs are not affected significantly by the schedules. However, even with the current measures, the air traffic controllers are still getting fatigued and exhausted. This study has several limitations such as the lack of enough time and participants. The main results of the study are that recuperative breaks can contribute to the reduction of fatigue in employees. Extending the number of hours between shifts can be beneficial to ATCs.

Future Recommendations

Future studies can focus on a large sample size using an enhanced survey instrument to improve understanding of the topic. The study provides a preliminary analysis of shiftwork for air traffic controllers. The concept of fatigue evolves every time changes in the aviation sector occur. Further research can cover how shiftwork has been affected during the Covid-19 pandemic and how it has impacted the air traffic controllers. This study provides a background on the implications of air controller shiftwork on aviation safety.

References

Banks, S., Landon, L. B., Dorrian, J., Waggoner, L. B., Centofanti, S. A., Roma, P. G., & Van Dongen, H. P. (2019). Effects of fatigue on teams and their role in 24/7 operations.Sleep Medicine Reviews, 48, 101216. Web.

Chang, Y. H., Yang, H. H., & Hsu, W. J. (2019). Effects of work shifts on fatigue levels of air traffic controllers.Journal of Air Transport Management, 76, 1-9. Web.

Ferguson, S. A., Appleton, S. L., Reynolds, A. C., Gill, T. K., Taylor, A. W., McEvoy, R. D., & Adams, R. J. (2019). Making errors at work due to sleepiness or sleep problems is not confined to non-standard work hours: results of the 2016 Sleep Health Foundation national survey.Chronobiology International, 36(6), 758-769. Web.

Gupta, C. C., Coates, A. M., Dorrian, J., & Banks, S. (2019). The factors influencing the eating behavior of shift workers: what, when, where and why.Industrial Health, 57(4), 419-453. Web.

Li, W. C., Kearney, P., Zhang, J., Hsu, Y. L., & Braithwaite, G. (2021). The analysis of occurrences associated with air traffic volume and air traffic controllers’ alertness for fatigue risk management.Risk Analysis, 41(6), 1004-1018. Web.

McKenna, H., & Wilkes, M. (2018). Optimizing sleep for night shifts.BMJ: British Medical Journal (Online), 360. Web.

Mélan, C., & Cascino, N. (2021). Effects of a modified shift work organization and traffic load on air traffic controllers’ sleep and alertness during work and non-work activities.Applied Ergonomics, 98, 103596. Web.

Read, K., & Charles, R. (2018). Understanding teamwork errors in royal air force air traffic control.Safety Science, 109, 36-45. Web.

Samà, M., D’Ariano, A., Corman, F., & Pacciarelli, D. (2018). Coordination of scheduling decisions in the management of airport airspace and taxiway operations.Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 114, 398-411. Web.

Samra, R. (2018). Brief history of burnout.BMJ: British Medical Journal (Online), 363. Web.

Appendix A

Questionnaire

Kindly tick where appropriate

1. Please select your gender.

• Male
• Female

2. Please indicate your age

• 21-30
• 31-40
• 41-50

3. Does the facility you work in allow you to take recuperative breaks?

• Yes
• No

4. How many hours do you think should be scheduled off between any two shifts to enable satisfactory rest?

• Less than 8
• 9
• 10
• More than 10

5. Due to the current work scheduling minimums, I have become fatigued while on duty

• Yes
• No

6. Are you able to get enough sleep per night?

• Yes
• No

7. The facility offers non-punitive ways to report fatigue at the workplace.

• Yes
• No

8. The work scheduling requirements at the workplace have forced me to take a day off to get adequate rest.

• Yes
• No

9. Given the power, would you seek to extend the time provided between shifts?

• Yes
• No

10. Because of home responsibilities, I am unable to get enough rest between shifts as a result of the work schedule that is applied currently.

• Yes
• No

Introduction

Mensa and Mensa Aviation Ltd, a reputable firm currently operating in the United Kingdom and North America, has entered into a joint venture with Abu Atal Ltd, a private developer based in the United Arab Emirates to construct a hotel in the city of Dubai. A project whose cost is estimated to be £18 million, the partners have agreed on how to contribute towards this project. The location for the hotel has been identified, and a date has been provided when the project is expected to be complete. The relevant stakeholders now have to find effective ways of ensuring that all the scheduled activities are done on time and in the required manner in order to achieve expected results.

Under normal circumstances, Abu Atal Ltd would be expected to manage this mega construction process as a local partner in the project. However, this firm lacks experience in the management of such a mega hotel project. It is for this reason that the two firms agreed to get a consultant to work in this project. In this report, the consultant seeks to develop a complete project execution strategy that is suitable for the project. In the report, the consultant will clearly conduct a critical appraisal of the project, identify risks and constraints, determine procurement route, and define the programme, project control and procedures. In the report, the consultancy firm will also explain services that it can offer to enhance success in this construction project.

Project Execution Strategy

Project execution is one of the most complex tasks in any project management process. According to Portny (2013), project execution refers to the process of implementing the strategies in order to achieve the intended project aim. The scholar notes that sometimes it may be very challenging to put into practice, policies that are still in a paper. One common challenge that project managers meet while implementing policies is the inapplicability of the major assumptions made in project planning. If the assumptions fail to hold during execution as they were held during the project planning stage, then it may not be easy to achieve the set objectives under the set plan. It may be necessary to make major adjustments to ensure that the new realities are taken into consideration. At the heart of the project, execution is three important forces which include people, operations, and the strategy.

People

Project execution entails planning the workforce in a given way to ensure that they can work as a team to achieve the intended goals. According to Friedlein (2001), project managers have the primary responsibility of ensuring that employees are aligned to the tasks which are available. In this project, the focus is to ensure that the construction of the hotel is complete before the set deadline. The project manager will have to start by identifying individuals with the right skills and experience to work in various areas of the project. Architects will be needed to design the hotel as per the needs of the clients. Civil and construction engineers will also be needed to execute the plan that will be developed by the architects. The project manager must be careful to ensure that the architects and the engineers involved in this project are highly experienced. This is specifically so because of the delicate nature of the site where the project will take place.

As previously explained, the water table at the site of construction is relatively high, given that it is in the coastal region. These experts will need to come up with a construction plan that will overcome this challenge. Interior designers, electrical engineers, painters, carpenters, masons, and other skilled and semi-skilled experts will also be needed in this project. Majority of the employees will be semi-skilled. The project manager will need to find a way of coordinating these people and meeting their needs to ensure that they deliver quality work. The project manager will also need to ensure that the entire team of employees’ remains motivated as a way of enhancing the quality of their output. The project sponsors will be visiting the site from time to time. Their input will be integrated into the process of executing this project. As Berkun (2008) puts it, achieving success in project execution requires a unique capacity to manage people involved in project management.

Strategy

According to Portny (2013), the strategy is also at the heart of the project execution process. There is always a strategic plan developed by the stakeholders detailing how the project should be executed. Such strategic plans explain the quality of work expected, the number of units required, and the time within which such a project is expected to be complete. Once a project manager receives such a strategic plan, he or she will need to come up with an execution strategy that clearly explains how the desired outcome shall be achieved. The strategy explains how the materials shall be obtained, how individual employees will be assigned different tasks, and how the review will be conducted to ensure that the focus is not lost. The strategy for this mega project will be elaborately discussed in the sections below.

Operations

Operations are the specific activities that are undertaken by the project members as per the defined strategy in order to achieve the set objectives. According to Heldman (2011), a successful project manager must find a way of linking project strategies to operations in order to achieve competitive advantage. This means that as a project manager, it is critical to ensure that all the operational activities follow the predetermined strategies closely without going astray. This will make the process of reviewing the project simple. The operations that will be involved in this mega project are also discussed in the coming sections of the paper.

Critical appraisal

4 G Consultant Group has come up with a strategy plan that explains how this project shall be executed. In this strategy, the consultants have explained all the activities that will be conducted, from the feasibility study, to the stage of handing over the completed project to the sponsors. The suggested work breakdown structure and accompanying Gantt chart showing timeframe for each activity are shown below.

It is evident that 4 G Consultant Group has understood the task at hand. The team has developed a clear structure of activities that systematically explains how this project will be undertaken. This makes it easy to assign different individuals different tasks based on their skills and experience. The timeframe, as provided for in the Gantt chart is also realistic. The team did a wonderful job in developing a blue print of how various activities shall be done, but the budget provided will need to be re-evaluated. Berkun (2008) advises that when developing a budget, it is always prudent to allocate finances to various activities.

The current budget has classified various activities into one group, making it difficult to determine the cost of every activity in the project. Such a move may be disastrous because the team will not know the right allocations for various activities. Overspending in one area, which makes it difficult to achieve success in another area, can easily be witnessed in such scenarios. The budget has also failed to provide for miscellaneous expenses. According to Smith (2002), when planning the budget for a project, it is important to appreciate that some unforeseen forces may create a need to spend more in a given project. It is, therefore, always advisable to have a small budget for such possible eventualities in a given project.

Table 1: Proposed Budget

Project risks and constraints

In project execution, a number of risks and constraints may arise that may jeopardise ability of the stakeholders to achieve the intended objectives as stated in the plan. In this construction project, there are some risks and constraints which are worth noting in order to come up with measures that can be used to overcome them. The main risk in this project is a possible collapse due to the delicate nature of the location. The site provided by the clients has a very high water table. It means that a small excavation would result into flow of water in the entire site. If care is not taken, the building can easily collapse under simple forces of nature such as earthquakes. That was the reason why it was important to have the experts who will find a way of overcoming this challenge.

The value of the local currency keeps on fluctuating. The sponsors have already committed to specific amounts of money that they will contribute towards this project which is expected to be complete in 2020. In such a long period, the currency can either depreciate or appreciate in value. This may have direct impact on the project. There is also the fear of a possible inflation within the period of project execution. Such inflation will increase the entire cost of completing the project. The cost of hiring employees and purchasing the materials needed for the project may increase. 4 G Consultant Group will need to discuss these issues with the sponsors and inform them that they should be ready to deal with these unforeseen forces that may jeopardise the ability of the consultant to complete the project within the specified time.

Procurement route

According to Goodpasture (2010), when developing a project execution strategy, it is critical to define the procurement route that will be taken to access the needed raw materials. In a construction project such as this one which involves construction of a hotel, it is important to note that cost of materials will account for almost over half of the entire cost of the project. As such, it is very critical to come up with effective route of procuring these raw materials in the most cost-effective and efficient way possible. In this project, 4 G Consultant Group has clearly stated that raw materials will be obtained through tendering. Specific individuals and companies will be selected to supply all the materials needed for the project. The selected suppliers will be selected in a tendering process based on their capacity to deliver the needed materials in the right quality and at the least possible price. Most of the materials that will be used in this project will be sourced locally within the United Arab Emirates. However, some materials needed for finishing will come from Japan and China because they are not available locally. 4 G Consultant Group will get such materials directly from the manufacturers in Japan or China instead of using brokers who always inflate the cost. The strategy will ensure that raw materials are obtained at the least possible price.

