Category: Aviation

Responsibilities of air carriers

Section 601 (b) of the Federal Aviation act (FA Act) charges the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA ) with the responsibility for enforcing and promulgating adequate standards and regulations towards aircraft safety and also recognizes that holders of air carrier certificates have a direct responsibility of providing transportation by air with the highest possible degree of safety (Elias, 2010). This act implies that the aforementioned responsibility rests directly with the air carrier, irrespective of any action that may or may not be taken by an FAA inspector or the FAA.

Given that it is almost impossible for the FAA to inspect all the airplanes around the world, it incapable of efficiently carrying out the responsibility of checking if all the airplanes operating around the world have adhered to the highest safety standards. Air carriers have to therefore carry out self inspections to ensure their aircraft have the highest safety standards before being certified to operate by the FAA. Moreover, before certification to operate, all the air carriers are required to indicate to the FAA that they are willing to carry out the safety specifications listed in the FA Act. Should an air carrier fail in its responsibility to ensure the highest standards of safety, Section 609 of the FA Act specifies certain actions that may be taken against the air carrier.

There are a number of situations and conditions that the FAA uses to judge an air career’s inability to comply with the conditions specified in the FA act namely an air career’s repetitive noncompliance with the minimum regulations and standards of the act, lack of sufficient training programs and guidance, lack of concern for compliance with the FA act, lack of operational control of aircraft, lack of ensuring the airworthiness of aircraft, and inaccurate record-keeping procedures.

Purpose of commuter safety initiative (1995)

The commuter safety initiative came into effect in December 1995 and required of all turbo jets operated for passenger service and all airplanes designed to carry 10 or more passengers to operate in accordance to certain conditions specified in the Federal Aviations Regulations (FAR) Part 121 which states that operators of such aircraft must dispatch certificate and requirements dispatchers, retire a pilot upon attaining 60 years of age, must have procedures and manuals for both their ground and flight personnel, have cabin crew for airplanes with more than 20 passenger seats, maintain duty limits, and must comply to the new training rule (Wolfe & NewMyer, 1985).

The FAR part 119 is applies with the Commuter Rule and it consolidates air career certification procedures, provides new definitions, and requires new management and safety officer positions for FAR Part 121 operators. With some exceptions for planes with 10-19 passenger seats, the Commuter Rule requires compliance with a number of equipment standards including exterior emergency exit markings, first aid and emergency medical kits, wing ice lights, weather radar, protective breathing equipment, distance measuring equipment, additional life rafts, additional flashlights, lavatory fire protection, Pitot heat indication system, and for air planes with 200-30 passenger seats, locking cockpit doors.

For aircraft with 10-19 passenger seats, some equipment requirements were exempted if the systems were functionally equivalent to FAR Part 121. For instance, for airplanes with 10-19 seats, passengers are usually positioned not more than four feet away from any exit; consequently, floor proximity lighting is not required. Also, since no flight attendant is required for a 10-19 seat airplane, the requirement for a locking door cockpit was exempted to enable the crew members conduct safety briefings and oversee the safety of the passengers. Other exceptions included no crash ax and other cabin safety equipment and airplane certification that would have either required a redesign of the aircraft or extensive engineering to retrofit.

Importance of the ASRS

The Aviation Safety Reporting system (ASRS) is the most useful tool in dealing with human factor issues because it helps to shade light on crucial information that can be used to assist accident prevention efforts by receiving, processing and analyzing voluntarily submitted aviation safety reports. By using the data from the ASRS, the aviation industry is able to learn important and valuable lessons about past accidents in the dynamic environments in which aircraft and their crew members fly. The ASRS carries out its duties to serve the purpose of identifying discrepancies and deficiencies in the National Aviation System and by providing data for planning and improvements to the National Aviation System by enhancing the basics for the research about human factors (Wells & Rodrigues, 2004). It also makes recommendations for future aviation procedures, facilities, operations, and equipment.

One of the main strengths of the ASRS is found in its pilot reporting form that has a section in which the second airplane that was involved in a certain incident is described. Its other strengths is that it overtly inquires about the sequence of events that preceded an incidence and also that it makes inquiries about any errors of commission or omission that may have contributed to the incident. These strengths enable the ASRS examine the causes of an incidence from all possible angles. The major weakness of the ASRS is that nearly all the data it collects relating to human errors is preserved in the form of texts and this means that one may have to go through the whole narrative to find specific information.

Investigations by the NTSB

The main goal of the National Transportation and Safety Board (NTSB) is to eliminate the possibility of future accidents occurring especially if they resemble accidents that have already taken place. The NTSB is autonomous and consists of five members appointed by the president and approved by the Senate to operate for five-year terms. As its name suggests, the boards mostly concerns itself with transportation safety and not with aviation accidents even though they derive most of the information they need from examining aircraft accidents. The board carries out its functions by establishing and maintaining discrete and properly staffed divisions, offices, or bureaus that investigate and report on accidents involving the four major modes of transportation namely aviation, pipeline, highway and motor vehicle, and railroad and tracked vehicles (Wensveen, 2007).

With regards to aviation, the board has the duty of investigating or causing investigations to begin covering the facts, circumstances, or conditions that may have contributed to the occurrence of the accident. This implies that should a civilian aircraft accident occur, the NTSB can either carry out the investigations into the accident itself or delegate the investigation to the FAA. Even in the instances where it delegates the actual investigation, the NTSB is still the body that is charged with determining the official probable cause of the accident. This role of investigation the cause of an aircraft accident has however changed in the recent times as most of the investigations into aircraft accidents are being done by the Office of Aviation Safety. The board is now left with the role of supervising the investigations and discussing and approving, in a public meeting, the analysis of the results of the probable cause of the said accident.

Limits to the productive life of a damage-tolerant-designed airplane

As noted by Atluri et al, 1991, the service or productive life of a damage-tolerant-designed airplane structure, also known as the fail-safe structure, has no limit but this statement only applies when the aircraft is taken through all the essential inspections and repairs that are to be carried out in a timely manner together with all the programs designed to prevent corrosion. However, the frequency and cost of the routine repairs affect an aircraft’s operational efficiency and as such, the durability of the materials used to construct the plane may be the limiting factor to the aircraft’s productive life and may compromise the aircraft’s degree of safety.

The major player in the aircraft’s structural safety process therefore has the role of determining its damage tolerance which is used to tell the period of time that the plane can be safely used. The desired degree of safety of a damage-tolerant-designed airplane is found by determining the airplane’s damage tolerance which entails finding out the airplane’s damage limit, damage growth and inspection program. The damage limit is defined as the maximum damage, inclusive of any secondary cracks, that the airplane’s structure can sustain under a certain pre-determined load. The aircraft’s damage growth is time period the aircraft’s structure takes to deteriorate from the time damage is detected on it to the time it reaches the damage limit. The airplane inspection program is the series of inspections carried out in a fleet to enable aircraft inspectors to promptly detect any damages in the planes structure.

Purpose of data flight recorders (FDR)

The data flight recorder’s purpose, as it name suggests, it to record data from a myriad of sensors that monitor the performance of different parts of the airplane. The FDR is usually designed to survive damage should the plane crash and depending on when the airplane was manufactured, the FDR may consist of either a digital or analogue data recording system. The usefulness of the FDR goes beyond merely helping investigators determine the course of an aircraft’s crash. They have also become important tools of assessing a pilot’s performance and are also very useful as aids during training programs. They record a number of functions that can be used to tell the performance of the plane’s engine, the airplane’s degree of safety and material degradation, and in the monitoring of service loads that helps in the determination of the airframe’s fatigue life consumption (McCormick & Papadakis, 2003).

By analyzing the performance data recorded in the FDR, appropriate measures can be taken to correct any abnormalities in the plane’s performance, or in the pilot’s performance and therefore improve the overall safety of the airplane. In situations where it is retrieved from an already crashed airplane, the FDR can provide crucial data that will point at the factors responsible for the crash. Appropriate measures can then be adopted to prevent future crashes under similar conditions. Meanwhile, the purpose of cockpit voice recorder is to record any conversations that take place in the aircraft’s cockpit. In the event of an accident, the combined information derived from the CVR and the FDR makes it easier to determine the precise cause of the accident.

Roles of management and employees in improving human performance

Both employees and the management must get involved and perform their respective roles if the human performance in an organization is to improve. The management has numerous roles in relation to human performance improvement among them being putting in place measures that would see an increase in allocation of resources towards the training of personnel, and the systems and equipment used by employees. The management should also open good communication channels between themselves and the employees as this will enable them share ideas on how to improve performance. The management also have the role of showing the employees that the organization values them as important assets and this could improve employee motivation levels in turn improving their performance at the workplace (Hiam, 1999). It is also very important for the management to put in place measures that will make the employees feel like they are an integral part of the organization. Such a move would encourage employees to be more engaged in the daily operations of the organization and also improve their motivation and hence performance at the workplace.

Meanwhile, the employees also have roles in improving human performance including carrying out their respective duties to the best of their abilities. The employees also have the duty to comply with resolutions made by the management that seek to improve not only the human performance but also that of the whole organization.

Role of the FAA during aircraft accident investigation

The responsibility of investigating aircraft accidents largely lies with each FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO), which has the role of maintaining a pre-accident plan that is tailored to that office’s specific requirements (Ellis, Miller & Ramsden, 1984). The responsibilities of the FAA during an accident are specified in the FA Act (1958) and are illustrated in the FAA Order 8020.11A. The main role of the FAA during the investigations is to evaluate and document the series of events that led to the accident and from their findings, make recommendations on how similar accidents can be prevented in the future. Moreover, the FAA must also establish if any of its nine responsibilities within the airline industry played a role in causing the accident. Some of FAA’s roles during an accident include ensuring that all facts and circumstances leading to the accident are recorded and evaluated and that actions are taken to prevent similar accidents from occurring in future.

