Category: Autocracy

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2007). Mussolinis Italy: Life under the fascist dictatorship, 1915-1945. Penguin Books.

This book aims to describe life in Italy under the dictatorship of Mussolini. The intended audience is historians and people interested in Italian history. The book is relevant to my topic because it explores how fascism developed in Italy, how people lived under Mussolinis dictatorship, and what economic consequences were brought by his rule. The author is an Australian historian specializing in fascist Italy and has written many publications on this topic. In this source, Bosworth (2007) observes how Italy lived under the fascist regime and how people resisted this ideology. My conclusion is that this book vividly describes the events in the history of fascist Italy and will help me better understand Mussolinis fascist dictatorship.

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2021). Mussolini and the eclipse of Italian fascism: From dictatorship to populism. Yale University Press.

The purpose of this book is to compare Mussolini to other dictators  Hitler and Stalin  and figure out whether he was the worst of them. The intended audience is historians willing to understand Mussolinis dictatorship in the context of European history. The book is relevant to my topic because it explains what guided Mussolinis dictatorship and Italian fascism and how it affected history. The author is an expert on fascist Italy who wrote many books, articles, and chapters on Italian history. Bosworth (2021) concludes that, although Mussolini was the first fascist leader in Europe, his power weakened because of a weak regime and a failed ideology. I have concluded from this book that, even though Mussolini was a fascist dictator, his actions brought less harm than those of other dictators.

Gooch, J. (2020). Mussolinis war: Fascist Italy from triumph to collapse, 1935-1943. Pegasus Books.

The main aim of this book is to discuss Mussolinis decision to enter World War II. The intended audience for this source is scholars, educators, and other people interested in Italys engagement in that war and its life under Mussolinis dictatorship. The book is relevant to the economic aspect of my topic because it describes how Mussolinis decision to enter the war affected the Italian economy. The author is a Professor Emeritus at the University of Leeds and is famous for his writings on Italy and the two world wars. Gooch (2020) concludes that Mussolinis decision to enter World War II was a serious miscalculation. My conclusion is that Mussolini was an ambitious but ineffective leader who involved an unprepared and poorly developed country in a war that he could not win.

Iodice, E. F. (2018). Lessons from history: The startling rise to power of Benito Mussolini. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 11(2), 3. Web.

This source aims to analyze Mussolinis rise to power and dictatorship. The intended audience is historians studying fascism and its possibility of happening in the modern world. The article is relevant to my topic because it explains how Mussolini came to power and became a dictator. Iodice is Director Emeritus and Professor of Leadership at Loyola University Chicago and the author of several books and articles on leadership. This article concludes that Mussolinis totalitarian leadership left Italy in ruins and deprived people of their freedom. My conclusion from this source is that dictatorship does not benefit the country, but short-sighted people can find dictatorship ideologies attractive, thus letting dictators rise to power.

Knight, P. (2003). Mussolini and fascism. Routledge.

The purpose of this source is to explore important issues related to Italian fascism, such as the origins and rise of fascism, Mussolinis totalitarian regime, and the impact of fascist social and economic policies. The intended audience is history students. Chapter 5 of this book is especially relevant to my topic because it explores the economic consequences of Mussolinis fascist dictatorship. The author is a historian, and this book is part of a series that teaches students to apply historiographical thinking. Knight (2003) observes and analyzes many topics concerning Mussolinis dictatorship and concludes that Mussolini was not a successful ruler, in particular, because he failed to improve Italys economic status. My conclusion is that, despite his efforts, Mussolini did not manage to make Italy great again.

Mussolini, B. (1932). The doctrine of fascism. World Future Fund. Web.

The primary aim of this source is to explain the essence and the principles of fascism. The intended audience was people in Italy and Europe who were expected to support the ideology of fascism. This document is relevant to my topic because it is a primary source revealing Mussolinis views of fascism. The author was an Italian dictator whose political activity was based on fascist ideas. Mussolinis (1932) conclusion is that fascism is a new turn in history, rejecting all previous models, such as democracy or socialism. From this source, I have concluded that fascism is an ideology that opposes peace, supports war, and advocates for a strong state that makes decisions for the population.

Parkash, B. (2019). The concept of fascism: A review of Italian ideology. History Research Journal, 5(4), 308-312. Web.