Programme

The consultant has developed an elaborate programme that will be used in the execution of this strategy. The programme defines various activities that will be taken chronologically to ensure that the intended objective is achieved. The first activity will be the feasibility study. The location has already been identified and it is clear that nature of this area may create a need to have extra expenses to overcome the identified challenges. The initial feasibility study shows that if things run as per the plan, then the full cost of this project can be recovered within the next four years. During the feasibility study, all the expected challenges will be identified and measures that will be used to overcome them defined

After the feasibility study, the next activity in the programme will be to develop a basic design. The architects will listen to the needs of the two clients and come up with an initial design that incorporates all the specifications of the clients. The basic design will then be reviewed and changes suggested. The architects, alongside the engineers, will then develop a final design that will have to be approved by the two clients. When the clients are satisfied with the design, the next programme will be the tendering process.

All the potential suppliers will be informed to present their tender based on the request placed for all the materials that will be needed for the project. The project manager and his team of experts will then evaluate the tenders and identify suppliers whose terms are most appropriate for this project. A background check on these firms will be conducted before the selection process to ensure that the selected suppliers are indeed capable of providing the needed materials and that their reputation is above board.

After identifying the suppliers, the next programme will be site mobilisation and the building process. This is the core of this project. All the experts will be assigned various tasks within the site and the construction process shall begin. As previously mentioned, there are different experts who will be responsible for various tasks within the site. Each of the areas of expertise will have the skilled experts, semiskilled experts, and unskilled workforce if that will be necessary. The teams involved in various tasks will need to coordinate very closely to ensure that the planned tasks are completed within the scheduled time. This is specifically necessary because some tasks will be sequential. This means that one group can only start working after another group has completed their tasks. For instance, the designers can only start working after the building has been erected.

The next programme will involve inspection of the facility by the project owners in preparation for the handover. The two clients will come and inspect the completed project to determine if their expectations are met. It is important to note that the clients will be involved in this project to ensure that their inputs are taken into consideration at all stages of development. The final inspection will only involve ensuring that the image of the hotel they had in mind is what has been presented to them. The project manager will then hand over the project to the clients after approval has been made. The next few weeks will involve clearance and closing the project.

Project control

The project manager will develop a system that will be used to gather, manage, and analyse data to help in predicting, understanding, and constructively influencing time and cost outcomes of this project. The consultant is keen to ensure that there is effective management and decision making in the entire process of executing the project. This can only be done by having the right information at the right time and communicating it to all the relevant stakeholders to ensure that the desired response is obtained.

Procedures

This mega projects will need a clear procedure of how specific tasks will be conducted to ensure that the intended outcome is achieved. The procedure that will be used will be based on four areas of research, development, planning, and strategy. This simply means that before a strategy is developed, a research will be conducted, developmental needs defined, and a plan of what should be achieved prepared. The procedure defies who will undertake what activity, how and why the activity will be undertaken, when it will be undertaken, and how the outcome should be. Details of the procedure are given in the figure below.

Services 4 G Consultant Group Can Offer To Enhance Success in the Project

4 G Consultant Group can offer various services that can help in enhancing success in this project based on the needs of the client. First, this organisation will offer appropriate advice to the project sponsors before commencement of the project. The advisory role will involve conducting a feasibility study and informing the sponsors about what to expect in the project. The firm will inform the sponsors whether or not the budget they have set aside for the project is capable of meeting the cost of the project they desire.

By informing the clients about when they should expect to recover their investment into the project, 4 G Consultant Group empowers the sponsors by making them aware of what they should expect. This organisation can offer a detailed plan on the specific activities that will need to be undertaken in the project and the strategy that should be used in the execution process. The firm has already developed a programme needed for the project and a strategy that can be used to execute it. This firm, if approved by the clients, can conduct all the projects activities from design development to the actual construction of the hotel, including all the tasks of designs and decorations.

Organisation structure

4 G Consultant Group will need a clear organisational structure if it is approved as the firm that will implement this project as desired by the client. The following organisational design will be useful.

The project manager will be at the helm of leadership in this project. He will be assisted in the management process by a team of experts in various areas. The head of design will be an architect who will be responsible for drawing the plan and ensuring that the final image of the hotel meets the needs of the clients. The head of construction will be a civil engineer who will be responsible for the construction activities. Head of finance will coordinate with the project manager and the other two departmental heads to ensure that all activities run as per the financial plan. It is important to note that the clients occupies a special position in this project that allows them to supervise the project at any time and issue their advice to departmental heads on any adjustments that may be necessary.

Communication links and mode between key members

According to Emond and Steins (2011), communication is of critical importance when undertaking any project. 4 G Consultant Group will need to have a clear communication links and more that will ensure that all the stakeholders are involved at all the stages in the project. First, the project manager will have to ensure that there is a clear communication system that facilitates sharing of knowledge and information among all the internal stakeholders, including the clients. The next step will be to develop a close communication system with the relevant external stakeholders, especially the government agencies, to avoid any disruption during project implementation process.

Consultation

As a consultant, I have set clear systems that will enable my firm to meet the expectations of the partners in this joint venture. My firm has the needed team of highly skilled employees in various fields as discussed in the paper. My team has clearly understood the needs of the clients in this project and is ready to undertake the project.

List of References

Berkun, S 2008, Making Things Happen: Mastering Project Management, O’Reilly Media, Sebastopol.

Emond, J & Steins, C 2011, Pro Web Project Management, Apress, Berkeley.

Friedlein, A 2001, A Guide to Web Project Management: How to Deliver Successful Commercial Web Sites, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco.

Goodpasture, J 2010, Project Management the Agile Way: Making It Work in the Enterprise, J. Ross Publishers, Ft. Lauderdale.

Heldman, K 2011, Project Management Jumpstart, Wiley, Hoboken.

Portny, S 2013, Project Management for Dummies, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken.

Smith, N 2002, Engineering Project Management, Blackwell Science, New York.

Fatigue is one of the main problems that affected the aviation industry and its employees. Depression, anxiety, irritation, and anger are common results of work-related stress. These usually lead to job boredom, burnout, and/or withdrawal in the forms of absenteeism and turnover. Fatigue has serious consequences for the organization as well-absenteeism, poor employee-management relations, poor productivity, high accident rates, high turnover, poor organizational climate, antagonism at work, job dissatisfaction, and decreased ability to make decisions self-management has been effective in clinical psychology with such behaviors as weight control, drug addiction, alcohol abuse, and anxiety reduction. A fatigue management system is aimed to reduce the amou8nt of stress and anxiety experienced by students and help them to create effective self-management programs.

In aviation, fatigue is a serious problem as it affects pilots and other staff. “Fatigue is a Recognized Problem Pilot fatigue is an insidious threat throughout aviation, but especially in operations” (Caldwell, p.7). These behaviors are often caused by or are a direct result of an individual’s stress or reaction to an inability to manage stress. Research proves that the direct application of self-management techniques is effective if it directly relates to fatigue problems. Clearly, focusing people’s efforts on their most important goals must serve to minimize stress-inducing problems.

The effective fatigue management system should consist of several steps: training (theoretical and practical parts) and organizational support. For example, where “supervisory difficulty” is reported as a problem, the trainees should learn to define the term objectively, giving specific examples of actual occurrences and their consequences. The trainer should help the trainees to focus both on their own responses and on the actions taken by their respective supervisors (or coworkers if the problem lay with them). The trainees should record their responses on self-assessment forms thus clarifying for themselves the problem or problems that they want to overcome in order to increase job attendance.

During the program, pilots should understand the notion of fatigue and its main manifestations. This knowledge will help them to access and control risks, recognize problem situations and organize their schedule. By observing the amount of time spent on repetitive administrative tasks or informal conversations, for example, the individual can learn more about this behavior. The individual should record the type and number of such conversations in each workday and the conditions that existed at the time. If three hours are spent chatting informally during an eight-hour day, it becomes a bit more clear as to why the performance goals are not being accomplished. Furthermore, if most of the individual’s conversations begin at the coffee room, the person has useful information for managing the behavior, for example, by cutting down on trips to the coffee lounge.

Preventing methods should involve a healthy work environment and enough time given for rest, recognition of individual and team fatigue, frequent breaks, and flexible working schedule, etc. Also, Caldwell (2003) admits that “several sleep-disorders centers across the nation have implemented fatigue-avoidance programs at their facilities, and a variety of professional and industry training conferences now include alertness-management workshops on their agendas”. Pinpointing the interruptions as specifically as possible can help the manager or employee decide which interruptions are the most troublesome and which should be targeted for modification through self-management. The trainees should be asked during the orientation session why they had volunteered for training. The trainer should be able to explain the underlying assumptions and rationale of self-management and take measures of self-efficacy and outcome expectancies (to be taken again immediately after, three months after, six months after, and nine months after the training). A learning test should be also administered during this session (and again at three months, six months, and nine months following training).

A university aviation program should teach students how to recognize the state of fatigue and avoid further stress and anxiety. In the face of competing demands on time and resources, it is essential that a pilot has clearly stated objectives. But objectives alone are not sufficient for managing effectively within an often unpredictable and chaotic work environment. Training in self-management can improve an individual’s behavior and lead to the exercise of greater control over aspects of his or her decision-making and performance. Similarly, negative emotions arising from disagreements or conflicts within a group may focus attention on interpersonal processes in the group and how group members treat each other. In essence, the emotions experienced in groups in response to internal and external stimuli and events imbue those stimuli and events with meaning and significance for group members. Moreover, the moods that group members experience are likely to influence their information processing and behavior. For example, when members of a group experience negative moods, they may be more critical and discerning, and when they experience positive moods, they may be more helpful to each other, as well as to people outside the group. Just as groups clearly experience broad dimensions of affect such as positive and negative mood, they also experience more specific emotions nested underneath these broad dimensions. For example, group members may collectively experience shame on learning of a missed opportunity, pride for a job well done, anxiety in an uncertain situation when the stakes are high, and enthusiasm while working on an intrinsically interesting task. Caldwell admits that: “Despite unavoidable operational constraints, an effort to resolve misunderstandings about human physiology and the basic nature of fatigue in aviation will reduce this strain to more manageable levels” (36). Some affect regulation that takes place in groups is relatively passive. It may be unconscious or automatic and is not the result of group members’ taking active steps to regulate or manage their own or each other’s feelings. This does not necessarily imply that people are unaware of the fact that their moods and emotions are being influenced, but rather that the influence process is carried out without deliberate intentions or interventions.

In sum, in order to develop effective fatigue management programs, it is crucial to involve three main parts of the program: preventive methods, reporting methods, and monitoring methods. To the extent that members of a workgroup are high on emotional intelligence, they may be able to generate and maintain excitement, enthusiasm, confidence, and optimism in the group, as well as a sense of cooperation and trust. Interpersonal influence effects on affect regulation include both social comparison processes and socialization processes. The study of affect regulation in groups necessarily evokes consideration of factors at both higher and lower levels of analysis. While factors at the individual level of analysis that impinge on understanding affect regulation in groups are somewhat readily apparent based on the nature of the mechanism under consideration, factors at the organizational level are somewhat less apparent.

Works Cited

Caldwell, J.A., Fatigue in Aviation – A Guide to Staying Awake at the Stick. Ashgate Publishing, 2004.