The FAA determines if there was any violation of the FAA regulations, the airworthiness of the aircraft was a factor, the FAR were adequate, the competency or the aircrew, air agencies, air carriers, or airports was a factor ,and if the air carrier or airport security standards of operations were involved in the accident, to mention but few. After completing their investigations, the FAA submits its factual reports to the NTSB.

References

Atluri, S.N., Sampath, S. G., Tong,P. Georgia Institute of Technology. Center for Computational Mechanics, Transportation Systems Center. (1991). Structural intergrity of ageing airplanes. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

Elias, B. (2010). Federal Aviation Administration Reauthorization: an overview of legislative action in the 111^th Congress. New York, NY: Diane Publishing.

Ellis, G., Miller, C.O. & Ramsden, J.M. (1984). Air crash investigation of general aviation aircraft: with emphasis on the crash scene aspects of the investigation. Indiana, In: Capstan Publications.

Hiam, A. (1999). Streetwise motivating & rewarding employees: new and better ways to inspire your people. Avon, MA: Adams Media.

McCormick, B.W. & Papadakis, M.P. (2003). Aircraft accident reconstruction and litigation. Tucson, AZ: Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company.

Wells, A.T. & Rodrigues, C.C. (2004). Commercial Aviation Safety. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Wensveen, J.G. (2007). Air Transportation: a management perspective. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

Wolfe, H.P. & NewMyer, D.A. (1985). Aviation industry regulation. Illinois, IL: SIU Press.

Introduction

Companies related to the aviation industry need to monitor variances associated with their operations and external factors. These companies should pay attention to labor variances, focusing on the rate and efficiency variances, as well as labor cost variances to retain the workforce and address the consumer demand. Labor variances can depend on the direct labor hours, capacity, and costs associated with the staff’s work during high and low seasons. Material variances are also associated with changes in the price and quantity of the produced equipment or proposed services. It is also necessary to focus on the overhead variances related to the spending, volume, and efficiency (Variance analysis in airlines, 2008). Airlines should predict changes in costs and refer to variances influenced by exchange rates, changes in commissions, and traffic rates because they affect the processes of budgeting costs and completing the labor and material variance analysis in the aviation industry.

Assignment: Case Study

To: XXX

From: XXX

Date: May 7, 2016

Subject: The Favorable and Unfavorable Variances’ Impact on Cost of Goods Sold

While discussing the interdependence between Cost of Goods Sold and the favorable variance, it is important to note that Cost of Goods Sold is inclined to decrease when it is necessary to close the favorable variance. In this case, the gross margin increases. These processes can be explained with references to the fact that favorable variances are credited, and it is also necessary to credit Cost of Goods Sold (Wild, Shaw, & Chiappetta, 2012). As a result, it will be possible to close balances. Still, Cost of Goods Sold should be regarded as a debit balance, and the process of crediting caused by the favorable variance leads to decreasing Cost of Goods Sold (Wild et al., 2012). On the contrary, the gross margin increases because Cost of Goods Sold decreases while allowing the reference to more resources.

In a situation when the variance is unfavorable, Cost of Goods Sold can increase. In this case, the gross margin will potentially decrease. The unfavorable variance is regarded as a debit balance that leads to debiting Cost of Goods Sold. As a result, the amount increases (Wild et al., 2012). On the contrary, the increased amount of Cost of Goods Sold leads to decreasing the gross margin. From this point, the changes depend on differences between the debit and credit potential of balances (Wild et al., 2012). It is important to refer to actual costs while closing the variances in order to understand the difference between projected and received revenues or numbers presented on the balance sheet.

While discussing the expected changes, it is necessary to focus on the meaning of the favorable and unfavorable variances that influence the discussed changes in Cost of Goods Sold and the gross margin. The favorable variance means that the high operating profit is observed and that the stated actual costs are lower than the projected or budgeted ones. In this case, the higher revenues can be observed if other conditions remain equal for the concrete period of time (Wild et al., 2012). On the contrary, the unfavorable variance means that the actual costs are higher than the planned ones. As a result, the profit or revenue can be lower than it was expected. The focus is on the situation when other conditions remain equal.

References

Variance analysis in airlines. (2008). Web.

Wild, J., Shaw, K., & Chiappetta, B. (2012). Fundamental accounting principles. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Since 1903 to date, aviation has passed through some major developments to be how it is today. The advancement of aviation has succeeded through the assistance of various people, events, and technological developments. At the beginning, the issue of aviation started with the Wright brothers who made the first attempt to come up with airplane flight (FAA 203 ). This was a great initiative as it lasted for twelve seconds in the air and managed to cover up a distance one hundred and twelve feet. This was just the first attempt, as they also made some more three attempts and managed the longest flight of fifty nine seconds and managed to cover a distance of eight hundred and fifty two foot. Through these events the Wright brothers were in apposition to encounter challenges, which they later found some ways of solving them. A successful airplane was through solving the challenges that were faced by the Wright brothers.

The initial development of aviation was to make the airplane move from the ground at ease. This was a major challenge from the beginning. The application of the Bernoulli’s principle made this step a success (AIAA 17). The Bernoulli’s principle assisted in the shaping of the airplanes wings such that the air on top of the wings has a different pressure with the air underneath the wings. This difference in pressure was possible through the various speeds created by the shape of the wings. The difference in air pressure ensures the wings moves towards the upward direction, making the airplane to stay in the air.

Another major development of the aviation was getting a light engine to ease the flight. During this engine development, the aviation advanced a great deal, where efficient engines were available. Engines were made light to reduce the empty space of aircraft and hence its payload. At this point, airplane engines were then reliable and safe to suit the temperature, and fast speeds. To ensure the less weight of the engine, they were small enough to occupy a small surface area and cause only a small drag. The achievement of light engine also brought the idea of engines that are fuel efficient to fit into various design required in the aviation industry (Anderson 203). Through the advancement of a light engine and the application of the Bernoulli’s principle, the airplanes were now able to move from the ground without much resistance. The remaining challenge was on how to maintain it in the air.

Another major aviation development was through maintaining the stability of the airplane. During the first flight by the Wright brothers, it was challenging to keep the airplane stable in the air. They used to shift themselves from time to time to maintain the stability. This was a major advancement of making the airplanes to be in equilibrium when taking a flight (Lorell 45). This was through ensuring that all the forces on the airplane when in move are equal to zero. For instance, when an airplane is unstable on the move, and may be there is some atmospheric turbulence making the nose of the airplane to tilt slightly, the airplane may loose equilibrium completely and may diverge causing it to land on the ground unexpectedly. This stability advancement was a success as airplanes were designed later with all types of stability to maintain them in the air like static stability, dynamic stability, longitudinal stability etc.

Works Cited

Aerospace Industries Association of America(AIAA). Aerospace. New York: Aerospace Industries Association of America, 2006.

Anderson, David. The Airplane, a history of its technology. London: AIAA, 2002.

Federal Aviation Administration(FAA). Airplane Flying Handbook. New York: Skyhorse Publishing Inc, 2007.

Lorell, Mark. The U.S combat aircraft industry 1909-2000: structure, competition, innovation, issues. New York: Rand Corporation, 2003.

Aviation and airport security is a significant phenomenon in the modern world. It is so because various terrorist attacks and security incidents occur, resulting in threats for individuals. That is why appropriate officials offer recommendations and safety guidelines to protect people from possible dangers. Thus, the principal purpose of the given paper is to comment on the current status of airport and aviation security and consider an example to see whether the existing measures are effective.

To begin with, one should state that securing airports and flights is a challenging task because it is necessary to address various sources of threats. The most vital mission is to minimize an opportunity that criminals will manage to enter an airport or set aboard with potentially dangerous items. According to the US Department of Homeland Security (2017), electronic devices that are larger than cell phones are banned. This step is necessary because large electronic devices are more likely to contain explosives. Furthermore, additional measures include thorough passenger vetting and sophisticated screening procedures to identify banned items (US Department of Homeland Security, 2017). These actions have the potential to minimize the number of airport security incidents.

Even though the information above stipulates that airport and aviation security is of a decent level, some incidents still happen. One of them occurred in Toronto in 2019, when an American flight delivered three passengers who had not been screened thoroughly. As a result of that situation, “passenger processing was paused, and planes were delayed from leaving” (CBC News, 2019, para. 3). This information demonstrates that terminals are the weak security points because hundreds and thousands of people go through them every day. It becomes challenging to check every individual and be sure that they will not have any dangerous objects. Consequently, it is rational to make airport screening procedures more effective.

References

CBC News. (2019). Security incident at Toronto’s Pearson airport temporarily delays flights to US. Web.

US Department of Homeland Security. (2017). Remarks for the Council for New American Security Conference. Web.

Introduction

Aviation safety is critical for the success of all air travel globally. Companies and governing authorities have the joint responsibility of continually improving aviation safety to ensure the ultimate protection of all passengers and employees. The efforts so far have been positive considering that despite the increasing air traffic, the accidents have exponentially declined. In 1960, for example, over 50 accidents were recorded per million departures. The incident figures declined to about 5 in the 1980s and about 3 in the 2010s per one million departures respectively (Piric, et al., 2019). The current literature has also tried to evaluate the safety performance metrics that can be used to effectively monitor organizations. According to Karanikas (2016), the performance metrics are used by the managers to implement best practices that lead to the highest possible safety outcomes. This report focuses on the Irish aviation safety strategies and best practices.

For decades Ireland has demonstrated its commitment to aviation safety by making continuous improvements. The efforts have included making local aviation safety strategies and contributing to and adhering to international standards set by bodies, such as European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) among others. Ireland prepares State Plans for Aviation Safety (SPAS) to be used by the Irish Aviation Authority (IAA) to address the state-level safety issues in aviation (IAA, 2020). The 11^th edition of SPAS will be the focal point of this report is examining the strategic position of Irish aviation safety. Among the challenges addressed, there have been challenges outlined in a safety performance review for the year 2019 (IAA, 2019). These two documents and their contents form the background of this report, in addition to other aviation safety documents from EASA, ICAO, and other relevant aviation safety authorities. The safety performance of Ireland will be explored from a strategic point of view.