This article aims to discuss key aspects of fascism. The intended audience is historians researching the question of fascist ideology. This article is relevant to my topic because it discusses the roots of fascism in Italy and its key features. The author of this source is an Associate Professor in Political Science at Chhotu Ram Kisan College, India. Parkash (2019) observes how fascism emerged in Italy under Mussolini, what features it possessed, and how it ended after World War II. My conclusion is that fascism is distinguished by racism, dictatorship, militarism, and destructive policies.

Singh, R. S. (2017). Advent of fascism and Nazism. Journal of National Development, 30(2), 85-90.

The main purpose of this source is to explain and compare the concepts of Italian fascism and German Nazism. The intended audience is scholars exploring the topics of dictatorships and wider audiences aiming to understand the difference between fascism and Nazism. This source is relevant to my topic because it explores the causes, main objectives, and the rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolinis dictatorship. The author is an associate professor at the Department of History of the Government Girls Degree College in India, and he uses relevant sources to support his arguments. Singh (2017) concludes that fascism and Nazism have many similarities, such as pursuing imperial goals and stemming from totalitarian regimes. My conclusion is that this source is helpful for understanding the development and the essence of Italian fascism.

References

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2007). Mussolinis Italy: Life under the fascist dictatorship, 1915-1945. Penguin Books.

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2021). Mussolini and the eclipse of Italian fascism: From dictatorship to populism. Yale University Press.

Gooch, J. (2020). Mussolinis war: Fascist Italy from triumph to collapse, 1935-1943. Pegasus Books.

Iodice, E. F. (2018). Lessons from history: The startling rise to power of Benito Mussolini. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 11(2), 3. Web.

Knight, P. (2003). Mussolini and fascism. Routledge.

Mussolini, B. (1932). The doctrine of fascism. World Future Fund. Web.

Parkash, D. B. (2019). The concept of fascism: A review of Italian ideology. History Research Journal, 5(4), 308-312. Web.

Singh, R. S. (2017). Advent of fascism and Nazism. Journal of National Development, 30(2), 85-90.

The 20th century saw the rise and fall of various totalitarian regimes. Their geography stretched from Nazi Germany in the West to Khmer Rouge Cambodia in the East, from USSR in the North to the Argentinian military junta in the South. The crimes against humanity committed by totalitarian states were numerous and atrocious. The political orientation of particular totalitarian regimes barely affected their brutality and disregard for human rights and life. Hitlers far-right Nazis were as merciless as Pol Pots radical Communists; pro-Soviet and pro-U.S. puppet regimes of the Cold War era were equally ruthless and relentless in terrorizing the population.

In this regard, one might wonder how people aware of the deeply inhumane nature of totalitarianism can conform to totalitarian regimes. The Handmaids Tale, a dystopian TV series set in Gilead, the former United States overtaken by religious fundamentalists, offers several insights into this question. Firstly, Margaret Atwood, the author of the original novel, mentions aggressive brainwashing in her article in The New York Times. Secondly, in her article The Handmaids Tale as Ustopian Allegory: Stars and Stripes Forever, Baby, Heather Hendershot covers the tactics of mistrust spreading and collectivization deployed by the totalitarian government of Gilead. In addition, Hendershot uses the ustopia neologism, a combination of the words utopia and dystopia that means peoples willingness to respect even the most oppressive regimes if they improve their existence. After exploring these two articles, it appears that people may conform to totalitarianism either forcibly, through physical and psychological violence, or willingly if they somehow benefit from totalitarian policies.

In her essay, Margaret Atwood admitted that the image of Gilead is based on the symbols and practices utilized by oppressive governments throughout the history of humanity. For example, many totalitarian states used color and clothing to identify people and divide them into categories. Such symbols as yellow Jewish stars in Nazi Germany or Roman purple in the Roman Empire were used as a means of control (Atwood). A symbol replaced an individuals original identity, making it possible to transform their mind and show the enemies to society. In The Handmaids Tale, the Handmaids, the women turned by the government into the disenfranchised walking wombs, wear distinctive red robes and white bonnets. The newly-conscripted Handmaids are forced to abandon their personalities, even their names. Handmaids are getting brainwashed into their new social role  they are taught to know their place and duties and accept that they have no real rights (Atwood). However, Gilead promises them safety in exchange for conforming to the new status. The Taser-equipped Aunts, the more privileged women in the overseer rank, coerce the Handmaids into making a right choice.