Introduction

The internship program gives students a significant chance to gain hands-on experience and enhance their skills. Besides, the program acts as an excellent opportunity for students to showcase their skills and develop strategic thinking capabilities. This report focuses on an internship program in the field of aviation logistics for the United Arab Emirates (UAE) Army. The reason for selecting the UAE army is because it has multiple branches across the Middle East. Therefore, working at the logistics department allowed me to learn multiple aspects of procurement management associate with diverse cultures. I take this opportunity to thank the Chief of Aviation Logistics for giving me a chance to work in his department. Besides, I would also like to thank the staff members of the department of aviation logistics who dedicated their time to teach me. The report will discuss the activities and duties that I undertook during my period as a trainee in the department. The report will be split into two parts:

Portfolio Report

Professional Field of Organization

The UAE army was founded in 1976. The army is regarded as one of the oldest institutions in the United Arab Emirates. The aviation department was established in 1968. It was intended to facilitate the distribution of supplies to military personnel in different parts of the country. Later, the UAE army procured state-of-the-art technology and equipment to enhance the capacity of the logistics department. The department handles purchasing, transporting and training the military personnel in how to use varied tools. The logistics department liaises with private institutions to guarantee the procurement of quality and cost-friendly military supplies. Currently, the UAE military has a smooth joint logistics and communication platform that is intended to establish synergy among the army, navy and air force.

Organization and Department Objectives

The primary purpose of the aviation logistics department is to supply competent, responsive, and adaptable military personnel and equipment that can yield positive results. The department is mandated to supply the requisite combat support to all military personnel. The aviation logistics of the UAE army uses modern technology and concepts to maintain and improve military dominance. The department endeavors to overcome every hurdle by creating novel logistical systems. Indeed, the department is in the process of modernizing the UAE armed forces. It aims at guaranteeing that the army is capable of surmounting any artificial or natural catastrophe. During the internship, I worked under the supervision of the logistics manager. The logistics manager reports to the chief of aviation logistics who is the overall leader of the department of aviation logistics. The logistics department comes up with new responsibilities based on the demands of the army.

Organizational Structure and Duties

Organizational Structure

Organizational Role

Personal Role and Position

As a trainee in the department of aviation logistics, I was supposed to supervise the procurement and shipment of varied military resources. I served as an assistant logistics specialist. I was also responsible for keeping records of all purchased goods and guaranteeing that supplies reach the intended destination on time. As an assistant logistics specialist, I had the duty to inspect all the goods before they are shipped to different destinations. The inspection was designed to minimize shipment and procurement errors. I also worked closely with other employees in the department. I was also responsible for ensuring that the department of aviation logistics utilizes the available resources efficiently and that there was no wastage.

Student Objectives

The primary goals and targets were to:

• Acquire novel skills and experience that can be of significant help in my future career.
• Have hands-on experience in procurement, shipment, and distribution of products.
• Gain knowledge of how to plan, evaluate, organize and manage logistical processes in a big organization.
• Apply the knowledge acquired in class and understand the factors that impede efficient procurement and distribution of capital goods.
• Work independently in a workplace setting

Activities Report

Events Table

The logistics manager came up with a schedule of the activities based on the objectives and goals of the internship program. I worked closely with the logistics manager to guarantee that the actions matched my goals. The table below outlines the activities that I undertook during the internship period. The internship program lasted for four weeks.

Table 6.1 – General internship placement schedule

Week-by-Week Activities

Week 1-2

I worked in the recordkeeping section for the first two weeks. Here, I was responsible for organizing past procurement records. I was also mandated with identifying, sorting and storing data. Besides, I had the responsibility of assessing the vulnerability of the recordkeeping system that the department used.

Week 3-4

I spent the next two weeks in the procurement section. In this section, I was supposed to identify the products that should be purchased and organize them based on their urgency. Besides, I participated in filling the purchase orders. I was also responsible for approving payments of delivered products.

Week 5-6

I spent the fifth and sixth weeks in the cargo and container scheduling section. The section entails organizing for the shipment of containers to different destinations. I was supposed to inform the procurement officers of the different branches about the shipment of their supplies.

Week 7

I served in the container inspection section during the last week. The container inspection section deals with examining the containers to ensure that they have the right products. Besides, it deals with receiving and certifying the products that the suppliers deliver.

Activities About Record Keeping

Organizing past procurement Records

The first two weeks of the internship program entailed record keeping. I was instructed to organize records that had not been sorted correctly. I had to arrange the records according to the date and type of procurement. The person responsible for recordkeeping had been sick for two weeks. Hence, there was a backlog of records that required being sorted and filed accordingly. I spent most of the time organizing the procurement records.

Identifying, Grouping, and Storing Data

After identifying and classifying records according to date and type of procurement, I was supposed to put them in the right files and hoard in the relevant cabinets. Document filing and storage require skills in record keeping. Thus, I had to seek the assistance of the logistics manager. It was hard to identify the correct records since I was not conversant with the filing system that the department used. However, after working for two hours with the logistics manager, I was able to classify and file all the documents without challenges.

Assessing potential threats to records

Apart from organizing past procurement documents and storing data, I also helped to assess potential threats to records. Organizational records are prone to damage and displacement. Therefore, I was mandated to determine the vulnerability of the data stored by the department of aviation logistics.

Activities About Procurement Management

Identifying Products to Purchase

The department of aviation logistics purchases products based on prices and urgency. Therefore, I identified the products that the army required urgently. After determining the products that needed to be purchased, I would liaise with the logistics manager to prepare the purchase orders.

Filling Purchase Order

Organizations use purchase orders to request products from the suppliers. One should be careful when filling a purchase order to ensure that they order the right products. Besides, one should ensure that they order the right quantity of goods. During the internship program, I helped in filling requisitions as well as reviewing them to ensure that they meet the needs of every branch of the army.

Approving Payment of Supplier

Before paying for supplies, procurement officers should ensure that they have received the right amount of products. I had to ensure that the delivered products tallied with what was on the invoice before approving their payment. In case the products delivered did not tally with the quantities on the invoice, I had to request the supplier to supply the missing goods before they are paid.

Cargo and Container Scheduling

Examining Cargos and Containers before Shipment

Once the ordered products reach the army base, they are shipped to different branches. First, the products are sorted based on the orders of individual branches. Therefore, I ensured that cargos are sent to the correct destination.

Container Inspection

Container inspection entails examining the products delivered by the suppliers. It also entails sorting products according to the needs of the individual branch. The activities carried out at the inspection determine the efficiency of a logistics firm.

Analysis and Conclusion

The internship program allows students to put into practice what they learn in class. Besides, it gives the learners hands-on experience and prepares them to assume responsibilities as workers in the future. The following are the strengths and weaknesses of aviation logistics.

I benefited from the internship program and would encourage other learners to ensure that they enroll in the program before they complete their studies.

Academic Report

How Internship Relates to Field of Study

The internship program relates to my field of study in different ways. Currently, I am undertaking a course in logistics management. Therefore, the internship relates to the area of study in the following manner:

• Procurement management
• Record management services

Procurement Management

Procurement entails the purchase of products and services from external sources. On the other hand, supply management involves ensuring that an institution acquires the right goods or services at a reasonable cost. Through the internship, I gained an insight into the challenges that procurement managers have to grapple with in their daily duties. Besides, the internship program allowed me to understand the potential risks that logistics firms face. I learned different economic analysis methods that facilitate decision making during procurement processes. In the logistics management course, students learn about two categories of procurement activities. They are direct and indirect procurement. The internship program accorded me a chance to have hands-on experience in the management of indirect procurement procedures.

Record Management Services

Record management services refer to the practice of governing and managing crucial data of organizations. File management services entail storing, classifying, retrieving, prioritizing, and tracking data. File management is an integral component of aviation logistics. Numerous factors are considered before saving or destroying records. One of the factors is the value of the record. Logistics firms keep records to prove that transactions took place. During the internship, I learned different terminologies used in document management. In the field of logistics management, students are taught that organizations use file controls to access and share data. I happened to have a firsthand experience in how file controls function. There are different methods of record management. Some organizations have record repositories where they keep all their data. Besides, the organizations hire clerks or assign some employees the task of file management. Most companies have central locations where all their data is stored. Others have the locations strewn across different departments.

Record management services include setting policies and assigning duties to different employees. It also entails organizing the information requirements of an institution. The success of a logistics company depends on effective record management. A company ought to train its employees in how to manage, retrieve and dispose of obsolete records. A majority of organizations have poor record management strategies because they consider it unnecessary. Institutions should know that employees have the obligation to manage organizational records. The growth of social media platforms has made it difficult for organizations to maintain files. Social media enables workers and agencies to create and share documents rapidly. At times, employees share anonymous records making it hard for managers to trace its origin.

The theoretical studies facilitated the completion of the internship. In class, we learned about recordkeeping and retrieval techniques. Therefore, I had skills in record retrieval that came in handy when serving in the recordkeeping capacity. It was easy to retrieve and organize procurement documents based on their date and value. Besides, skills acquired in the theoretical studies helped to identify and prioritize procurement processes. The lecturer had taught us how to organize procurement procedures based on urgency. Consequently, I was able to evaluate the needs of different branches of the army and schedule the procurement procedures based on the urgency and importance of the supplies. On the other hand, the theoretical studies gave us insight into cargo scheduling and supply management techniques. Therefore, I encountered limited challenges in scheduling the shipment of supplies to various destinations. It was easy to liaise with varied army branches and monitor goods on transit.

Undertaking and Completing Internship

The internship was undertaken by serving in various capacities within the department of aviation logistics. During the internship program, I had a chance to help in record keeping. I also participated in procurement management and cargo and container scheduling. The primary goals of the internship program were to:

• Acquire new expertise and experience that can be of considerable help in my future career.
• Have hands-on experience in procurement, consignment, and allotment of products.
• Gain knowledge of how to plan, appraise, organize and run logistical processes in a big organization.
• Use the knowledge acquired in class and understand the factors that impede efficient procurement and distribution of capital goods.
• Work autonomously in a workplace setting

Experiences and Benefits Earned

I amassed vast experience in the field of recordkeeping during the first two weeks. Among the benefits earned during the internship program included:

1. Skills in developing and capturing records
2. Management of recordkeeping systems
3. Records risk evaluation, prevention, and recovery.
4. Data classification and security assignment
5. The internship also helped to enhance communication skills

As a procurement management assistant, one acquires varied skills and benefits. The advantages and experiences acquired during the internship included:

1. Procurement optimization skills
2. Preparation and completion of purchase orders
3. Supplier assessment and contract formulation
4. Identification and resolution of supplier performance challenges

During the fourth week, I engaged in cargo and container scheduling. Under this capacity, I had a chance to gain skills in:

1. Development of cargo scheduling forms
2. Tracking freight shipment
3. Developing and updating the container arrival file

Problems and Challenges

I encountered numerous challenges during the internship program. We had not learned the different acronyms and terminologies used in the department of aviation logistics. Therefore, I had difficulties in understanding most acronyms and terms used in recordkeeping, procurement management, and cargo scheduling and shipment procedures. The department of aviation logistics of the United Arab Emirates army is ever busy due to the high demand for military supplies in the country. Therefore, it was hard to keep a tab on the multiple supplies since I had not worked in such a busy firm before. Apart from the challenges in understanding the acronyms, it was also hard to acclimatize to the speed and accuracy needed in the organization. A majority of military supplies are required for efficient service delivery. Hence, they are supposed to be delivered on time. Failure to provide the correct supplies to an army base may have devastating effects. Logistics officers ought to be thorough when ordering and shipping military supplies. It was hard to deliver supplies quickly and maintain the required level of accuracy.