Objectives

The primary objective of this report is to study the aviation safety of Ireland to establish how well the IAA has performed. A strategic position and critical analysis of Irish aviation safety will rank the country’s civil aviation safety alongside the European and global aviation authorities. The analysis will also highlight the extent to which the 2020-2023 SPAS report addresses the aviation safety problems highlighted in the safety performance review of 2019. Secondly, the strategic choices and best practices section will examine the best practices in aviation across the globe as documented in ICAO, IATA, EASA, and other leading nations in aviation and determine which of the identified best practices are adhered to by the Irish Aviation Safety Plan.

Strategic Position

The concept of strategic positioning has been used in the field of strategic management to describe how businesses distinguish themselves from rivals and how they deliver value for the consumers. A company selects a strategic position that governs its strategic decision-making and aids in the implementation of strategic decisions (Dimitrova, 2017). Several methods can be used to determine and evaluate the strategic position of a firm, including SWOT analysis and BCG matrix. Aviation safety is a global concern with the safety authorities responsible for the formulation and implementation of safety strategies. The strategic position of any agency can be determined by how well it performs in safety management and the strategies it uses to maximize aviation safety. Such an approach will be used here to highlight IAA’s aviation safety strategic position.

The strategic position of the IAA can be examined from two perspectives: 1) the current safety standards as seen from the number of incidents and 2) a comparison of Irish aviation safety with the European and global aviation safety levels. The performance review of 2019 presents the current level of safety in Irish civil aviation. The report presents a record of all incidences in Ireland in various categories of commercial aviation. In the fixed-wing commercial air transport sector (CAT), one non-fatal accident was recorded in 2019 and zero fatal incidences were recorded. Overall, there have been 15 incidences between 2015 and 2019 involving the CAT category. Over the 5-year period, the major issues reported through the mandatory occurrence reports (MORs) in the CAT sector include system failure, airprox/near mid-air collisions, runway incursions (non-animal), ground handling, ground collision, turbulence encounter, cabin safety, and medical emergencies (IAA, 2019). In 2019 alone, over 9945 MORs were submitted from which the incident data is derived.

The other category is the commercial helicopter sector where only one fatal accident occurred in 2017 and one non-fatal accident was reported in 2015. The investigation into these cases revealed that the fatal accident was a ‘controlled into terrain’ while the non-fatal case was labeled an ‘abnormal runway contact’ (IAA, 2019). The major safety issues highlighted by the 59 MORs in 2019 and 161 MORs between 2016 and 2019 include security-related, system failure or malfunction, and other (IAA, 2019). In the air navigation services and aerodromes category, 4 non-fatal and 15 serious incidents were reported involving CAT aircraft and Irish certified aerodromes between 2015 and 2019. In 2019, only 2 incidents occurred with no accident categorized as fatal or non-fatal. The MORs submitted in this category reached 5807 between 2015 and 2019 and 1682 for 2019 alone. The areas where problems occurred included air traffic management, ground handling, navigating errors, aerodromes, and other.

In the general aviation category, the incidences are reported according to type or weight of aircraft in the years between 2015 and 2019. Aeroplanes over 2250kg recorded 2 fatal accidents, 1 non-fatal accident, and zero serious incidents. In the under 2250kg, 5 fatal accidents (two involving homebuilt aircraft), 22 non-fatal (including 5 homebuilt), and 13 serious incidents (1 homebuilt) were recorded. The helicopters under 2250kgs recorded zero fatal, 6 non-fatal, and 1 serious incident. Other types of aircraft with reported incidences are considered here to be non-commercial, for example, the microlight, sailplanes, gyrocopters, and paragliders. These incidences indicate that even with the strategic plans to improve aviation safety, several gaps remain.

Another way to explain IAA’s strategic position is to compare it with global incidences, especially in Europe where standards are considered to be relatively higher. One of the greatest news in 2019 was that the fatalities from aviation accidents had fallen from 542 in 2018 to 267, an estimated 50% decline. However, the statistics do not insinuate fewer incidences as that number of accidents increased from 11 to 14 within the same period (Tidey, 2020). The year 2018 may have been an isolated case as the accidents reported were estimated at a 900% increase from those reported in 2019 (Goldstein, 2019). EASA reported 173 fatalities in 2019 with 80% of the accidents being under the general aviation category (Eurostat, 2020). Small aeroplanes, gliders, hot air balloons, and microlights are the specific categories with a huge percentage of fatalities. In the commercial aviation sector, therefore, the incidences in the European Union (EU) are very low. Specifically, the CAT category had only 9.2% of the fatalities (amounting to 16 fatalities).

Comparing these statistics to the incidences in Ireland reveals that Ireland is not in a bad position in terms of aviation security both within Europe and across the globe. The strategic plan is indeed a critical tool to help reduce accidents in commercial aviation. The safety performance review outlined the major issues, and it is expected that the SPAS report for the 2020-2023 period addresses all the issues raised. A closer examination of the SPAS reveals that the strategic plan has made an effort to address the major deficiencies. In the CAT sector, the SPAS addresses specific risks, including loss of control, mid-air collisions, controlled flight into terrain, runway incursions, runway excursions, bird and wildlife strikes, and ground operations. The only categories not featuring in the SPAS are the medical emergencies and the category labelled ‘other’ (IAA, 2020). The aircraft environment is addressed in the category labelled cabin safety.

In the general aviation sector, the strategic plan has addressed airspace infringement by GA aircraft, promoting safety for general aviation, and risks involving general aviation. The general category in the SPAS is, therefore, relatively shallow as compared to the performance review report where more categories (including non-commercial areas) were discussed. Additionally, the SPAS does not address the issues in the commercial helicopter category, and it can only be assumed that the deficiencies in that category are addressed either in the CAT or general aviation. Regardless of where the commercial helicopters are covered, it remains clear that the strategic plan has tried to be as comprehensive as possible in addressing the deficiencies. Additionally, it is important to acknowledge the benchmarking practice where ICAO and EASA inform much of the SPAS actions.

The current environment in aviation is becoming more competitive and more exposed to greater risks. With the advances in technology, the industry has managed to incorporate various new dimensions to both the aircraft and aviation safety. The technologies can affect safety, especially the cybercrimes that target the operational technology. Operational technology has been defined as the hardware and software controlling the physical devices (Watson, 2020). The SPAS should, therefore, include the safety issues related to the operational technology in aviation safety management. The IAA should recognize that the technology is evolving alongside the risks it carries. The topic of cyber risks may have generated a lot of interest among the stakeholders in aviation but it is yet to feature prominently in safety management reports as a major safety issue. According to Olano (2019), the efforts and systems in place to combat cyber risks are not robust enough to reduce the concerts to the bare minimum. The IAA should, therefore, make a point of addressing all the emerging safety issues relating to technology.

Strategic Choices and Best Practices

Many aviation agencies and authorities usually seek to achieve legal benchmarks in safety management beyond which not many activities are documented. The best practices are a term that can be used to describe those practices that, when used by companies, tend to produce superior results. Applied to the aviation industry, specifically to the context of aviation safety, best practices will mean those practices beyond the legal requirements that are undertaken to improve aviation safety beyond what is legally required. ICAO, IATA, and EASA are some of the best agencies to explore best practices considering that they often approach aviation safety from a number of ways and in pursuit of different safety goals.

One of the most visible best practices in aviation safety is the adoption of an integrated risk management framework within which safety is addressed as one of the critical perils. Integrated risk management (IRM) is a framework supported by the creation of a risk-aware culture of risk management through an integrated approach to hazard-related decision making. According to Majdalawieh and Gammack (2017), a well-structured IRM framework helps to improve the performance and the shareholder value. In aviation safety, such approach to risk management starts with the development of a safety culture that supports actions and behaviours that contribute towards safety.

ICAO’s safety management manual of 2018 provides the perfect example of the adoption of integrated risk management in aviation safety. ICAO (2018) argues that the aviation system as a whole consists of several functional systems, including finance, security, safety, and environment. Safety and security are deemed to be the primary operational domains concerned with the risk events and their consequences. The safety recommendations and guidelines offered by ICAO (2018) are not strictly legal requirements, but practices that help the aviation system achieve overall safety wellbeing. Among the practices and guidelines, there are necessitating reinforced cockpit doors, restricting the carriage of personal electronic devices in the cabin, and changing flight routes to avoid flying on restricted flying zones. Another risk-based approach is adopted in France’s strategic action to improve aviation safety (DGAC, 2018). Other agencies and authorities can be seen as making attempts to integrate risk management into aviation safety management.

The IAA, to some extent, engages in similar best practices by incorporating risk management into aviation safety management. The 2020-2023 SPAS report expresses that the safety management system adopted by the IAA includes risk management process. The IAA uses the process to identify hazards in civil aviation, assess the dangers, plan actions to mitigate the perils, implement the planned actions, and monitors the risk management outcomes (IAA, 2020). As mentioned earlier on, the IRM involves creating a risk-aware culture that allows all corporate actions to consider all the threats. An equivalent approach to risk-aware culture is the safety culture, a concept that involves corporate behaviours that seek to achieve the ultimate workplace safety. IAA (2020) embraces and seeks to enforce a safety culture across the aviation industry in Ireland. Such approach is considered to be a best practice in aviation safety. Additionally, a risk-based oversight allows IAA to monitor the activities in the Irish aviation industry from a risk-based perspective.

Other best practices have been adopted by global aviation agencies to improve safety performance in the aviation industry. Crisis communication and reputation management are among those best practices recommended by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) that highlights response models and information management after a crisis (IATA, 2019). These guidelines may not be intended to boost safety in the aviation but are intended to guide the actions in case a safety crisis occurs.