In this example, one can see how totalitarianism ensures conformity through the deprivation of human dignity. Only a few mentally strong individuals can resist the pressure and retain their true personalities. The others become broken by the oppressive machine and prefer the illusion of safety and stability that comes at the price of conforming to the regime. In the TV series, the Handmaids are deliberately taught to think poorly of themselves, which makes the majority of them unable to even think about disobedience (Atwood). Likewise, the real-life totalitarian regimes demonstrated to people their insignificance and helplessness. Consequently, the citizens of totalitarian states saw the hopelessness of their position. In the end, conforming to the government in order to avoid punishment became their habitual lifestyle.

Heather Hendershots The Handmaids Tale as Ustopian Allegory: Stars and Stripes Forever, Baby explains the power of totalitarianism through mutual mistrust, forced collectivization, and ustopian appeal. One might think that mutual mistrust and collective effort are incompatible. However, this would be the case only if collectivism stems from the people. Like many totalitarian states in real life, Gilead successfully replaced real, grassroots collectivism with its government-led semblance. The Aunts keep the Handmaids in groups and sometimes use them as the lynch mobs. For example, Offred, the main character of the TV series, is forced to participate in a group murder of a man, identified by Aunt Lydia as an alleged rapist (Hendershot 14). In this regard, totalitarianism ensures conforming through the forcefully imposed collective identity. Moreover, this identity can be reinforced via state-led acts of collective violence. An individual becomes tainted by the totalitarian state since they participate in its crimes. As a result, conforming to the regime becomes the only viable option.

In addition, mutual mistrust facilitates the spread of conforming attitudes to totalitarianism. In The Handmaids Tale setting, Handmaids are grouped in order to enhance surveillance and make women fear other women (Hendershot 14). As a consequence, Handmaids become afraid of talking to each other frankly since a companion might turn out to be a spy for the government. In such circumstances, many people would prefer conforming to a totalitarian regime in order to avoid severe punishment.

Finally, Hendershot introduces the idea of ustopia  a possibility that an individual may sincerely support totalitarianism due to its beneficial impact on their life. For instance, one of the Handmaids, who used to be a drug-addicted prostitute in the normal life before the fundamentalist revolution, is quite pleased with the current situation in Gilead (Hendershot 20). The totalitarian government gave her a relatively easy and safe life. Instead of having sex with many partners to make money for drugs, this Handmaid got food and shelter at the meager cost of one monthly rape by one of the Commanders.

Likewise, supporters of totalitarianism may conform to the regime if it somewhat compensates for the failures of pre-totalitarian government. For example, Hitlers rise to power was followed by the economic recovery from the staggering collapse. In addition, Nazi-ruled Germany took revenge on its World War I enemies by defeating France and conquering a significant part of Europe. Consequently, many Germans conformed with the Nazi regime, despite the quickly increasing number of the alarming signs.

Overall, these two articles demonstrate that totalitarianism combines coercion and false ustopian appeal in order to secure the populations conformity. People conform to totalitarian regimes not because they are malicious psychopaths but due to the impact of prolonged state-organized violence or frustration with their lives. Both Atwood and Hendershot provide examples of techniques used by totalitarian governments for turning people into conforming subjects, incapable of organized resistance and critical thinking. However, Hendershots take feels more compelling since it explains the danger of totalitarianism capitalizing on the democratic governments failures. In this regard, totalitarianism should be considered a terminal symptom of systemic diseases affecting the state. If the government and nation ignore social problems or slip into the witch hunt to solve them, totalitarianism will return to life regardless of the historical era and horrifying experience of the past.

Works Cited

Atwood, Margaret. Margaret Atwood on What The Handmaids Tale Means in the Age of Trump. The New York Times, 2017. NYTimes.com.

Hendershot, Heather. The Handmaids Tale as Ustopian Allegory: Stars and Stripes Forever, Baby. Film Quarterly, vol. 72, no. 1, 2018, pp. 1325.

The essence of democratic leadership can be defined by the three functions it is able to perform. These include the distribution of responsibility among the group, the empowerment of the members, and assistance or guidance of the collectives decision-making process (Woods, 2020). As such, many members of a group are often performing functions of a leader and a follower. Research has found that democratic leadership systems attempt to refer to traits that are in step with honesty, intelligence, creativity, competence, equality, and trust (St. Thomas University, 2018). In a successful democratic leadership, practices adhering to these positive traits can help promote a positive work culture in which employees or colleagues are inspired to trust and respect their leadership. As such, this trust can allow followers to interact with decision-making processes and problem-solving situations in the workplace without fear of punishment. Democratic leadership encourages creative and diverse solutions, commitment of group members, and increased productivity. This style of leadership is best implemented in workplaces or projects where collective participants are skilled, involved in the process and eager to share information.