The success of logistics firms depends on effective communication between the officials endowed with the responsibility of managing the different phases of the procurement procedure. It was hard to communicate with various officials of the department of aviation logistics. Besides, I did not have an idea of how information flows within the department. Thus, I had to rely on the logistics manager. The duration allocated to each activity was not adequate. For instance, I did not learn all aspects of recordkeeping due to time constraints. Procurement management entails numerous procedures. However, I could not participate in all the procedures due to limited time. Time management was a significant challenge throughout the internship period.

Handling Challenges

The logistics manager helped me to learn the different acronyms and terminologies used in aviation logistics. The manager provided a guidebook that described all the acronyms and difficult terms. To cope with the required procurement speed and accuracy, I worked closely with the procurement officer. Besides, I took the time to learn what the officer was doing to enhance speed. After three days, I was able to improve my ordering and distribution rate. I interacted with diverse officials in the department as a way to overcome the communication barrier. I also studied the structure of the department to understand how information flows. Within a short duration, I integrated into the system and could communicate efficiently. I mainly focused on crucial activities due to time constraints. My objective was to have an insight into all essential activities that guarantee the success of logistics processes.

Learning Experiences and Outcomes

I gained immense skills during the internship program at the department of aviation logistics. The internship program was an eye-opener to a majority of the lessons taught in class. I had a chance to exercise what is taught in class. Besides, I had an opportunity to interact with people from diverse cultural backgrounds, which boosted intercultural communication skills. The internship program helped me to understand the procedures that institutions follow when procuring products. Previously, I assumed that the procurement process entailed communicating with suppliers and organizing for the shipment of products. However, the internship program made me realize that the procurement process involves numerous activities that complement each other. I also learned the importance of the department of logistics to an organization. Moreover, I acquired novel skills that will be of great help to my future career. The internship program challenged me to acquire more skills in aviation logistics. Consequently, I have embarked on an intensive study of aviation logistics. The objective is to ensure that I have adequate knowledge in aviation logistics before I complete studies. My dream is to work at air logistics after school. Thus, I will ensure that I have adequate skills in this industry before I leave school.

Introduction

The paper presents a review, analysis and a study on hypoxia faced by pilots at higher altitudes. The problems faced by pilots of commercial flights and the ways and means of dealing with them with the use of technology used in military planes will be the point of discussion and focus.

The usage of technology that minimize the conditions of hypoxia at higher altitudes and reduction of its negative effects on pilots who deal with the decision-making process while flying will be analyzed, and recommendations will be given.

Literature Review

Hypoxia and Flying

One of the foremost things of the primary requirements of humans is air. The lack of air, most specifically oxygen leads to hypoxia. Initially, hypoxia has been reported at high altitudes on mountains by mountaineers and after the invention of aero planes, the pilots and flight attendants are experiencing the effects of hypoxia and are feeling stressed.

This can be termed as ‘decompression sickness’ (Aronson K.S; 1991, 26) and has been first recognized or occurred in 1841. According to Aronson K.S (1991, 26) French mining engineer M. Triger ‘noticed symptoms experienced by miners after working in deep mine shafts’ (Aronson K.S; 1991, 26). Number of workers had been prone to joint pains and became vulnerable to paralysis.

However, the same sickness can be felt in a reverse manner, which can be known as hypoxia, when pilots fly in the air in a plane. While they fly in the air, they experience decompressed air and don’t have enough oxygen in the air, they breathe that is required for normal metabolic activities of the body.

Though the effects of hypoxia are not the same in different pilots, but it cannot be ignored as the effects are noticeable. In this regard, Aronson K.S (1991, 26-27) mentions about Paul Bert who is famous with the name ‘father of altitude physiology’.

As per the information provided about Paul Bert’s observations, though the commercial flights flying at a height of around 20,000 feet, with the pressurized atmosphere, still there is a lack of pressure of oxygen as the pressurization is only enough if the aircraft flies at 8,000 feet. That means the commercial aircrafts are flying at a height of around 20,000 feet with the pressurized atmosphere that suits the altitude of 8,000 feet, which results in hypoxia in pilots and flight attendants.

Aronson K.S (1991, 28) explains that when one goes to 18,000 feet above the sea level, the atmospheric pressure will be reduced to half of the standard pressure of one atmosphere.

That means the oxygen availability also decreases by half of the amount that is available at the normal atmospheric pressure at sea level. Consequently, the pilots and flight attendants who face this situation almost daily suffer from hypoxia (Aronson K.S: 1991, 25-28).¹

Thus, pilots and flight attendants are mostly associated with hypoxia. Though the commercial air craft cabins do have enough induced pressure for the safety and health of passengers and crew, the hypoxia depends on altitude.

According to Sharma L (2007), at an altitude of 8,000 feet, people in flight may experience mild hypoxia (Sharma L; 2007), even in the presence of the pressurized atmosphere. That means the pressurized atmosphere is lacking oxygen, and it is necessary to pressurize the flight interiors with oxygen.

Exposure to hypoxia can be considered into two categories. Simply being exposed to hypoxia and working in the atmosphere of hypoxia. Pilots and flight attendants do work in the hypoxia atmosphere, and it may result in headache and loss of memory, which may affect future working status of pilots.

The hypoxia may lead to stress, headache, backache, disturbed sleep, hearing problems and so on. Hence, ‘the nature and extent of physical/physiological problems and discomforts experienced by pilots’ (Sharma L; 2007) need to be examined, and a study is necessary to decide on the cause for the problems and difference from the normal state they are facing while in and after the flying hours.

It is necessary to know about the variation of effects of hypoxia if any on the persons depending on their age and sex. As the effects of hypoxia may or may not present for a long-time, it is necessary to conduct tests on the pilots regarding hypoxia for each flight or in some airlines, they test pilots for the effects of hypoxia before each flight (Sharma L: 2007)² so that necessary medication could be given.

However, according to Good W.A (1991, 104) the performance of the pilots might be degraded with ‘both prescribed and over the counter medications as well as by the medical conditions for which they are taken’ (Good W.A; 1991, 104).

Normally, the medicines of hypoxia are sedative, tranquilizer or antihistamine. These medicines make a pilot ‘much more susceptible to hypoxia’ (Good W.A; 1991, 104) and hence it is necessary for the pilots to minimize the use of over the counter medicines.

In addition to the above precautions alcohol can impair the pilot even many hours after its consumption and digestion due to hangover. The impairment of pilot may cause flight accidents and some of the major accidents give ground to the argument that hypoxia may be the reason for the inability that caused the accident.

For example, two accidents at Dallas and Fort Worth involving Delta Airlines alongside the accident in Denver by the flight of continental airlines proved that the pilots are the cause for the fatal happening, and hypoxia may be the reason for it.

Another accident in Washington DC due to Air Florida flight, alongside the crash of North West flight in Detroit could be some more examples, where pilots are blamed for the happenings, and hypoxia may be a cause for it. Hence, one cannot rule out the role of hypoxia in flight crashes as it impairs the pilots’ ability to deal with the situation (Good W.A: 1991, 104-105).³

Pressurized Atmosphere and Hypoxia

As hypoxia affects the ability of the pilot to deal with the adverse situations, modern aircraft are capable of operating at very high altitudes. The capability is due to the attempt to prevent hypoxia with the pressurized atmosphere. However, due to any unforeseen circumstances as if ‘sudden loss of cockpit pressure presents a life threatening hypoxia situation, requires an immediate response’ (Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D & Fowler B; 1997).

To deal with the above-mentioned situations of rapid decompression situations that lead to hypoxia, the modern military aircrafts are having a system that gets the plane down to deal with the decompression and can be provided for commercial aircrafts also in the future.

The rapid get down of the plan in the condition of decompression is to minimize the effect of or slow down the onset of hypoxia by descending to a safe altitude, where the decompression at higher altitude could be controlled. To do this with commercial aircrafts also, a series of experiments had been done to reduce the impairment of pilot performance due to rapid de-compression.

However, there exists severe hurdle to these experiments as to measure the performance of a pilot in these circumstances is very difficult as it depends on physiological state of the pilot. To minimize the physiological problems of pilots, the system has two features. One is related to breathing and another to put enough pressure on the body.

The breathing system is known as positive-pressure breathing (PPB) through a mask. The second feature that consists of a jerkin with inflatable bladders puts pressure on limbs, chest, lungs and abdomen thus minimizing the effect of decompression or hypoxia. The PPB is to delay the collapse of blood circulation system and hypoxia as well.

The main hurdle to extend the usage of this system to commercial flights also is because it is necessary to provide these suits and masks to all the passengers, which is commercially not viable.

However, the present review is regarding the effect of hypoxia on pilots, its consequences and ways and means of minimizing or avoiding it, the ‘first aim of the experiments was to determine the degree of performance impairment under rapid decompression and the extent the PPB can help in reducing it.

The hypoxia may result in affecting the ‘visual serial choice reaction time (SCRT) task of the pilots, which may prove fatal and thus immediate reduction of hypoxia is necessary to avoid accidents in commercial planes. In addition to that Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D & Fowler B (1997) explains that the possible causes of performance deficit indicate hypoxia as it decreases the arterial blood oxygen saturation.

This decrease in saturation may result in slowing of reaction time for pilots and may result in accidents. Hence, hypoxia and its effects are to be studied to provide more comfortable and safety measures for pilots to reduce the contexts of performance deficits while flying (Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D & Fowler B: 1997).⁴

Conclusion: The literature review concludes that the hypoxia results in impairment of the pilot and may affect his/her decision making capability. Hence, it is necessary to contemplate about the safety measures that avoid the effects of hypoxia on pilots and minimize the negative effects on decision making capability.

Methodology

The methodology involved in this paper is a qualitative analysis of the topic with the help of available literature. The analysis has been supported by literature review, which provided enough background for the aspects that should be considered during analysis.

The review starts from finding of effects of hypoxia to the effects of it on pilots and flight attendants and the measures that need to be taken to minimize or reduce it.

The technology that helps in minimizing the effect of hypoxia and the possibility of usage of it has been reviewed, and the analysis will take place according to the aspects and conclusion of the review and as per the necessities of pilots, which help in reducing flight mishaps and improve air safety.

Analysis/Discussion

As far as the effects of hypoxia are considered, the ‘provision of the pilot against high sustained accelerations, against hypoxia’ (AEAT; 1993, 2) needs to be considered. The decompression effects at high altitude could be minimized by the technology that provides breathing gas.

The breathing air can be provided from ‘engine bleed air’. To do this, ‘molecular sieve oxygen generator, which works on pressure breathing on exposure to acceleration( (AEAT; 1993, 2) is necessary as it provides not only oxygen necessary to breathe comfortably but also the minimum pressure necessary for the body to be normal at high altitudes, which result in decompression.

That means to avoid the state of decompression and lung collapse; there should be a system in the cabin that provides pressure and oxygen respectively. To do so, protective garments are necessary as the mask provides oxygen for lungs and garment exerts enough pressure on the body in a decompressed atmosphere.

In addition to that it is necessary to provide inward relief to the pilots as they experience suffocation due to lack of supply of oxygen. The cabin and other places in an aircraft need to have systems to replenish the back-up oxygen in case of decompression emergencies as the pilots may not take the right decision while they suffocate.