Lastly, it can be considered to be a best practice to address emerging issues and their implications for aviation safety. One such issue is the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) that has recently disrupted all industries, aviation included. EASA (2020) published an operational guideline for COVID-19 aviation health safety outlining how the passengers and other aspects of air transport need to be handled during the pandemic. Such guidelines are considered to be best practices because they do not simply seek to meet the health regulations, but to achieve safety performance standards higher than those set by the legal requirements. IAA (2020) has also published guidelines relating to COVID-19 explaining how the Irish commercial aviation corporations will need to address the pandemic. Other emerging issues addressed by the SPAS include the Brexit and how it impacts aviation safety, possibly in terms of safety regulations and international standards. IAA, therefore, is seen as adhering to the guidelines and industry best practices in pursuit of the ultimate aviation safety.

Conclusion

Irish aviation safety can be considered to be among the best in Europe and the world due to the few incidences, specifically the fatal incidences. The safety standards and strategies implemented have gone a long way in ensuring that the country can offer passengers and aviation personnel the ultimate protection. A discussion of the strategic position reveals that the country still faces a few challenges most of which are addressed in the strategic plan. The strategic choices and best practices section expound on safety protocols and guidelines that go beyond the legal requirements to improve the overall aviation safety performance. The IAA, the agency responsible for the state-level aviation safety, seems keen to adopt guidelines and industry best practices adopted by global agencies, such as EASA, ICAO, and IATA.

Reference List

DGAC, (2018). Strategic Action Plan to Improve Aviation Safety, s.l.: DGAC. Web.

Dimitrova, T., (2017). ‘Evaluating the Strategic Position of an Organization through SPACE Analysis’, in Zahariev, A. (Ed) Economic Archive. Svishtov: Tsenov Academy of Economics, pp. 19-32.

EASA, (2020). COVID-19 aviation health safety protocol: operational guidelines for the management of air passengers and aviation personnel in relation to the covid-19. Web.

Eurostat, (2020). Air afety statistics in the EU. Web.

Goldstein, M., (2019). ‘After 900% increase in 2018, airline fatalities rising again’, Forbes. Web.

IAA, (2019). Review of aviation safety performance in ireland during 2019.Web.

IAA, (2020). State plan for aviation safety in ireland 2020-2023, Web.

IATA, (2019). Crisis communication and reputation management in the digital age: a guide to best practice for the aviation industry. Web.

ICAO, (2018).safety management manual. Web.

10 Karanikas, N., (2016). ‘Critical Review of Safety Performance Metrics’, International Journal of Business Performance Management, 17(3), pp. 266-285. Web.

11 Majdalawieh, M. & Gammack, J., (2017). ‘An integrated Approach to Enterprise Risk: Building a Multidimensional Risk Management Strategy for The Enterprise’, International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology, 4(2), pp. 95-114.

Olano, G., (2019). Aviation technology evolving side-by-side with risks.Web.

Piric, S. et al., (2019). ‘How does Aviation Industry Measure Safety Performance? Current Practice and Limitations’, International Journal of Aviation Management, 4(3), pp. 224-245. Web.

14 Tidey, A., (2020). Plane crash deaths down 50% in 2019 but number of accidents rise. Web.

Watson, W., (2020). advancing cyber resilience in aviation: an industry analysis. Geneva: World Economic Forum.

Abstract

Accidents and incidents in aviation can be fatal. They may result to loss of life and cause damages to the aircraft as well as the ground. This report is an analysis of incidents and accidents in aviation. The aim of investigating is to establish the causes and to give appropriate recommendations. Since every incident and accident must be investigated, reports have been written and have given information on the nature of these accidents. It was discovered that many accidents are related to human factors, for example: fatigue, stress, medical conditions, workload and thinking ability, which affect the ability to perform. Mistakes in procedure, giving instruction and decision making can also cause accidents. Failure to service and adhere to maintenance of the aircraft as well as neglect of problems may lead to incidents or accidents. Communication facilities should be working efficiently and the workforce must be trained and be in good mental condition to undertake their tasks. Consequently, accidents can be prevented in most cases. To avoid occurrence of accidents and incidents, planning must be done and correct changes be made within the prescribed time. The aircraft must be in good condition and all the facilities must be in good shape. Human factors must also be addressed and training be given. Professionalism must be encouraged and workforce be given tasks within their capability.

Introduction

An accident occurs when the aircraft and the people inside are fatally injured or sustain any form of injury and the structure of the aircraft damaged. Sometimes, the aircraft cannot be traced and is declared missing. An incident happens when an occurrence that is not associated with an accident affects the operation, causing danger or risk in the aircraft safety. Aviation incidents and accidents occur mainly due to operational problems or human related mistakes. Accidents are fatal most of the times and may lead to the loss of life and destruction of the aircraft. Incidents and accidents investigations assist in giving findings and recommendations on the prevention of another accident. Investigations state the causes and lead to changes that are necessary for the safety of the aircraft. Investigation reveals the nature of the accident. This report will analyze incidents and accidents. It will examine the workforce, the aircraft, the causes, human factors, manufacturers, and the legal framework and give recommendations.

Methodology

The report has been based on literature review. Documentation on the accidents and incidents that have happened provide details on the possible causes and preventive measures of the accidents. Accidents and incidents are fatal and most of the time, an analysis is conducted and recorded, which makes it possible to gain knowledge on accidents and incidents. Intensive and extensive details of accidents are available from investigating organizations.

Analysis

The workforce

According to Ford et al (2007, p. 343), the pilot controlling and the pilot receiving instruction must be qualified and certified. Moreover, they must get medical examination to ascertain that are in good health. The number of flying hours that determine their working experience should be considered. Professional tests are important because they assess the proficiency of the pilot. Those who have stayed for long before practicing are required to take test for proficiency.

Air traffic controllers must be available to offer assistance. They are supposed give instruction of the movement and clearance. They send messages and give information on the weather and other operations. Their task is to ensure a traffic separation that is organized. The traffic controllers must undergo proficiency test and have a medical record that states that they are healthy (Senders and Moray 2001, p. 69).

In their discussion, Ford et al (2007, p. 343) noted that, although experience is highly recommended, the individual working may have difficulties coping with the workload. Human beings are capable of performing tasks up to a certain measure and then rest. Fatigue may hinder an experienced pilot or controller to perform efficiently.

Investigations on an accident must consider the working hours and time of rest of the workforce. They must be in good health and psychologically fit when they come to work. Medical record must indicate that they have a good eye sight. A clean medical record gives confidence that the pilot and the controller can safely control an aircraft (Ford et al 2007, p. 343).

The aircraft

The aircraft must adhere to the weight limit it is assigned. Senders and Moray (2001, p. 39) mentions that, exceeding the limits of the weight may have an impact. The flight must be with fuel before take off for the prescribed flight. The aircraft must get regular service. Additionally, the aircraft must receive maintenance to rule out any defects. Then the aircraft can be issued with the certificate showing that it is serviced and has gone for maintenance.

Ford et al (2007, p. 343) indicate that metrological information is important to determine the visibility and the safety of the aircraft. The risk of an accident increases if there is no visibility. The aircraft is unsafe if there are thunderstorms. Navigation aid is also important and reduces the risk of an accident.

Senders and Moray (2001, p. 39) indicate that; communication is very important and makes it possible for the controllers and the pilots to exchange information. The facilities for communication must be in good condition all the time. Whenever an incident or accident happens, the information that is exchanged prior to the accident helps determine the cause of accident. If the facilities of communication are in good condition, the accident can be avoided. Ford et al (2007, p. 343) states that recorded tapes also help in the study of the possible problems that may have occurred. Data on the particular aircraft should be available on clearance, communication, restrictions actions of the pilots and the details on the plan of the flight. Flight recording facilities assist in giving information that assists in the investigation of an accident.

Wreckage after an accident may be useful and provide information that may clarify the possible causes of the accident. The area with the wreckage must be secured for investigation. The distribution and the pattern of the wreckage should also be observed. The impact on the ground must be noted since it might be related to the accident. If it is a collision, the impact can be determined by observing the distribution of the wreckage. The angle at which the collision happens can also be studied from the wreckage. The speed too can be determined leading to a better understanding of the circumstances (Geller et al 2000, p. 32).

The impact of the collision and the impact on the ground may result in fire. In such instances, the wreckage may be burnt. Obtaining information on the possible causes may become complicated. Aircraft accidents are fatal and in most cases the survival is minimal.

Ford et al (2007, p. 343) reveal that recording of the actual aircraft accident may be available on video or photography if there was surveillance. The pictures may be helpful in the investigation. Computer graphics can also be generated to gain more understanding on the impacts and the prevailing circumstances of the accident.

Causes

According to Geller et al (2000, p. 30), inaccurate information from the control tower may cause an accident. With increased frequency and the schedules being tight, instructions must be given at the appropriate time. The work load may affect the ability of the controllers, where they may end up giving inaccurate information. Increased frequency implies that changes must be done and time to work increased.

The process of determining changes can be challenging. A process with an error may cause an accident. Timing and the availability of space may actually be a major challenge. However, it is essential that accurate process be used (Senders and Moray 2001, p. 39).

Ford et al (2007, p. 343) mention that system failure may cause an incident and accident. Aircraft that is old may be risky to use. If maintenance is not done as required, the system may fail and the accident may occur. International Civil Aviation Organization (2007, p. 7) points out that an old aircraft can be replaced with a new one. Lack of enough funds may be a hindrance to purchasing new ones. However, safety standards must be maintained and regular inspection be done.

An incident and accident may emanate from poor decision making. The decision may be inadequate for the problem. The controller or pilot may make a mistake in the procedure, misinterpret the available information or fail to notice a signal. They may also fail to use the available information or misuse useful information. The workforce failure to communicate at the appropriate time may result to the occurrence of an accident as discussed by Reason (1990, p. 11). Failure to use the resources available or lack of supervision may pose danger to the aircraft. Moreover, reluctance in making changes in areas that have demonstrated problems may eventually lead to accidents (Wiegmann and Shappel 2001, p. 6).