Autocratic leadership distinguishes itself from democratic leadership by being individual-led and authoritative in the process of making decisions. It does not rely on the participation of group members, and autocratic leaders often make decisions based on their own judgments and opinions. As such, the autocratic leadership style is characterized by little need for group member input, the necessity for a decisive leader who is able to dictate process methods, exceedingly structured work environments, and established rules. In contrast to democratic leadership, its disadvantages are often visible, such as volatile trust between employees and employers, decreases in morale, and lack of diverse and creative problem-solving.

However, it offers advantageous angles when implemented with the appropriate workgroup. Unlike a rather time-consuming decision-making process that originates from a democratic leadership, the autocratic style allows for structured responses to issues in a quick manner, which is especially necessary for a stress-filled event. Second, it offers a clear hierarchy and chain of command which can be necessary in case of managing responsibility and inquiries. Additionally, in environments or situations where strong and decisive leadership is essential, the autocratic style can provide the necessary tools and systems for success.

The term servant leader refers to individuals who practice a leadership style in which the good of those they lead are held above the leaders own interests. It is a common type of leadership that can be found within the industry of health care and nursing. Some of the personal leadership traits expressed through this style include ethical behavior, prioritizing subordinates or patients, empowerment of the followers, conceptual skills within the organization, emotional stability, and forming and sustaining community-driven values. In a study that interviewed nurses about servant leadership traits, the self-reports and the reports from followers had similar accounts of the servant-signifying characteristics (Hall, 2017). In a work setting, this is preferable, as such agreement between employees and employers suggests honest and clear communication. This factor illustrates how servant leaders in nursing settings have a clear understanding of their contribution to the workspace and are observant of the needs of their employees.

The study also suggested that accurate self-reporting had links to positive outcomes in the workplace. For instance, the precise assessments of interviewed leaders were connected with reliable diagnoses of strengths and weaknesses as well as formulating reasonable self-improvement plans. As such, the servant leadership model is able to assist the organizations, the leading nurses, and subordinate nurses through practices and policies that adhere to positive qualities such as ethical decision-making, consideration of colleagues, and empathy for patients.

References

Hall, H. (2017). Advancing future nursing executive practice: The evidence base for servant leadership in nursing [PowerPoint slides]. Nursingrepository.

St. Thomas University. (2018). What is democratic/participative leadership? How collaboration can boost morale? 

Woods, P. (2020). Democratic leadership. Oxford University Press.

Family is the initial institution that shapes childrens beliefs and values. Although people may change their worldview later in life when communicating with peers and colleagues, the foundational knowledge often remains the same because many preferences unconsciously develop by the age of four (Odenweller & Harris, 2018). For instance, the study by Odenweller and Harris (2018) demonstrated that children from conformist families expressed a higher degree of racial bias than those who had caregivers with conversational orientations. People from authoritarian families are more prejudiced because they are accustomed to hierarchies, prefer to comply with strict rules, and model their parents behavior.

There are three primary reasons why children who had conformist parents are more likely to have various preconceptions. The first reason is that these people grew up with strict hierarchical structures where an authority dictates what behavior and thoughts are acceptable (Odenweller & Harris, 2018). Since their neurochemistry is hardwired to agree with established rules, any deviations from the norms will likely elicit an adverse reaction from them. Secondly, as Odenweller and Harris (2018) showed, children from authoritarian families modeled their caregivers, demonstrating prejudiced attitudes. The third reason is that they are accustomed to following the rules and not breaking social boundaries (Odenweller & Harris, 2018). Therefore, these people will be biased about unusual appearance, behavior, or idea.

To summarize, prejudices are more prevalent among individuals from conformist families. Despite the possible peer influence that may alter the worldview, the foundational perception formed during early childhood often has a more substantial impact. Specifically, people from authoritarian families tend to model their parents behavior, prefer the established order, and have a strong sense of hierarchy and authority that does not allow any variations from social norms.

Reference

Odenweller, K. G., & Harris, T. M. (2018). Intergroup socialization: The influence of parents family communication patterns on adult childrens racial prejudice and tolerance. Communication Quarterly, 66(5), 501-521. Web.