The commercial plane makers can take a cue from the systems in war planes that provide ‘higher degree of protection and mobility’ (AEAT; 1993, 3) for the pilots. In this regard AEAT (1993, 3) explains about liquid conditioning to full coverage anti g trousers, necessary for the pilots to face decompressed and hypoxia situations.

However, the system and the garments provided to the pilots should be selected and made after taking into consideration functional characteristics. They are ‘operational life support, operational escape and survival, and personal’ (AEAT; 1993, 3).

The operational life support should enable the pilot to take decisions regarding flight safety, which means the safety of passengers alongside self. The operational escape survival should consider the aspects that help the flight crew and passengers to escape in case of emergency.

However, in commercial flights, operational life support is necessary as it is difficult to train the passengers regarding escape and survival attempts. However, operational life support equipment could be provided so that it could help the passengers also in the case of emergency.

However, as the paper is about hypoxia and its effects on pilots and their decision making, the operational life support for the pilots is of utmost importance. The oxygen masks and pressure breathing garments can provide with the necessary operational life support necessary in the case of decompression and hypoxia faced by the pilots (AEAT: 1993, 1-3).⁵

This is due to the fact that at high altitudes, ‘the human body experiences hypoxia when it tries to adapt to lower atmospheric pressure and reduced oxygen level as well’ (Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E; 2004, 272). This results in increased heart rate, cardiac output and respiration rate as it is necessary to ensure sufficient supply of oxygen to the body parts.

To ensure that supply the above-mentioned activities will increase, and they return to the normal when the atmospheric pressure returns to normal.

The changes in respiration, heart output and blood circulation result in change in the mood and it affects the physical and mental performance of the pilots. Hence, the safety measures and systems that are to be included in the flights should work in a manner to normalize the above mentioned increased activities.

The increased heart output and blood pressure also results in a decrease of endurance of the body, and the consequence is the need of exercise performance. The decrease of endurance decreases the situation that allows to work and yet times may demand the days and weeks of exposure to enough oxygen.

Hence, after every flight, it is necessary to examine the pilots for the status of endurance, physical fitness and mental stability as well. If this can be seen as an exaggerated response, they should be checked for the above features once in a stipulated period of time.

This is because, Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E (2005, 273) explains that psychomotor performance would be degraded with the ascent of altitudes above 4,300 meters, and the accuracy of the decision-making process would be impaired.

Penetar D.M et al (2005) further continues that there would be a delay in reaction and significant impairment of cognitive performance, which is necessary for the pilots while taking decisions during flight.

One measure that can be taken to reduce hypoxia though not up to the desired extent is not to ascend rapidly to altitudes above 1,800 meters (6000 feet) as that may put the individuals at risk and if the pilots are put at risk whole flight will be at risk.

Hence, the intensity of effect of hypoxia depends on rapidness in the initial ascent, and if it could be reduced the intensity of the effect of hypoxia also could be reduced. As a result, alongside the systems that deal with decompression and lack of oxygen, the rules and regulations should stipulate the slow ascent to delay and minimize the effects of decompression and hypoxia.

Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E (2005, 274) further explains that aviation equipment needs to be designed to provide enough haemoglobin saturation to pilots. This could be helpful in hypoxic environment and these systems are widely used only in military planes, but not in commercial flights.

Hence, these systems need to be modified according to the usage of commercial flights and offered to the pilots so that they could deal with hypoxic conditions successfully and this also helps them to remain fit even after continuous and frequent exposure to hypoxic conditions.

The systems that deal with decompression sickness also should be considered as ‘Air Force over the past 20 years, with thousands of simulated altitude exposures revealed a 41 percent incidence of decompression symptoms’ (Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E: 2005, 272-275).⁶

Conclusion

The hypoxia is the worst situation that any pilot can face while flying and can be considered as a major concern in aviation industry. As the safety of the passengers depends on the decision making capability and physiological condition of the pilot and flight attendants, it is necessary to have systems that deal with hypoxia and decompressed atmosphere.

The systems should provide operational life support to enable the pilot to perform the duties in conditions of decompression and hypoxia. The review and analysis concluded on the facts of development of systems that provide oxygen and pressure as well in the high altitudes for pilots.

Recommendations

1. It is necessary to provide oxygen and pressure in the cabin of the pilots to increase their decreased endurance due to decompression and hypoxia.
2. To deal with hypoxia, the systems should provide oxygen for breathing.
3. To deal with the decompressed atmosphere, the systems should provide pressure in the cabin so that the pilots can work in normal atmospheric pressure conditions.
4. It is necessary to examine the pilots for their physiological conditions once in a stipulated period to find the negative effects of hypoxia on them if any.
5. There should be institutional arrangements in aviation industry to deal with the decreased physical endurance of pilots.

Reference List

AEAT. (1993). SAFE Europe Symposium 1993. Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology. 66 (1). Pp.2-4.

Aronson K.S. (1991). Flight: The Physiological Stresses. In Sheila R. Deitz and William E. Thoms, eds., Pilots, Personality, and Performance: Human Behavior and Stress in the Skies. New York: Quorum Books. Pp. 25-28.

Good W.A. (1991). The Post-Deregulation Pilot Job Market: Pilot Error or Personnel Economics?. In Sheila R. Deitz and William E. Thoms, eds., Pilots, Personality, and Performance: Human Behaviour and Stress in the Skies. New York: Quorum Books. Pp.104-105.

Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D & Fowler B. (1997). Performance during Positive Pressure Breathing after rapid decompression up to 72000 feet. Human Factors. 39(1).

Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E. (2004). The Physiology of Performance, Stress and Readiness, in James W. Ness, Victoria Tepe, and Darren R. Ritzer (ed.) The Science and Simulation of Human Performance: Advances in Human Performance and Cognitive Engineering Research. Volume 5. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. pp.267-305

Sharma L. (2007). Lifestyles, Flying and Associated Health Problems in Flight Attendants. Perspectives in Public Health. 127(6).

Footnotes

¹ Aronson K.S. (1991). Flight: The Physiological Stresses. In Sheila R. Deitz and William E. Thoms, eds., Pilots, Personality, and Performance: Human Behavior and Stress in the Skies. New York: Quorum Books. P. 25-28.

² Sharma L. (2007). Lifestyles, Flying and Associated Health Problems in Flight Attendants. Perspectives in Public Health. 127(6).

³ Good W.A. (1991). The Post-Deregulation Pilot Job Market: Pilot Error or Personnel Economics?. In Sheila R. Deitz and William E. Thoms, eds., Pilots, Personality, and Performance: Human Behaviour and Stress in the Skies. New York: Quorum Books. P.104-105.

⁴ Lindeis A.E, Fraser W.D & Fowler B. (1997). Performance during Positive Pressure Breathing after rapid decompression up to 72000 feet. Human Factors. 39(1).

⁵ AEAT. (1993). SAFE Europe Symposium 1993. Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology. 66(1). Pp.2-4.

⁶ Penetar D.M, Friedl K.E. (2004). The Physiology of Performance, Stress and Readiness, in James W. Ness, Victoria Tepe, and Darren R. Ritzer (ed.) The Science and Simulation of Human Performance (Advances in Human Performance and Cognitive Engineering Research, Volume 5). Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp.267-305

Introduction

Aviation is an integral, even crucial, component of the globalised world. For this reason, this mode or transportation is given a great deal of attention by governments and other agencies. Modern aviation performs a wide array of tasks, from the transporting of cargo to guaranteeing a certain strategic advantage to a state. However, the unique diversity of the given workload has resulted in the increased complexity of the functioning of companies in this sphere, necessitating an efficient approach to monitoring performance. On a side note, modern aviation is also considered one of the safest means of transport.

Statistics show that the number of aviation-related accidents is much lower in comparison to cars, trains, and other modes of transport (CASA 2012). The combination of all these aspects makes aviation a promising sphere that should be cultivated to enhance the further evolution of the modern world. Yet, like any other fast-growing sector, it also faces numerous challenges that result from the peculiarities of the modern environment and people’s demands. Moreover, the increased importance of aviation is resulting in the evolution of numerous hazards that should be taken into account in the effort to guarantee safety to passengers. In this regard, the evaluation of current safety and security hazards is a main task for the modern aviation industry.

Background

The last several decades could be characterised by increased tension in international relations. Instability in different regions has resulted in the appearance of a set of problems and security concerns. Moreover, the rise of terrorism and its spread throughout the globe has also contributed to the great importance of security measures that must be explored to guarantee the security and safety of passengers and personnel working in the aviation industry.

In this regard, as one of the most strategic and important means of transport, aviation nowadays has become extremely vulnerable as it has attracted an increased level of attention. The sad experience of numerous tragic events lends credence to the fact that the given sphere remains both attractive and vulnerable. For this reason, there is a great need for efficient approaches to finding and subsequently eliminating loopholes in security systems. In this regard, a comprehensive investigation of the current safety threats and hazards to the aviation industry, along with defences that could be used to avoid hazardous complications, should be investigated to guarantee the enhanced safety of all passengers.

Identification of Hazards

First, to be able to improve the situation in the sphere of security and guarantee that all possible threats are eliminated, it is crucial to perform a comprehensive investigation of the current working environment of a particular airport, identifying all possible hazards that might appear in the course of its functioning. The determination of threats and the possible damage they could wreak to equipment, environment or people is one of the most important aspects of any efficient security system as it guarantees that a specific plan of action will be ready for immediate implementation if one or another emergency should arise (A framework for aviation cybersecurity 2013).

Moreover, if all potential threats are identified, personnel can be trained to respond appropriately and in the most efficient way. Additionally, detailed information about potential threats that might result in the collapse of the airport’s operations or cause even more severe circumstances will help efforts to improve the current security system in use in the airport and contribute to its further enhancement, In addition, at present, several spheres of operation require significant attention because of their importance and vulnerability, including design factors, procedures, communications, personnel, organisational factors, working environment and regulatory factors.

Design factors

Design factors remain an important component in the endeavour to guarantee security and avoid the occurrence of any complex or problematic situations. The allocation of facilities is crucial for the efficient functioning of an airport and preservation of order. When security zones are defined in an appropriate way, the personnel’s task becomes much easier. Additionally, dividing the airport into several zones with different layers of importance and suitable applied security measures is also crucial (Asset value, threat/hazard, vulnerability, and risk n.d.). For instance, in accordance with the latest investigations, the aircraft, fuel storage areas, and passenger terminals are considered vulnerable areas.

For this reason, a drawback in design factors might result in the appearance of a certain threat to these specific objects and, by extension, people’s health and safety. It becomes evident that the evaluation of this factor is crucial; protection in the form of physical barriers should be introduced once a vulnerable facility is assembled. Furthermore, control of the flow of people is also one of the most important aspects that might lead to vulnerability in the case of inefficient design. In an emergency, a crowd that is out of control might result in numerous deaths. For this reason, an airport facility should be designed in a way to guarantee fast evacuation through rear-door entrances.

Procedures

Identification of hazards is also related to procedures performed by personnel to guarantee a unit’s efficient functioning. At the moment, the majority of the most crucial procedures performed by specialists working at the airport are exercised through computers. Every airport has its own internal network that is used to perform different activities and monitor various aspects of its operations. However, the increased convenience of the given approach also introduces a new sort of threat.