Human factors

Human factors are a major contributor of accidents. In line with Rasmussen (2002, p. 312), it is important to understand the situation of the pilot. Information on their ability to control must be assessed to determine that the task was within their capabilities. Moreover, it should be considered that psychological factors can affect the pilot and cause them to be unable to perform well.

The frequency of flights may be increased and the work load increase. Geller et al (2000, p. 29) says that changes in the frequency may cause additional effort and rapid decision making. The crew may be required to have additional devotion, besides being called to adjust to changes that come along with the busy schedules. The work load may have an impact of the crew as well as the controller.

The controller may become overwhelmed by the situation if it is beyond their capabilities. The situation may also seem manageable from the point of view of the controller. The case may be different if they underestimate the problem.

Reason (1990, p. 33) states that emotional stress and lack of rest may have an impact on the controller. Fatigue may cause them be unable to perform well and become prone to an accident. Personal issues, if unresolved, may also hinder their ability to perform. Some of the major personal issues include marital problems and financial problems.

Training is significant in enhancing the controller’s skills and experience. However, training and skills alone do not guarantee absolute safety. A problem that the controller needs to analyze and engage in reasoning may occur. The challenge is the nature of the problem may require an urgent solution within a time frame that the controller is unable to give a solution. Moreover, the workload will increase and may impact on his performance (Reason 1990)

Human beings ability to process information is limited. The pilot and the controller must be aware of the nature of human beings in decision making. A human being can only perform a single task in the brain, thus they must accept that they cannot be equivalent to machines. Their capability is limited by their ability to think. Depending on their ability to think, they can make the right decisions.

Controllers and pilots who have work overload tend to process information inaccurately. They also unconsciously fail to perform their designated duties and even fail to note signals. They take too long to respond and do so after being alerted when it is too late. The response may be lacking and inappropriate. When the problem continues, there is a tendency by the pilot or controller to unconsciously adopt an over learnt habit. The worst comes if they retire and withdraw by abandoning any attempts to solve the problem.

Rasmussen (2002, p. 312) notes that the voice and the tone of instructions can be analyzed. Whenever a mistake is realized instructions given are usually frequent and repetitive. Sometimes the tone may be raised. Whenever the pilot is aware of a forthcoming coming danger, their voice is characterized by a raised pitch. Workload may interfere with the period that the pilot of controller takes before they respond. The pilot may become anxious especially if they are unable to tolerate the workload

Manufacturers of the aircraft

The manufacturers of the aircraft have a major impact in the development of aircraft safety. When purchasing an aircraft, safety is considered one of the major factors. If a certain product has been found to be prone to accidents due to manufacturing faults, such an aircraft is not supposed to have been produced. Aircrafts with an exit system in case of an emergency are preferred. The aircrafts have been equipped with a computer system, alert systems and recovery system. The manufacturers have improved the turbine engines to that it lasts long (International Civil Aviation Organization 2007, p. 3).

The engines have been improved so that they can be contained in case of failure. Another major improvement by the manufacturing is the lowering of the landing gears. The gear can be lowered even in a situation where there is insufficient power (Geller et al 2000, p. 30).

Legal framework

Different countries have diverse approaches towards safety in the aviation. All of them have a common goal of minimizing accidents and the incidents. The parliament has been involved in issuing directives to enhance safety. Internationally, the 1994 Convention held in Chicago on the international Civil Aviation recommends and states the standards on aircraft investigations. The standards aim at preventing accidents and incidents.

According to the European Aviation Safety Agency (2011, p. 1), every incident and accident must be analyzed and a detailed report be documented. International Civil Aviation Organization (2007, p. 2) adds that the reports will enable the study of accidents and incidents. Considering the recommendations given in the report, future accidents can be avoided. Every accident must be reported and analyzed by experts. Details of the type of aircraft and situation are important and help in pointing out a common problem. The information becomes relevant and applicable to train the aircraft workforce.

In some states there is a body that is appointed to perform investigations on incidents and accidents in aviation. Their tasks include following up on all accidents and incidents to obtain a report. They also involve the expertise and give recommendations that they follow up on. They are involved in giving relevant information and directing significant measures (European Aviation Safety Agency 2011, p. 1).

Conclusion

This report concludes that a large number of accidents are preventable. The pilots and controllers receive training relevant to their task. Their duties are well shared with the emphasis of being available and following instructions accurately. They also get medical certificates of good health before they are assigned their duties. Normally, the aircraft receives services and regular maintenance before it is allowed to go ahead with the flight. The analysis should also consider the human factors that affect the operation. Human beings have a limitation and can only take a specific measure of instruction at a given time. They may be affected by psychological issues and personal problems and may be ineffective at work. Fatigue and stress may have an impact on an individual and affect one’s ability to receive instructions and to act. Accidents can be caused by poor decision making, inappropriate translation of messages, wrong procedures, following wrong instructions and loss of communication. Problems with the mechanical parts of the aircraft and operational difficulties can cause accident. An investigation on the wreckage gives information on the possible conditions that the aircraft experienced before the accident. Computer graphics can be generated where photos or video coverage is not available. Accidents may sometimes involve fire which may burn the wreckage and cause the investigation to have challenges. The manufacturer of the aircraft is a factor to consider since the aircraft comes with instructions. Some aircrafts have improved engine and computerized system that increase the safety. Civil Aviation Organization have legal framework that collect data and conduct investigation. They provide recommendation and give relevant information on aviation safety.

Safety recommendations

International Civil Aviation Organization (2007, p. 2) suggests that planning must be done whenever there is increased frequency. Using the updated information, the situation can be assessed. Revision must be made to include the chosen best options. The revised frequencies must be communicated to all the affected routes within the appropriate time. The controller making the changes must be involved in the monitoring so that they ensure instructions are adhered to.

Wiegmann and Shappel (2001, p. 7) say that, old aircrafts should be replaced with new ones and should not exceed the period of time it is designed to operate. Safety should be a priority and thus the inspection of the aircraft must be done regularly. European Aviation Safety Agency (2011, p. 1) insists that supervision, service and regular maintenance should not be compromised. The aircraft must be in good condition. Problems that are detected can be addressed immediately. Defects in models must be addressed and corrected by the manufacturers.

Every aircraft must be certified to be air worthy before the designated flight. It must have adequate fuel and every part of the aircraft must be functional. It is important to ensure that the communication facilities are in good shape. Communication should be done often and within the right time. The pilot and the controllers must always be alert and remain focused on their duty. The workforce must be ready to work and have a medical report (Rasmussen 2002, p. 312).

Human factor is a major contributor of accidents and must be addressed. Wiegmann and Shappel (2001, p. 2) argue that funding the research on human factor investigations is relevant. Data on the recorded accidents can also be retrieved and studied to obtain the patterns and to gain understanding.

The workforce must be mentally prepared to control and receive instructions. They must be adequately trained so that they can work under minimal supervision. The workforce must be able to manage their tasks appropriately and professionally. They must have enough rest and should not assume that they are capable of handling a challenge, even without resting enough (Wiegmann and Shappel 2001, p. 6).

Reference List

European Aviation Safety Agency., 2011. Accident and incident investigation: the legal framework. Web.

Ford, C., Jack, T., Crisp, V. & Sandusky, R., 2007. ‘Aviation accident causal analysis’. Advances in Aviation Safety Conference Proceedings, 4, 31-133

Geller, E., 2000. ‘Behavioral safety analysis: A necessary precursor to corrective action’. Professional Safety, 29-33.

International Civil Aviation Organization., 2007. Comprehensive Regional Implementation Plan for Aviation Safety. Web.

Rasmussen, J., 2002. ‘Human errors: A taxonomy for describing human malfunction in industrial in- stallations’. Journal of Occupational Accidents, 4, 311-333

Reason, J., 1990. Human error. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Senders, J. & Moray, N., 2001. Human error: Cause, prediction and reduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.

Wiegmann, D. A. & Shappel, S. A., 2001. ‘A Human Error Analysis of Commercial Aviation Accidents Using the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System’. Journal of Occupational Accidents. Web.

Introduction

A hub and spoke system is a system or distribution model that is based on a linkage configuration used to control traffic. In the simple terms, the traffic moves along a stream that is often referred to as a number of spokes which are linked to one central location that is referred to as a hub. This system applies in a number of sectors including the transport sector, telecommunications as well as in the computer world. This model has been mostly used in the transport sector and is centered on the organization of route plans. In the aviation sector, the model is used to organize flights to transit from the central hub to non hub stations or cities (Yale, 201). This system with credited with reducing the cost of operating logistics around the country as plans are made to utilize channels carrying full capacity and less concentration on those carrying less. The system also enables the airline management be able to simplify routes.

History

Delta airline attributed with starting the concept in 1955. The system is compared to the hum and spoke system that can be found in a bicycle wheel. The system has one major hub that connects to the rims of the bicycle using spokes. When this comparison is introduced to the aviation industry, we get a clearer picture of how the system operates. Delta airlines first started using the system using Atlanta, Georgia as its main hub. The number of hubs increased over time so as to have solid and redundant network that would enable planes have an alternative route under any situation. Another reason that Delta Airlines conceived the system was to be able to become more efficient in its competition with Eastern Airlines which at the rime was threatening to eat into Delta airlines market share. It was not until the mid 1970s when the system was fully adapted by Fed Ex. The hub and spoke system has encountered several modifications and reforms to include additional hubs that are located in some different regions elsewhere (Babcock 52). This was also followed by the creation of other major routes to connect the hubs. The main essence of this system is to shorten the distances between the regional hubs which eliminate the need of travelling long distances. Another reform or development that has been adopted within the system is the utilization of focus cities so at to provide for point to point service. This technique normally implemented in areas of high traffic seeks to go around hubs hence reducing the workload on the hubs.

Deregulation of 1978

Following the enactment of the deregulation act of 1978, the airline industry was headed for major reforms including the change over of control from aviation system. At the time control of airlines was carried out by political decisions, this mode shifted with the enactment of the act as now aspects such as pricing of tickets, entry and exit of airlines was carried now determined by the market forces. Initially such key decisions rested on the Civil Aeronautics Board that was phased out following another act i.e. CAB Sunset Act which dissolved the board in December 1984. The Civil Aeronautics Board was responsible for a vast array of functions such as the planning of routes and fares including all the scheduling. Routes were granted to airlines by the board and at the time opponents to the boards cited that the manner in which the airlines were being awarded routes was influenced by political situations and political leaders (Yale 52). At the time there were four major airline carriers, United airline which was the largest followed by American, Eastern and Transcontinental Airlines. All these airlines had a considerable hold on the aviation sector and opposed the entry of new players into the industry.

Deregulation of the airline industry followed continued calls by members of the public and industry regulators as the industry was susceptible to political decisions. Liberalization of the industry was in line with the government’s initiatives towards reforming the country’s economy towards a more capitalistic model. At the time the Civil Aeronautics Board inhibited the operations and investment plans hence it was difficult for the industry to respond to the market needs. The airline being a critical part of the development of the economy had to be regulated and this was done successfully in 1978. The need for deregulation came into the fore after the development of the turbo jet engines as this increased the pace at which airports could be used. Reports show that by 1960’s there had been rise in the number of passengers from around one hundred million to over two hundred passengers by the mid 70’s. These numbers represented the number of Americans that had used air transport as the mode of transport. The need for regulation also arose as at the time airlines were required to fly point to point i.e. airlines had to fly from one small city to another excluding those cities that were located within its flight path. This resulted in aircrafts flying when they are only a fraction full. Thos was costly to airline operators and the citizens of those locations that the airlines did not stop.

Other complaints from residents of where the hubs were located were that they were not benefiting from the service that the hubs were supposed to offer them. Smaller start up airlines also complained that the deregulation of the airlines created monopolies within some airlines, the same monopolies that the initiative had sought to eliminate in the first place. Critics have cited that the deregulation opened up a number of underlying issues that were unforeseen at the time. For example domination of some hubs over others and complaints of congestion and airport delays. At the time few people had conceived that the number of airlines would mushroom at the fat rate that they have done so in the over twenty years (Wensveen 102).

Operations of a Hub and spoke system within the Aviation context

It is important to note at this point that not all airlines subscribe to the hub and spoke system as others like southwest have their own different method of planning flight plans. Basically the hubs and spoke system follows a system whereby there is a central hub that is joined to other smaller airports in a mesh like manner. This links are referred to as spokes (Wensveen 36).An airline can decide to choose an airport that can serve as its destination airport for a number of cities (spokes). This decision is based on the number of cities and the size of the planes that may be serving the spoke (Babcock, 108). The same airports also assist in reducing the congestion that can be at the main hub. The hub and spoke system was used by most big carriers to dominate the airline market and to shield themselves against the competition as it became increasingly evident that the low cost carrier were increasingly becoming more and more popular. The hub and spoke and spoke system is preferred as it offers customers of the airline more choice of destinations.

Impact of regulation started being felt immediately the deregulation of the airlines was completed. One of the factors that were affected was the price of airline tickets. The price of airline tickets has been on a steady decline since the government decided to deregulate the industry. This was because now all airlines were subject to competing against themselves. Initially all prices were set out by the Civil Aeronautical Board. When inflation is factored in the calculation of fall in the price of tickets, we get that airline tickets have fallen on an average of forty percent since the deregulations initiatives were put into effect. Another important aspect of airline sector that was affected was quality of service offered to travelers. Since the initiatives were put in place, the service standards of airlines has risen and this is attributed to the rise in competition among the airlines. Now customers could choose from a variety of airlines on which to fly with. The service that airlines offer is measured using a variety of ways such as the number of aircrafts that are available to serve its customers, the miles flown by the airline pilots, the time effectiveness of the airline i.e. time consciousness of management and staff towards ensuring that everything runs on time. The number of amenities is another factor that should be considered under the quality of services offered. Since deregulation there have been attempts by airlines to introduce amenities to its customers as a way of luring customers away from the competition. There have also been a number of customer oriented programs that have been introduced in order to make it more convenient for customers to fly with the airlines.

Another factor that has also improved is also is the safety record of the airlines within the aviation sector. The number of fatalities recorded in comparison with the number of miles that has been flown has significantly fallen over the last few years, this has been as a result of stricter regulations enforced by both the airline companies and the regulatory authorities. One point that should be need here is that as much as deregulation occurred, oversight still remained with the Federal Aviation Administration. This is the body that was tasked with maintain the standards set by aviation laws in the United States.

Advantages of Hub and spoke system

The benefits accrued by airlines is that the system offers better usage of airline resources as shorter distances generally lead to less usage of fuel and frequent trips being made by the airplane. As we all know that an airplane is the single most important asset of an airline and the more trips that it makes then the more cash it brings for the airline. Another advantage is that it is easier to develop new spokes which can easily be scheduled in the flight plan. The spokes and hubs system is preferred because of control is more localized hence making it easier as less staff are required in order to administer to customers. Day to day airline operations are thus made better as flights are also planned much better and not from a myriad of locations.

Drawbacks

As much as control can be cited as being centralized, this offers the challenge as issues such as flexibility arise. Decisions have to come from the hubs hence it can take a long time before a decision is reached. For example if an airline overbooks a flight the stranded passenger will have to wait first before instructions are received from the hub or central office. The whole network can become affected by a small inconvenience on one route. This system also requires complex arrangements of scarce airline resources. This responsibility is left to specialized teams of individuals. IThe aviation industry is very delicate hence the need for strict control of airline resources that includes staff and planes.

the Fatigue generally leads to an acceleration of reaction time, a reduction in attention and a decrease in accuracy levels. Pilots under fatigue tend to misplace or overlook elements of task that are traditionally carried out in sequence, such as overlooking checklist items and concentrating on a single tasks and ignoring other important ones in the process. In terms of memory, a state of fatigue has little effects on long –term memory, but greatly impairs short-term memory, along with the individual cognitive processing capacity. (Yale 102).

Fatigue also has wide ranging effects on communication, such as unclear speech, and misinterpretation of messages. Decision making skills are also invariably degraded by fatigue and the result is inappropriate responses to emergencies in most cases. (Yale 105).Due to the high number of unrecognized “stressors” that still remain and therefore go unnoticed, the civil aviation authorities have developed a number of checklists that pilots can use in self evaluation for “stressors’. The Federal Aviation Authority (F.A.A) of the United States, in example, has come up with the “I’m Safe” checklist that pilots can employ in self evaluation for flight readiness. It attempts to address well known stressors such as alcohol consumption, illness, mediation, fatigue and general stress, and presents pilots with the opportunity to subject them to a reality check before embarking on a flight. (Yale 201).

In addition to interfering with judgment, attention and memory, stress can also significantly affect muscle control and hand to eye coordination. In light of these facts, the importance of identification and management of potential “stressors” cannot be overemphasized. “Stressors” are generally classified in to two categories; external and internal. External stressors originate from sources out of the body. (Clarence 48).They are further classified into subcategories under psychosocial and environmental external “stressors”. Environmental external “stressors” include poor conditions of flight, extreme cold or heat conditions, high levels of noise, excessive arbitration and effects of altitude, while psychosocial external “stressors” exist in close relation to conditions and events liked to social characteristics found at individual or family level and include family conflicts, which may present themselves in the form of spousal conflict, illness, death or problems with children. Work related conflicts include short time flights, low satisfaction with the job, general feeling of lack of support and lack of control. (Clarence 50).

Internal “stressors” however, have their origin within the affected individual and are typically regarded as under the control of the affected individual. Their subcategories include cognitive and physiological internal “stressors’. Physiological stressors include, but are not limited to unhealthy diets, muscular fatigue, tobacco use, alcohol abuse, sleep deprivation and loss of hearing, while cognitive internal stressors include high workload, general boredom, lack of information or information overload , hopelessness and fear.( Clarence 52). In light of the identified ‘stressors’ and their degradative effects on cognitive function and consequentially, decision making skills, civil aviation rues have been established by civil aviation regulatory authorities to deal with a majority of the more obvious “stressors”. These include “stressors” such as drug use and alcohol consumption. The stated bodies are also engaged in the making of concerted efforts at achieving the effective handling of other “stressors” such as fatigue. (Clarence 55).

In the case of fatigue, for example, important factors that contribute to the development of fatigue, such as poor quality of sleep, circadian rhythm disruption, commuting time effects and irregular hours of work, among other factors have been addressed in recent years, presenting an improvement from the limitation of such focus to the evaluation of working hours only as it was done in the past. Thus in order to achieve an informed analysis of “stressors” and their contributions to aviation accidents, it will be paramount to precede with achieving definition of stress and how it affects the cognitive process. Stress is generally defined as the usual and unspecified reaction of the body to a demand of any nature placed upon it. The body might respond to the demand either physiologically, physically or psychologically. (Yale 25).The cognitive process, which can be defined as the process of attention, knowledge, memory, perception, decision making and problem solving is generally affected by prolonged stress, as well as general behavior and emotional status. The seriousness of this issue to the aviation sector lies in the fact that any problems that affect the ability of pilots to concentrate, make informed judgment or to be attentive behind the cockpit put the aircraft and all people aboard it at great risk. Research has established that under the condition of high stress. Learned procedures are generally forgotten and many people, opt to employ old habits in the decision making process. More often than not, this decision is usually ill-informed and thus posses dangerous repercussions. Many pilots generally tend to apply knowledge and techniques that were learnt in the course of handling other aircraft types in handling of aircrafts when they are under high stress conditions. Apart from this, a high stress level causes the problem of perceptual tunneling among pilots ((Yale 102).