The modern digital nature of society is extremely vulnerable to hacker attacks that might paralyse the functioning of any unit and result in its collapse. For this reason, this new hazard should be taken as one of the main elements that must be considered when protecting an airport from any potential attacks (Hall 2015). The criminal use of technology is a common practice that is nowadays employed both by hackers and terrorists to compromise any security system and make it vulnerable. For this reason, the most crucial procedures performed by personnel via computers should be protected using appropriate software to safeguard and guarantee the airport’s functioning.

Communications

Communications are closely connected to the previous aspect as workers at the airport use the same network and telecommunication inside channels to delegate tasks and share the most important information related to the airport’s operations. It is obvious that this information could be used to do harm to an airport and undermine its efficiency. Furthermore, the fast-moving evolution of different digital devices has resulted in an increased probability of data theft with the help of malicious software connected to specified devices (Harris 2002).

For this reason, one of the main tasks of a modern security service is to align a protected private channel that could be accessed only by airport workers, helping them to improve overall efficiency and outcomes. At the same time, communications are extremely important in the case of emergency as synchronised actions are the basis of any security system response. If workers are able to share information without any complications, they will more likely be able to prevent any potential crime or terrorist act. For this reason, this very aspect is often one of the first targets to suffer from various attacks, and it should be given the greatest attention.

Personnel

Human factors could also pose a significant threat to an airport’s functioning and people’s security. The fact is that human error has always been an ongoing issue. It is scarcely predictable and yet has the capacity to have a significantly negative impact on the functioning of any unit. Moreover, all specialists working in an airport perfectly realise the great responsibility that comes from the character of their work and from the complexity of the tasks they perform (Raphael 2013).

This pressure can lead to an increased level of stress, which might result in the arising of numerous misunderstandings. Human factors could be considered the first significant threat to an airport’s functioning. Due to the crucial nature of their work, airport personnel should pass a strict examination because of the increased demands for security and the requirement to guarantee safety to the people who are using the airport’s services.

For this reason, the airport safety service should also monitor personnel and the state of any worker. Improved security systems actually demand innovation from those who would interfere with their functioning. For this reason, there have been several cases when workers in an airport performed terrorist acts or applied for a job with the intention to intrude and act at a certain moment of time (ICAO n.d.). The combination of these aspects makes personnel an important factor that should be controlled.

Organisational Factors

Organisational factors could also offer a certain threat to security. The modern airport is a complex entity that consists of numerous subdivisions that should be aligned in an efficient system that is set to function without significant problems. However, if one or more elements of the mechanism should work inefficiently or fails to act appropriately, the vulnerability of the whole system increases significantly (ICAO n.d.a). In addition, very often the coordination between different departments of an airport becomes the main target for different attacks or attempts to undermine the functioning of a facility, which can result in panic and lead to causalities.

At the same time, organisational factors like the cooperation between an airport safety service and other departments are an integral part of the whole airport’s existence. Yet, if there is no pattern that could be explored if an emergency situation arises, overall safety suffers. Passengers could feel vulnerable if a lack of adequate understanding between the core components of an airport were to become evident; this would have a negative effect on the facility’s image as well as individuals’ feeling of security, making this one of the most important problems, and one that should be given great attention.

Working Environment

Another factor that might either improve or decrease the overall security of the airport is its working environment. The given term encompasses a number of different factors like the cooperation between all systems and departments, the workers’ commitment, the overall atmosphere, comprehension of main tasks, etc. Today, every airport is considered a complex system, the functioning of which is preconditioned by different factors that should be taken into account to ensure improved operation.

Additionally, a lack of cooperation between these systems might introduce a great potential threat to both passengers’ and workers’ safety. In this regard, a comprehensive investigation of the main factors that comprise the working environment of a particular airport is crucial for its security service. For instance, according to the latest research, recent terrorist attacks have revealed a lack of coordination between the airport’s departments that were tasked with guaranteeing passengers and workers’ safety (Price 2013). If one element fails, the whole system may become inefficient.

Regulatory Factors

Finally, in assessing the functioning of any airport to identify potential threats or hazards, it is also crucial to mention regulatory factors introduced to monitor the work of all systems and people. These regulatory factors contribute to an improved understanding of the main competencies and the importance of observing basic laws and limitations introduced to guarantee enhanced security in an airport. Regular examinations are also a part of this factor in terms of impacting security.

Therefore, a lack of control can result in increased vulnerability and the possibility of new hazards. For example, regular assessment of the main vulnerabilities might result in increased safety and identification of new threats to be eliminated. Experts who investigated recent terrorist acts in airports have stated that these attacks became possible due to a lack of control and monitoring of the main facilities’ operation (Price 2013). In this regard, it is crucial to assure the creation of an efficient regulatory system that will be able to assess and eliminate threats that come from terrorism, disregard of previous aspects, increased complexity of modern software, etc.

Defences

Considering the above-mentioned information, it is possible to state that numerous vulnerabilities have the capacity to undermine the functioning of an airport and result in the collapse of the whole security system. For this reason, the need for defences becomes obvious. First, the airport security system should be ready to respond to any or all of the above-mentioned challenges to protect passengers and workers from potential threats.

To accomplish this, several lines of defence should be introduced that are able to guarantee safety to all facilities such as landing zones, terminals, fuel storage areas, etc. Furthermore, there is a need for efficient software that will be able to establish digital security and align enhanced coordination between the main departments, guaranteeing the airport’s functioning. Specialists have distinguished several approaches that could be employed (Security guidelines for general aviation airports n.d.). Strict control over individuals as well as a comprehensive assessment of current vulnerabilities should be combined with the use of innovative technologies like metal detectors, security posts, etc.

Risk Assessment

Furthermore, risk assessment tools could also be considered a part of a modern airport security system. As stated above, the ability to investigate the unit’s current vulnerabilities is crucial in creating efficient protection that will be able to eliminate the majority of threats. Furthermore, risk assessment also helps in determining the degree of a potential threat and understanding the order to establish in giving attention to different vulnerabilities.

For instance, there are many different aspects that could be related to security issues, and each should be provided with the most appropriate solution. However, the given process is very resource-consuming, which means that a great deal of money should be spent to create an appropriate approach. If all issues are addressed at the same time, security might suffer because of a limitation with regard to efforts and resources. Thus, risk assessment helps to determine the most problematic issue and address it in terms of priority.

Problem Definition

The prioritisation involved in risk assessment is closely connected with problem definition. The term stands for the set of activities aimed at the detailed investigation of the current state of a certain aspect and determination of the most problematic feature that should be given attention. Specialists state that efficient and appropriate problem definition comprises the greater part of final success and guarantees that a certain vulnerability would be found and eliminated (Sweet 2008).

The process might also be characterised as complex because of the necessity to take into account a number of factors impacting the sphere and preconditioning the appearance of certain alterations in the airport’s functioning. In any event, when trying to establish an efficient security system, problem definition gains in relevance as it guarantees the ability to mitigate the negative impact of such factors as the constant appearance of new threats, increased probability of terrorist acts, cybercrime, etc. When a security specialist is able to define a problem, the approaches used to solve it will become more efficient.

Tools Used to Eliminate the Threat

Therefore, risk assessment and problem definition also precondition the choice of the tool that could be adopted to eliminate the threat. Furthermore, these tools can be applied in different spheres. For instance, if a specialist using risk assessment tools and a problem definition approach identifies a problem in the current security system, an appropriate tool should be used. If the problem is connected with passengers’ safety and extremist actions, passenger screening, metal detectors, canines, etc. could be implemented as tools to improve security and establish a more efficient system.

The variety of tools that are used in modern security systems demonstrates the diverse character of the challenges that may arise today.

Recordings

In the pursuit of security, it is very important to record observations and findings because of the great practical value of this sort of material. The given credible data contributes to improved comprehension of the issue and helps specialists to create more efficient approaches that can be used to eliminate the threat (Tamasi & Demichela 2011). Moreover, in the process of drawing on the experience obtained from previous terrorist acts, data collected with the help of these recordings can help enhance investigation. In this regard, the hazards that threaten the airport’s security system demand constant recording as one way to analyse the level of threat with the goal of decreasing or deterring future occurrence.

Maintenance

The constantly-changing character of different hazards and the tendency towards the appearance of new ones precondition the unique importance of the security system’s maintenance. This means not only the preservation of the current level of its working capacity but the need for its constant improvement. The terrorist threat that has arisen to assail the modern world also affects airports, which have become primary targets for attacks. For this reason, a security system’s maintenance becomes a key to successful prevention, along with the ability to act in developing situations.

Perspectives

Therefore, considering the character of the challenges the modern world faces and the tendency towards a further increase in the level of tension in relations between different states, the appearance of new security concerns remains likely. Even now, airports face such problems as cybercrime and terrorism; however, in future, the number and variety of these challenges will increase significantly. For this reason, security systems should consistently improve that they might be able to be effective in the modern environment. Additionally, the enhanced cooperation between different services will also guarantee positive outcomes and safety for passengers and workers.

Recommendations

With this in mind, it is possible to recommend the further improvement of the given sphere in order to protect people from potential threats that might appear. In addition, this process could be fostered by risk assessment and problem definition based on the fact that as the most important hazards are discovered, the process of creating appropriate solutions can become more efficient (U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Homeland Security 2011). In this regard, the main tools used for the investigation of hazards should be applied to the most problematic issues to assess them and create new tools. Only under these conditions would we be able to admit at least some improvement.

Conclusion

Altogether, the current functioning of any airport could be undermined by a great number of hazards. These might include terrorist attacks, environmental problems, organisational issues, poor facilities allocation, drawbacks of the security system, and more. However, the efficient evaluation of hazards and risk assessment can help to identify these problems and respond to them in an efficient way. The elimination of numerous threats that currently exist continues to be a great problem for the modern security service.

Reference List

A framework for aviation cybersecurity 2013. Web.

Asset value, threat/hazard, vulnerability, and risk n.d. Web.

CASA 2012, Safety risk management. Web.

Hall, R 2015, The transparent traveler: the performance and culture of airport security, Duke University Press Books, Durham, NC.

Harris, D 2002, How to really improve airport security. Web.

ICAO n.d., Risk context statement. Web.

ICAO n.d.a, The ICAO aviation security programme. Web.

Price, J 2013, Practical aviation security, second edition: predicting and preventing future threats (Butterworth-Heinemann homeland security), Butterworth-Heinemann, New York, NY.

Raphael, R 2013, Airport security: a national security challenge, German Marshall Fund, Washington, DC.

Security guidelines for general aviation airports n.d. Web.

Sweet, K 2008, Aviation and airport security: terrorism and safety concerns, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Tamasi, G & Demichela, M 2011, ‘Risk assessment techniques for civil aviation security’, Reliability Engineering & System Safety, vol. 96, pp. 593-599.

U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Homeland Security 2011, Ten years after 9/11: assessing airport security and preventing a future terrorist attack, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, Washington, DC.

Introduction

In a contemporary world that is characterised by a very rapid development of globalisation, the mobility and communication of the population is very high. Many people tend to travel from one location to another, choosing airplanes as their preferred mode of transportation. Airplanes are one of the safest and fastest ways to travel; however, it takes a lot of hard work to eliminate versatile threats to security when it comes to air travel. Contemporary airports have relatively complex systems in place to help them to detect the many possible risks and address them in time. Some of the security and safety procedures in air travel involve screening of the cargo, the baggage passengers may take with them on an airplane or the travellers themselves.