These is an error of cognitive nature whereby either a pilot in the whole aircrew focus on a single stimulus, for example, a warning signal, and ignore all other information or tasks that are of equal importance, when under high stress conditions. Perceptual tunneling was implicated in the crash of an Eastern Airlines aircraft; Lockheed L-1011 in the Everglades of Florida because the flight crew, consisting of three members, determined a missed approach, under no indication of the extension of the nose landing gear, and afterwards focused all their attention on the identification of the problem posed by the position light system. In the process, they failed to notice that the aircraft was not.

Different Hubs Configuration

Due to factor such as agglomeration and other demerits that accompanied the hubs and spoke system, various alternative models have been developed in order to serve more customers at a cheaper cost to the airline’s bottom line. Such developments have been manifested through Code sharing agreements among the airlines. Code sharing simply means that the airlines share seat allocations on one flight, reducing the chances of empty seats on a plane. This is can be viewed as one airline marketing a flight on behalf of another airline operator. An airline seat is purchased from on airline operator in a manner that appears as if the two operators are cooperating together. A seat is purchased under a code that is used to refer to a number used in the flight schedule. The advantage with this system is that it allows the client a better access to more cities and also saves the airlines the hassle of offering extra flights for their clients. This ensures that it is win-win situation for all.

Other airlines use the legacy system i.e. the point to point system. This system includes the haulage of persons and individuals over short miles and distances involving fewer connecting flights during the whole journey. Other airlines utilize the alliances program in order to operate flights within an area. These alliances are partnership programs between a number of airlines that have consolidated themselves for the purposes of sharing cost and taking advantage of the areas that are covered by the other partners. This allows the airline operators to concentrate on their core routes. Costs are reduced in marketing as each partner focuses on their local markets while offering flights that could be outside their area of operations such as in other continents. Benefits derived by the airline by being a member of an alliance, is that it grants an airline the privilege of serving more travelers through the network. With a better coordinated structure that ensures the traveler is able to journey seamlessly, the alliance has been enjoyed a higher market for its services as more travelers embrace as the idea of “one airline”. Being a member of the privileged team also ensures that planes and airport infrastructure are employed to the maximum to serve as many clients as possible. Parts of the infrastructure include, airport lounges, and baggage handling facilities. Airlines using the alliance system have seen themselves grow both through its fleet and through profits. It is after the realization that it was unsustainable to expand globally while increasing the capital outlay of the firm on expansion expenditures (Yale 102).

Difficulties of being a member includes the erosion of its corporate culture that prides on excellence and maintenance of high standards. In house functions such as I.T and quality assurance had to be in tandem with requirements of the alliance. This means that the airline has to lose some of its independence by being a member of the alliance.

Works Cited

Babcock, Brian. Making Sense of Cities: A Geographical Survey, London: Arnold, 2002.

Clarence, Thomas. Stressed Out. New York: CRC Publishers, 2010.

Wensveen, John. Air transportation: a management perspective. Bombay: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007

Yale, Bontekoning. Hub exchange operations in intermodal hub-and-spoke operations: comparison of the performances of four types of rail-rail exchange facilities. New York: IOS Press, 2006.

Introduction

A bird strike happens when an aircraft in a flight and a bird collides or when landing or takeoff. Bird Strike is prevalent, and it can cause substantial hazards to aircraft safety. For instance, substantial damage may be caused in a small aircraft, particularly in jet-engine aircraft vulnerable to thrust loss. It causes bird ingestion in the engine air intake. This has been the cause of various fatal accidents. Since large bird numbers in a particular flight are at reduced ranks, bird strikes are more likely during the stages of takeoff, approach, landing, and initial climb. Since the majority of birds fly in the daytime, the majority of birds associated strikes happen in the daytime. Consequently, the following research aims to assess the bird species globally, the birds hearing frequencies, the species of birds’ altitude, and current technology that deters birds in airports and planes. The figures below indicate the images of birds striking.

How Many Species of Birds Exist

Birds are widely regarded as a well-studied cohort, with more than 95 percent of their global species composition approximated to have been explained. According to most scorecards used by bird watchers and scientists, there are approximately 9,000 to10, 000 birds species (Van Gasteren et al., 2019, p. 907). However, those figures are based on the “biological species concept,” which characterizes species based on what creatures can breed together. Another study conducted by Princeton University professionals found approximately 9,700 bird species globally, though this figure is debatable (Miłek and Blicharz-Domańska, 2018, p. 251). According to BirdLife.org, the world is home to nearly 11,000 different bird species (Miłek and Blicharz-Domańska, 2018, p. 251). Even though the precise number of bird species in the world varies, nearly all projections are in the 10,000-species range. So, it is safe to say that there are approximately 10,000 bird species on the planet.

What Frequencies Do Birds Hear?

Birds are a hazard to aviation and prey on a variety of crops. Even though a lethal monitor is required in many circumstances, it is normally preferable to use nonlethal methodologies to dissipate birds from specific environments for several reasons. Sound is one type of deterrent dispersal methodology (Heffner et al., 2020, p. 901). To be effective, the noises must be loud enough for birds to hear, within the frequency spectrum that the birds’ earlobes can identify, and include a biologically relevant signal that induces the birds to escape.

This makes it necessary to consider the frequency at which birds hear sounds. Hearing is number two only to vision in controlling their surroundings for birds. Avian hearing is most susceptible to sounds between 1 and 4 kHz, even if they can hear increasing and decreasing frequencies (Heffner et al., 2020, p. 902). Moreover, no bird species has demonstrated responsiveness to ultrasonic frequencies. Although responsiveness to frequencies below 20 Hz (sound) has attracted great attention, bird species have demonstrated physiological (Zeyl et al., 2020) and behavioral reactions to these low frequencies. Within the 1 – 4 kHz range, the frequency of institutional racism in birds is only around half or one-third as effective as in human beings (Zeyl et al., 2020, p. 1037). Destruction of the auditory receptors caused by loud noises is an issue that birds face as humans do.

The quantity of destruction and the intensity of the sound created varies based on the species. Birds living in airport populated places may be regularly exposed to sound thresholds that affect their hearing. Consequently, auditory alerts must be at frequency bands detectable by the damaged auditory receptors to disperse birds using sound accurately (Zeyl et al., 2020). Even though some, if not all, bird species can revolutionize hair cells, sustained exposure to loud noises would result in hearing loss.

The Species of Birds Altitude

Many bird species are located in natural environments. These environments are greater than 13,123 ft above sea level, while others regularly fly to heights of 10,000-13,000 feet which is 3,000-4,000 meters, particularly when relocating (Conkling et al., 2018). Scott wrote that a multitude of bird species navigate at even high elevations (Conkling et al., 2018). Scott is interested in how vertebrates operate in physically demanding surroundings (Conkling et al., 2018, p. 1171). Scott emphasizes that birds such as hummingbirds and sparrows exist in heights of 16,404 ft (5,000 m) in the Alpine region (Conkling et al., 2018, p. 1171). Other birds, such as massive Andean condors, are found at 18,044 feet which is 5,500 m. Mallard ducks have been observed at heights of 21,000 ft., which is 6,401 m. Moreover, the bar-headed geese in Central Asia are explicitly monitored at 23,917 ft (Conkling et al., 2018).

Such high-flyers are capable of exerting themselves at incredible heights. While the size of these birds varies, they all have one commonality: they have a larger wingspan comparative to their bodies when contrasted to birds that fly lower. However, as Scott points out, high-altitude flight necessitates more than just longer wings, which present immense physical challenges. “The first great hurdle is that the air becomes less intense” (Conkling et al., 2018, p. 1172).

They must flutter as they fly greater. Hence, they struggle to stay skyward, which increases their metabolism requirements. The availability of oxygen (O₂) becomes confined and gets colder at greater heights, and birds have to warm them. Moreover, as the air becomes dry, they are more prone to losing water through respiration and water loss, leaving them thirsty. Charles Bishop asserts that physiological modifications undoubtedly permit birds to achieve extraordinary altitudes (Biteman et al., 2018). Bishop, a strong bar-headed bird’s research associate, told Reporters via email indicating that the geese birds do not struggle from heights sickness. These birds hyperventilate while piloting to continue increasing their oxygen consumption. Because of their rapid breathing, their blood becomes more basic, influencing blood flow to the brain in humans (Biteman et al., 2018, p.28). Consequently, this is why hyperventilating causes most individuals to faint or be dizzy.

However, geese are very impervious to alkaline environments or high PH states. as a result, blood flow to the creatures’ biological makeup remains normal, as the Bishop suggests. “Finally,” Bishop told Live Science, “the hemoglobin in their blood has a relatively high affinity for oxygen binding” (El-Sayed, 2019, p.109).

All through their long waves of migration, ranging from 1,243 to 3,107 miles which are 2,000 to 5,000Km, and last 5 to 200 hours, bar-headed geese use a “roller-coaster strategy” (El‐Sayed, 2019, P 108). Observations made directly of the geese’s height happened at a rate of 98% below 18,044 ft. “Whenever the geese had to fly over a high obstacle, they would immediately come down” (El-Sayed, 2019, p. 109). Furthermore, as per Scott, flying higher may give birds fair prospects for long-haul flights. Migration patterns flights at higher elevations introduce the living creatures to fewer predatory animals, while wind conditions can help the birds fly more efficiently, and cold weather can keep the living creatures from excessive heat.

Current Technology that Deters Birds in Airports and Planes

When birds are prevalent in an area of aircraft action, among the most popular techniques of scaring them off-airport land is to fire air cannons. Nevertheless airports regularly alter the neighboring surroundings to make it less bird-friendly or substituting grass with crushed rock (Biteman et al., 2018, p. 28). Some airports are compelled to get innovative to keep birds at bay. This suggests that Salt Lake City’s airport uses pigs to feed gull eggs (Arrondo et al., 2021 p. 31). Similarly, border collies chase away egrets and herons at Southwest Florida International.

Conclusion

A bird strike occurs when an aircraft in flight collides with a bird or when landing or taking off. Bird strikes are common, posing significant risks to aircraft safety. Because of most birds in flight at subordinates, bird strikes seem to be more probable during the departure airport, preliminary climb, attitude, and arrival stages. Birds are widely regarded as a well-studied group, with more than 95 percent of their global species composition roughly explained. Birds threaten aviation and prey on a wide range of crops. Although lethal control is required in many situations, it is frequently preferable to use nonlethal methods to disperse or deter birds from specific locations for various reasons.

Most of these species live in natural environments that are more than 13,123 ft (4,000 meters) above sea level. Others normally tend to fly heights 10,000-13,000 ft when relocating (Miłek and Blicharz-Domańska, 2018, p. 252). When birds are abundant in an area of aircraft activity, one of the most common methods of scaring them off-airport land is to fire air cannons, but airports also frequently alter the surrounding environment to make it less bird-friendly, such as filling in ponds or replacing grass with crushed rock. In the appearance of bird exercise, postpone takeoff or touching down. The plane should keep the speed below 10,000 feet to less than 250 tangles if feasible (Biteman et al., 2018, 29). Afterward, they should ascend at the fastest possible rate below 2,000 feet to reduce flight time vulnerability to a potential attack danger.

List of References

Arrondo, E., García-Alfonso, M., Blas, J., Cortes-Avizanda, A., De la Riva, M., Devault, T., Fiedler, W., Flack, A., Jimenez, J., Lambertucci, S., Margalida, A., Oliva-Vidal, P., Phipps, L., Sanchez-Zapata, J., Wikelski, M. and Donazar, J. 2021). Use of avian GPS tracking to mitigate human fatalities from bird strikes caused by large soaring birds. Journal of Applied Ecology. Volume 2, pp.31-34

Biteman, D., Collins, D. and Washburn, B., 2018. Sunshine, Beaches, and Birds: Managing Raptor-Aircraft collisions at airports in Southern California. Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference, 28. pp. 28-35.

Conkling, T., Belant, J., DeVault, T. and Martin, J., 2018. Impacts of biomass production at civil airports on grassland bird conservation and aviation strike risk. Ecological Applications, 28(5), pp. 1168-1181.

El-Sayed, A., 2022. Bird Strike in Aviation. Zagazig University Press. 25(3), 98-111.

Heffner, R., Cumming, J., Koay, G. and Heffner, H., 2020. Hearing in Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus): sensitivity to infrasound. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 206(6), pp. 899-906.

Miłek, J. and Blicharz-Domańska, K., 2018. Coronaviruses in avian species – review with focus on epidemiology and diagnosis in wild birds. Journal of Veterinary Research, 62(3), pp. 249-255.

Van Gasteren, H., Krijgsveld, K., Klauke, N., Leshem, Y., Metz, I., Skakuj, M., Sorbi, S., Schekler, I. and Shamoun‐Baranes, J., 2019. Aeroecology meets aviation safety: early warning systems in Europe and the Middle East prevent collisions between birds and aircraft. Ecography, 42(5), pp. 899-911.

Zeyl, J., Ouden, O., Köppl, C., Assink, J., Christensen-Dalsgaard, J., Patrick, S. and Clusella‐Trullas, S., 2020. Infrasonic hearing in birds: a review of audiometry and hypothesized structure–function relationships. Biological Reviews, 95(4), pp. 1036-1054.

Introduction

The federal aviation regulations in the US (FARs) and the UAE GCAA regulations (CARs) have been adopted with the main goal of controlling aviation activities. Some of the activities “regulated in the air transport sector include airline flights, model rocket launches, kite flying, hot-air ballooning, and aircraft design and maintenance” (Bazargan 2010, p. 23). The aviation regulations in the UAE and the US require aircraft companies to conform to standards in operations to significantly reduce accidents. Although the regulations have many common functions, some elements make them different. For instance, requirements for registration of aircrafts differ due to the use of different requirements. An example of similarities is whereby they apply the same passenger safety rules. This paper discusses the differences and similarities in the requirements for operations and specifications between FARs and CARs. In addition, it provides reasons for the differences and offers recommendations for improving the regulations.

Differences

The FAA regulations (FARs) do not need any justification of airworthiness on ultralight aircrafts. Instead, it is upon owners of planes to ensure that ultralight is in safe condition and secure to fly. FARs use techniques, such as “federal ultralight aircraft resource guide” and “amateur built aircraft and ultralight flight testing handbook” that show how FAA explains the meaning of ultralight (Zweifel 2013). The books demonstrate how aircraft testing should be done to ensure efficiency and safety. On the other hand, the UAE GCAA regulations (CARs) require ultralight planes to be assessed in terms of airworthiness. However, they do not rely on publications to govern ultralight aircrafts. Second, the FARs require pilots to attain excellent aviation skills under through FAA-recognized programs, but not based On the contrary, CARs do not restrict training of pilots to specific training institutions. They consider pilots from all institutions across the world.

Aircraft registration requirements in the two regulatory frameworks in the US and the UAE are also different. FARs state that the registration of aeroplanes should be done by the FAA that also gives a corresponding airworthiness certificate with the inclusion of inspection by the appropriate department. For instance, in 2004, the FAA launched a certification option known as light sports aircraft. The technique had characteristics, such as simplicity, reduced performance, low energy consumption, and balloons among others (Seidenstat 2009). Another technique known as experimental amateur-built was also launched that was meant for recreation and learning purposes.

In contrast, CARs are not particular to the modes of registration. In fact, any firm can do the registration as long as it is a legal organization. In addition, CARs do not have techniques for registration of aircrafts. Whenever there are changes in the design of planes, the FAA ascertains the design changes in accordance with the standards in the sector. On the other hand, “CARs do not aim at ascertaining new designs, but some organizations collect data on designs across the world” (Bazargan 2010). If the UAE GCAA is not satisfied with the data given by the FAA, it launches studies to determine the details of new designs in the market. Regarding accident investigations, the FAA makes all the necessary efforts to avail the required information and technical solutions to accident investigators, but CARs do not promote the utilization of such information.

Similarities

Both FARs and CARs have clauses that promote responses to service difficulties. When aircrafts have technical problems due to faults in some parts, such as engines and propellers, which the FAA controls, then the FAA seeks for solutions from the GCAA. The same happens when the GCAA encounters some problems that can be solved by the FAA. Aircraft validation processes are similar in the two regulatory bodies for the reason that they require effective communication among organizations. For instance, communications involve three parties, which are the FAA, the GCAA, and an applicant. It is upon the GCAA to liaise with the FAA solve technical issues and vice-versa (Waite, & McDaniel 2009).

My opinion on the causes of differences

In my opinion, the differences between the two sets of regulations exist due to three factors. First, there are different levels of development in the US and the UAE, which have led to the adoption of stricter control measures in the US aviation sector. Second, there are significant variations with respect to the customer dynamics. Thus, the regulations are designed to reflect the dynamics among customers. Finally, the numbers of aviation training institutions in the UAE are fewer than those in the US. Thus, the CARs do not restrict training of pilots to certain training institutions in the

Recommendations

The two sets of aviation regulations in the US and the UAE can be improved by adopting two recommendations. First, it would be recommended that the aviation regulatory agencies in the US and the UAE update regulations on a regular basis to reflect changes in the sector, which will go a long way in improving the quality of services. Second, it would be suggested that aviation regulatory bodies in the two nations should aim at achieving the same level of development, especially with respect to the utilization of information technology and the establishment of aviation training institutions.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the FARs and the UAE GCAA regulations (CARs) are important in promoting high levels of efficiency and safety in the aviation sector in the US and the UAE. As shown in this paper, the requirements for operations and specifications in the two regulatory frameworks are different due to a number of reasons. However, the regulations have some similarities, which make aircrafts fly across borders.

References

Bazargan, M, 2010, Airline operations and scheduling, Ashgate Publishing, Farnham, England.

Seidenstat, P, 2009, Protecting airline passengers in the age of terrorism, Praeger Security International, Santa Barbara, CA.

Waite, J, & McDaniel, J, 2009, The impact of airline bankruptcies on airports, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.

Zweifel, T, 2013, Culture Clash 2 Managing the Global High-Performance Team, BookBaby, Hoboken, NJ.

The aviation industry has always been regulated nationally and internationally for safety, defense, security, market competition, and consumer protection. The privatization process was implemented to improve productivity and optimize cost, with maximizing profits as the primary objective. Privatizing aviation has always been discouraged by sectors in air transport that make marginal transport (Puentes & Lewis, 2022). There are massive continuous changes in technology that can easily influence privatization. Air transport policies regulate whatever has to be done before privatization is implemented. The public will be free of the financial risk and burden because it is the private sector to handle all the operations once, thus reducing the public debt arising from the operating cost.

It improves customer service and quality, since the public no longer controls the monopoly; price competition can be regulated or reduced since good customer care and quality service that customers will vouch for. The private sectors have the potential to bring expertise with advanced technology that will entail better customer care and commercial discipline. It will minimize operational costs and increase commercial revenue. There will be an increase in profit margin because when consumers are satisfied with the quality of service or product, they will be frequent users (Lara, 2022). Their objectives can have insufficient consideration and investment, thus making them unable to maintain social justice and control environmental impacts.

Various purposes must be clearly defined before the agreement is sealed because the aviation infrastructure is critical to the economy. The economy’s scale and scope are vital in generating efficiency to have premium service and better customer care. Privatizing the aviation industries reduces operational costs, customer satisfaction is the top priority, controlled monopoly, and increased commercial revenue. Any applicable model tabled by an investor who would like to privatize a particular airline must be supported with a consistent and transparent framework that is regulated before they become operational.

References

Lara, V. (2022). The benefits of Defense industry privatization: Markets, technology and U.S. military supremacy since World War II. Comparative Strategy, 41(2), 162–188. Web.

Puentes, R., & Lewis, P. (2022). Airport privatization in the United States. Handbook on Public Private Partnerships in Transportation, 1, 69–84. Web.