There is a set of regulations that prohibits various objects from being brought aboard a plane; some items are limited to small volumes and quantities. These procedures are implemented in order to maximise the security and safety of air travel. However, as convenient as contemporary air travel may be, it still presents a set of challenges to the traveling individuals and the operators of aviation security. Often, clashes may happen that undermine either the convenience of air transportation or the security of this form of travel. This paper will discuss a series of such challenges and use examples of practices and events that may complicate the mission of the airport and airline operators to deliver a viable service with efficient security.

Aviation Security Overview

The European Commission (2016) has authorised a set of general regulations regarding the sphere of civil aviation; established in 2002, these rules have been commonly directed at the provision of aviation security and safety for the people and goods transported by means of airplanes from unlawful actions and dangerous practices. In particular, regulation number 300/2008, issued and approved by the European Parliament and Council, outlines a set of common standards and rules affecting the procedures involved in aviation security matters; to be more precise, the regulation was created to control and monitor established security programmes and practices. This new regulation was intended to replace an older law, number 2320/2002, and attempted to adjust the rules according to the rapidly changing environment in the industry, address newly introduced risks and provide opportunities for the employment of innovative methods and recent technologies (The European Commission 2016).

All in all, the major standards involved in the regulation cover such aspects of aviation security as the screening of baggage (hold and cabin), passenger checks and screening, surveillance and monitoring practices held within the boundaries of airports, searches of aircraft, as well as safety checks, screening of the mail and cargo transported by air, training of staff and checks of airport supplies and resources (The European Commission 2016). As for the European Union, the Commission obliges its member states to establish single authorities specifically focused on the development, quality control and implementation of the national security programmes for civil aviation. Moreover, these authorities are to be in charge of the work of security operators whose duties include defining and putting into practice security programmes for airports and air carriers (The European Commission 2016).

Also, when it comes to the aviation security in the United States, it has reported a maximised attention to safety programmes and practices since the events of 9/11 (The Department of Homeland Security 2015). In particular, the Department of Homeland Security (2015) of the United States mentions that safety procedures used to be much simpler and more general prior to the 9/11 tragedy. However, the modern security programmes in the country are very complex and multi-layered. To be more precise, today there are as many as four hundred and fifty airports in the United States that employ about fifty-one thousand people serving as Transportation Security Officers and Inspectors and Behaviour Detection Specialists (The Department of Homeland Security 2015). All baggage is now screened by Security Services for explosives as well as many other substances and objects that are prohibited from being taken on an airplane. Moreover, it is important to mention that the safety and security practices employed at the airports are constantly improved and enhanced to eliminate emerging risks and threats.

Aviation Security Programmes

The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and Airports Council International (ACI) created a set of rules and guidance regarding the practices that are required at each airport in order to ensure the safeguarding of versatile procedures. Some of the most basic rules include the establishment of a body of authority at each airport individually that would be in charge of coordinating the airport’s safety and security measures and programmes, the creation of a security committee involved in the development and implementation of security practices and the organisation of safety procedures in strict coordination with the architectural structure of the facilities (ACI 2009). As emphasised by the Airports Council International (2009), it is critical to take into consideration all the aspects and potential problems concerning security while creating safety programmes and plans. In addition, the ACI and the ICAO pointed out that the participation of governments, airport structure designers, and security agencies needs to be collaborative and involve active communication for the programmes to work successfully.

The major objectives of the civil aviation security programmes are the elimination of threats of terroristic attacks and the maximisation of safety of the passengers on board the air carriers, as well as the baggage and cargo, the establishment of plans and facilities designed specifically for flights with high risk or passengers who represent an aviation threat and the provision of well-planned construction in order to ensure that the secondary damage in cases of risky situations is minimal (ACI 2009).

The programmes are to be individually designed and implemented for each airport separately. This is the case due to the high variety of types of facilities, their sizes, the kinds of flights they host, and the passengers typical for each particular area (ACI 2009). In other words, there is no common solution or universally suitable prorgamme that would be equally appropriate and effective for multiple airports.

Moreover, another critical policy maintained by the Airports Council International (2009) addresses the importance of regular quality control procedures and reviews of security operations. The security and safety practices are frequently tested, checked, renewed and changed. In fact, the changes often bring more diversification and complexity to the safety measures, due to the growing number of risks and their rapidly evolving nature. As mentioned earlier in this paper, the tragic and sudden events of 9/11 served as the ultimate driver for the re-evaluation and redesign of safety practices. In addition, the change occurred not only in the United States, the country directly affected by the events, but in the European Union as well. Ever since 2001, when the attacks took place, civil aviation security started to develop and become stricter by the year.

In turn, it is important to notice that due to the quickly developing complexity of the safety practices performed by the employees of the airports, a series of complications began to emerge caused by the invasive nature of these procedures. In fact, contemporary aviation security has to deal with a large variety of ethical and legal challenges. As a result, the overall provision of aviation security has taken on quite a paradoxical nature, where the safety measures threaten the constitutional freedoms and rights of the passengers, and elimination of these threats causes an increase in security risks. Accordingly, the security operators who are employed at the airports often have to face problems where the practices they carry out in order to ensure the passengers’ safety clash with the individuals’ freedoms, resulting in protests and situations that provoke conflict. In that way, the capacity of the security operators to deliver effective security measures becomes diminished. Furthermore, the technologies and procedures that are used for the provision of security at airports will be reviewed and discussed in relation to the ethical challenges they present for the members of the general public that, in turn, result in limitations concerning security measures and their efficiency.

Biometric Technology

Overview of the Method

Biometric technology refers to the strategies and techniques that allow the security professionals to identify persons based on their individual characteristics of physiological nature (Cehic & Quigley 2005). This technology is developing quickly, and new practices and methods are added all the time. In addition, those already existing are modified for the purposes of providing better precision and a higher level of convenience. At the same time, this developing technology is imperfect, in that it contains flaws and has a certain rate of errors. Regardless of the occasional technological difficulties and problems, biometric technology has been widely used as a method of identity recognition. Moreover, this technology is known to be very helpful, highly accurate and useful in the contemporary world where the theft of identity is a common crime (Alterman 2013). In fact, the rapidly growing rates of global terrorism and identity fraud serve as some of the major moving forces of the advancement of biometric technology (Arasly 2005). The problem is that public awareness and interaction with this technology has resulted in multiple concerns and protests due to ethical issues related to the application of biometric identity checks (Cehic & Quigley 2005).

All in all, the procedure of a biometric identity check involves three basic steps: the acquisition of biometric data (the collection of an image or a sound sample), the extraction of information from the collected biometric data and its templating and finally, matching the templated data with information from the database (Cehic & Quigley 2005). The physiological data of an individual may be collected by means of such techniques as voice recognition, face recognition, fingerprints, scanning of the iris and hand geometry templating (Cehic & Quigley 2005).

Apart from a high level of accuracy of the data collected and checked by biometric technologies, one of its major benefits is that it can be integrated or paired with a variety of other security methods and technologies (Cehic & Quigley 2005). These are especially applicable in densely populated countries where the airports are very busy. This type of technology allows fast and accurate data processing and identity confirmation.

Issues Concerning Biometric Technology

Biometric technology started to develop rapidly in the global arena after the events of 9/11. Gradually, the social awareness of this technology grew, along with its acceptance by the members of the general public. At the same time, the more methods and strategies of the collection of biometric data that appeared, the stronger the public protest of the technology became.

In the contemporary world, there are a variety of techniques that can be applied in order to collect data about unique physiological features of individuals. The recent surveys showed that there is a high level of general acceptance of biometric technology in the developed countries that widely use it in everyday life. For instance, in reference to fingerprinting, over 90% of American citizens agree that this method is legitimate and appropriate when used to control access to areas with high levels of security; however, about 30% of Americans consider the same method a redundancy when applied to personal financial operations (cashing checks, for example) (Cehic & Quigley 2005). In other words, it is possible to notice that contemporary society embraces only those biometric identification confirmation methods that are non-invasive and voluntary.

The type of technology that serves as a major source of concern are the biometric ID cards that would be mandatory for all citizens and allow opportunities for surveillance that are seen as the ultimate breach of privacy. In that way, the dilemma with biometric technology revolves around the fact that total surveillance and the enabling of governments and law enforcement agencies to access personal information of any citizen at any time could potentially help combat global terrorism, but also is likely to undermine the entire meaning of national security (CSES 2011).

Differently put, the maximisation of national security at the cost of total and ever-present surveillance that provides governments with unlimited access to private information of citizens is seen as an unworthy solution that exposes the population to more potential threats than might happen without it. Moreover, the addition of advanced biometric technologies to the airports would be likely to enable security operators to carry out their duties in a more effective manner; however, the possibility of the potential misuse of such technologies would definitely increase the concerns of the members of the general public and cause protests. As a result, the operators are limited in relation to the technologies that can be applied even though the available systems and devices could ensure a higher level of aviation security in terms of battling global terrorism and detecting potentially dangerous passengers and cargos.

Full Body Scanner

Technology Overview

One of the most recent – and the most controversial – aviation security technologies is the full body scanner. There exist two types of body scanners – millimeter wave and backscatter x-ray; both of these types of scanners work by means of creating radiation waves that penetrate clothing and thus allow the security operators running the scanners to see whether or not the scanned persons carry any prohibited objects (Mowery et al. 2014). In practical terms, the principle of the way these devices work is identical to that of the scanners used to scan baggage. The major difference is that the radiation waves they use are not as strong as the ones employed to examine the bags. The waves penetrate the persons’ clothing and reflect all the objects that may be hidden underneath by means of bouncing back from them and detecting the shapes of objects on the screen of a scanner where the image is projected (Mowery et al. 2014). These types of scanners are effective at detecting different kinds of objects and materials (not only metal, but ceramics, liquids, plastic and powders); in that way, they can be used to find disguised explosive devices, counterfeit goods, drugs and hidden weapons.

Issues Concerning Full Body Scanner

Discussing the advantages and disadvantages of full body scanners, it is critical to mention one important aspect of their operation. The scanners require human operators to review the scanned images and carry out the final decisions as to the presence of concealed forbidden objects on the travellers’ persons. Since the waves created by the scanners are intended to penetrate clothing, the scanned images the operators see on their screens are rather revealing (Saunders Thomas et al. 2013). Namely, the scanned individuals are seen on the screen without any clothes. This aspect serves as a major concern in reference to the full body scanners.

First, the argument against the scanners is based on the right to privacy that is protected by the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution and outlined in Article Eight of the European Convention on Human Rights; moreover, the right to privacy is also preserved in the UN Declaration of Human Rights (Privacy and Human Rights n.d.). These sets of regulations and rules maintain that the unreasonable searches of individuals by law enforcement and government representatives are not allowed. Full body scanning at airports is seen as a practice of strip-searching people without any particular reason or unlawful behavior on the part of the scanned persons.

Moreover, apart from the basic ethical concerns of people unwilling to be seen fully undressed by random strangers such as security officers, there are varied reasons for protests (Bello-Salau et al. 2012). For instance, the transgender community is one of the population groups to be still in the middle of unresolved social crises of acceptance of their identities; there can be potential risks of discrimination against such individuals when scanners are used (Mowery et al. 2014). In addition, people with artificial body parts are also faced with unpleasant experiences because once an artificial body part is revealed by the body scanner, an operator is obliged to examine it manually (Saunders Thomas et al. 2013). Another factor is a concern about the privacy of these images and how they are stored, handled and who might have access to them. Also, there is strong dissatisfaction on the part of parents concerning the scanning of their underage children. Finally, the use of full body scanners is seen as a breach of the cultural and religious norms of many different communities.

To sum up, full body scanners are definitely an extremely effective means of airport security; however, the technology is opposed by the members of the general public due to a wide variety of ethical problems and complaints (Gillen & Morrison 2015). At the same time, there is a well-known case that took place in the winter of 2009 when a passenger on Northwest Airlines, flying from Amsterdam to Detroit, made an attempt at an act of terrorism by trying to detonate an explosive device concealed in his underwear (Hoppe 2016). Fortunately, the device did not work properly and the attack was stopped in time. The failed attacker was not on a no-fly list and thus could pass through the security checkpoint as a regular passenger. However, a variety of security measures employed to check the passengers could not reveal the threat this individual presented. This case is used as evidence in favor of mandatory body scanning at the airports. On the other hand, it is still unknown whether a body scanner could have been effective in that particular situation.

Summary of Ethical Challenges’ Impact on Security Practices

All in all, the major ethical issue in regard to aviation security practices revolves around the question of whether highly intrusive security measures are going to produce a positive effect. Moreover, the size of the positive effect and the quality of benefits from these controversial practices needs to exceed the level of discomfort it creates for the average passenger. The most common point of view in society today sees security procedures such as biometric technology and full body scanners as an ultimate breach of their human rights, especially that right to privacy that is protected by the UN Declaration of Human Rights, the United States Constitution, and the European Convention (Committee on Commercial Aviation Security 2006).

In the contemporary world, issues of personal privacy are just as serious and important as those of national security. When it comes to the delivery of effective aviation security procedures, the provision of the latter inevitably clashes with the former. As a result, the capacity of the security operators employed at airports to carry out all safety measures that are available today is limited due to the dissatisfaction on the part of the members of the general public. In particular, when the effects produced by intrusive security practices are evaluated by the passengers who experience them, it usually turns out that the risk of a terrorist attack is minor compared to the adverse ethical impact of the mandatory strip-searches, even if they are conducted in the form of full body scanning.

Recommendations

It is clear that the invasive aviation security procedures are going to continue to serve as major sources of social backlash. The ethical challenges presented by these practices and the reasons for social dissatisfaction are directly related to the very nature of these measures. Moreover, the number of population groups and communities outraged by full body scanners is large. In that way, it is possible to theorise that there is no current strategy of adjusting the technology according to the requirements and concerns of the general public.

However, the effectiveness of these controversial practices is obvious, has been tested multiple times and has proved rather significant. As a result, the security operators at airports are faced with a serious challenge, where they have to either focus on maximised security and prepare themselves to be attacked by the general public, or pay heed to the social protests and omit some of the most effective and successful aviation security measures, thereby exposing the passengers and air carriers to the risks of terrorist acts.

One of the most effective ways to handle this issue in a peaceful manner that would be beneficial for all the stakeholders is to inform society about the potential threats to their security, as well as the levels of danger. In particular, cooperation with governments is a critical factor that would help the airport authorities to achieve an understanding of the employed practices and their rationales. At the same time, procedures as controversial as full body scanning should be employed only in the periods of maximised risk, because they do not seem to be reasonable when applied on a regular basis.

In other words, research needs to be carried out that will be designed to assess the risks at each particular airport in order for the security operators to be able to create the most appropriate programmes concerning the practices that deal specifically with the screening of passengers. In the cases of airports with a higher rate of danger, the intrusive scanning and biometric practices need to be employed only with prior notice and approval from governmental authorities. The adoption of these practices is to be temporary and thoroughly communicated and explained by the government and the airport security authorities to the passengers. The understanding of the levels of danger by the members of the general public is likely to increase their acceptance of the practices, as well as cooperation with the security officers, without limiting their intention to deliver the safest security measures that may be implemented with the help of the latest technologies.

Conclusion

In general, air travel is one of the safest means of transportation in the contemporary world. It is used by millions of people on a daily basis. However, apart from technological threats and risks, aviation security involves social risks such as terrorist attacks and acts of violence on board passenger airplanes. A series of aviation security practices has been created and implemented by the security operators in order to ensure the safety of air carriers and people on board airliners. However, the threats have been evolving over time and, as a result, the security practices have had to become more advanced and invasive. In turn, the general public has responded to the invasive screening and checking procedures with a lot of dissatisfaction.

It turns out that the measures taken to maximise aviation security clash with the general right to privacy when the passengers are exposed to mandatory full body scanning that, for all practical purposes, equals strip-searches. Overall, the intrusive safety practices employed by airport security operators are known for a high rate of effectiveness when it comes to the detection of dangerous individuals and objects and substances that may be carried on the airplanes in a hidden manner. However, the implementation of such measures on a daily basis under the circumstances of minor or insignificant risks is deemed unreasonable and widely protested by the members of the general public (Stewart 2010). Due to this controversy, the security operators at airports have to choose between the employment of maximised security and having to deal with the social backlash that often results.

References

ACI 2009, ACI Policy and Recommended Practices Handbook, Annex 17, pp. 1-9.

Alterman, A 2013 ‘“A piece of yourself”: Ethical issues in biometric identification’, Ethics and Information Technology, vol. 5, pp. 139–150.

Arasly, J 2005, ‘Terrorism and Civil Aviation Security: Problems and Trends’, The Quarterly Journal, vol. 14, 75-102.

Bello-Salau, H, Salami, AF, & Hussaini, M 2012, ‘Ethical Analysis of the Full-Body Scanner (FBS) for Airport Security’, Advances in Natural and Applied Sciences, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 664-672.

Cehic, M & Quigley, M 2005, ‘Ethical Issues Associated with Biometric Technologies’, Managing Modern Organizations through Information Technology, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 540-543.

Committee on Commercial Aviation Security 2006, Airline Passenger Security Screening, National research Council, New York.

CSES 2011, Aviation Security and Detection Systems – Case Study. Web.

Gillen, D & Morrison, WG, 2015, ‘Aviation security: Costing, pricing, finance and performance’, Journal of Air Transport Management, vol. 48, pp. 1-12.

Hoppe, E 2016, Ethical Issues in Aviation, Routledge, London.

Mowery, K, Wustrow, E, Wypych, T, Singleton, C, Comfort, C, Rescorla, E, Checkoway, E, Halderman, J, & Shacham, H 2014, ‘Security Analysis of a Full-Body Scanner’, Proceedings of the 23rd USENIX Security Symposium, pp 1-16.

Saunders Thomas, D, Hobson, H, Hubbard, JC 2013, ‘Technology in practice: Airport scanning privacy issues’, Issues in Information Systems, vol. 14, no. 1, pp.47-53.

Stewart, S 2010, Aviation Security Threats and Realities. Web.

Privacy and Human Rights n.d., Web.

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The European Commission 2016, Aviation Security. Web.

Introduction

The aviation industry is approximately two thousand years old. Developments in aviation have been out of human need to excel in both the civilian and military sectors. Kites, gliders, balloons, and advanced aircraft have characterized the development of the aviation industry. The US has been a global leader in aviation development for a long time.

Private companies have come up with exceptional inventions that have had a lasting impact in the industry. Over time, various entities including the government and private commercial companies have invested in aviation research often with impressive results. Some of the leading aviation entities in the US today include Lockheed Martin, Boeing and NASA.

They have excelled in the development of advanced aircraft for military and commercial use as well as space exploration. Boeing and NASA have especially pioneered developments in their respective fields. This discussion will focus on the Boeing 707 Jet, the Bell X-1 and the NASA Mercury capsule, “Friendship Seven”. The above are some of the most influential aviation inventions ever made in the history of the industry.

The Boeing 707 Jet, the Bell X-1 and the NASA Mercury capsule

The three developments are noted for pioneering developments in their respective sectors in the aviation industry. They were the “prototypes” on which future developments took place.

Introduction of the Boeing 707 into commercial travel was preceded by the use of large aircraft which mostly employed the use of turbine engines. Arrival of the Boeing changed commercial travel and introduced the Jet Age which was characterized by the use of aircraft that were swifter, faster and more efficient.

According to Francillon, the aircraft marked a true turning point and a new age in travel (90). Its commercial success ushered in the development of the Boeing 7×7 series which has since set standards for other notable aviation manufacturers such as Airbus. In fact, it is safe to conclude that every flying airliner can easily trace their design and roots to the Boeing 707.

Francillon notes that there is likely to be small variation even if a new form of a commercial aircraft is developed (99). It is, therefore, almost a foregone conclusion that commercial aviation will always develop within the confines of the standards that Boeing set in with the 707.

One of the most researched elements in aviation is speed. The importance of speed in both military and commercial aircraft cannot be overstated. In 1944, the US military embarked on a research project that sought to develop a supersonic aircraft. Bell Aircraft was tasked with the role of designing of the aircraft.

In 1945, the Bell Aircraft produced the Bell X-1, whose derivative was the first aircraft to exceed supersonic levels in controlled level flight (Pisano et al. 49). It is safe to conclude, therefore, that the BellX-1 was the prototype of all supersonic aircrafts that exist today and that are crucial to defense and commercial purposes of many countries including the United States.

Though supersonic commercial jets were grounded, the military, especially the US Air Force, continues to develop and employ their use for various operations, including espionage, reconnaissance and combat. The Bell X-1 aircraft, therefore, provided a major turning point in the development of sonic aircraft that will always influence future models.

Besides the arms race, the Cold War was also marked by a space race between the US and the Soviet Union. Both countries considered the development of manned space missions as proof of aeronautical superiority. Project Mercury was, therefore, tasked with the development of a human space flight program that will eventually aid in orbiting a manned spacecraft around planet Earth as well as serve as the launch pad for future manned space missions.

NASA developed “Friendship 7”, a spacecraft that took part in Mercury-Atlas 6 space fight mission that took the first American John Glenn to orbit (Catchpole 78). Though Russians had developed a spacecraft that took the first human being to the earth’s orbit, they were unable to maintain it and the program didn’t develop further.

Successful orbiting and further development on Friendship 7 technologies laid the foundation for the successful manned mission to the moon and other missions to the International Space Station. Given the failure in the development of manned aircraft by Russia, it is safe to conclude that Friendship 7 provided the crucial technology and leadership for future manned space flight missions.

Conclusion

The aviation industry in the 21^st century has recorded remarkable achievements. Since the introduction of the Boeing 707, the company has developed better and improved models of the Boeing commercial aircraft with latest being the current 787 dream liner. The military has also made significant developments in the development of supersonic and hypersonic aircraft including the F-22 Raptor and the current hypersonic vehicle being tested by the US Army and US Air force.

NASA is currently considering manned missions to asteroids and finally to the planet Mars. Certainly, there are many more development in commercial airline business, the air force and space exploration besides the above three. However, it is important to note that the above inventions set the pace for any successes being witnessed now.

Works Cited

Catchpole, John. Project Mercury. NASA’s first manned space programme, Chichester: Praxis Publishing, 2001. Print.

Francillon, Rene. Boeing 707: pioneer jetliner, New York: MBI Publishing Company LLC, 1999. Print.

Pisano, Dominick et al. Chuck Yeager and the Bell X-1: breaking the sound barrier, Detroit: Harry N Abrams Inc. 2006. Print.