Authoritarianism and populism are returning to the world, raising questions about how economically successful such regimes can be. As practice shows, economic growth is less stable under authoritarian regimes than in democratic countries. Economic growth gradually leads to forming an urban class and protests against authoritarian rule. Authoritarianism as a political regime constrains economic growth and abolishes political participation and human rights in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

Before directly analyzing the influence of authoritarian political systems on several economic, political and social aspects in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, one must turn to the definition of authoritarianism and its forms. As many people know, an authoritarian regime can be defined as the concentration of unlimited political power in the hands of one person or a small ruling group (Shively and Schultz 2022). Authoritarian political regimes are incredibly diverse; they include traditional forms  monarchies, despotisms, tyrannies, and relatively new forms  reactionary, conservative, and liberal authoritarian regimes (Burnell et al. 2017). One should recall that the reactionary authoritarian regime is characterized by unlimited presidential power and acts as a brake on social progress.

Such a regime significantly limited the powers of representative institutions in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, ignored the principle of separation of powers, infringed on civil and political rights, illegally appropriated and seized power. This ideology tried to unify and control even the thinking and tastes of citizens (Mohanty 2021). The principle of authoritarianism in these regions is one-sided centralized power principles (Karim and Attard 2019). Unconditional subordination, basically compulsory, to the authoritative decisions of the central bodies, is rigid, disciplined, and unconditional responsibility of the subordinates.

Thus, authoritarianism should be perceived as the absence of political opposition and freedom, an extensive political apparatus, and a strong army used to solve domestic problems. It is no secret that this regime hindered economic development and prosperity, participation in political life, and human rights. Moreover, such basic freedoms of people could not be guaranteed in such political conditions.

References

Burnell, Peter, Randall, Vicky and Rakner, Lise. 2017. Politics in the Developing World. 5th ed. Oxford University Press.

Karim, M. Saiful and Attard, David Joseph. 2019. Shipbreaking in Developing Countries: A Requiem for Environmental Justice from the Perspective of Bangladesh (IMLI Studies in International Maritime Law). Routledge.

Mohanty, Prasanna K. 2021. Land Economics and Policy in Developing Countries. SAGE Publications Pvt. Ltd.

Shively, Phillips W. and Schultz, David. 2022. Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

The United States authoritative bodies are essential for establishing financial accounting and reporting standards that both private and public organizations will have to follow in order to operate successfully in their relative markets and spheres of operations. For example, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) sets standards through an inclusive and transparent process aimed at promoting financial reporting that provides valuable information to investors and other entities that use financial reports (Warren, Jones, & Tayler, 2019). FASB has the authority to establish and interpret the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) in the country for all organizations operating them (FASB, 2022). The GAAP represents a standardized framework that companies, non-profits, and governments should follow when it comes to preparing and presenting a financial statement, including any associated party transactions.

In contrast, International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) represent international accounting standards that state how specific types of transactions and other events must be reported in financial statements; they are issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). The critical difference between GAAP and IFRS is that the latter is principle-based, while the former is based on the following strict rules (Warren et al., 2019). The disconnect between the two sets of standards can be seen in specific interpretations and details, with IFRS offering less detail compared to the generally accepted accounting principles (Warren et al., 2019). On the other hand, the IFRS core principles and the theoretical framework provide more room for interpretation but needs lengthy disclosures of financial statements. Besides, the information found on the IFRS websites suggests that the principles are more logically sound, with the possibility of a better representation of the economics of business transactions.

References

FASB. (2022). Financial accounting standards board. Web.

Warren, C., Jones, J., & Tayler, W. (2019). Financial and managerial accounting (15th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Autocratic leaders use readily available information to make decisions without involving other people. In certain cases, leaders utilize the limited input provided by team members but do not involve them in decision-making. The little input involves the supply of information that could help the leader in making decisions. Two classes of autocratic leadership include type 1 and type 2. Type 1 leaders make decisions based on the information available to them at the time, while type 2 leaders make decisions based on information collected from followers (Pershing & Austin, 2015).

Consultative leadership, in turn, is also divided into type 1 and type 2. Type 1 leaders seek the opinion of followers individually but do not involve them in the decision-making process. The final decision is made by a leader. Type 2 leaders seek the opinion of followers as a group. Followers discuss alternatives, and a leader makes the final decision alone. Group-based leadership involves the participation of followers in decision-making. Whatever decision the group agrees on, the leader goes along with it and does not try to impose ideas on followers (Pershing & Austin, 2015).

A manager proceeds to choose one of these five types of leadership by asking a series of questions based on three main concepts, namely decision quality, subordinate commitment, and time constraints (Pershing & Austin, 2015). A manager should determine the required quality of the decision. Higher-quality decisions require more people to participate. The managers should also consider the importance of followers buying into the decision (Pershing & Austin, 2015). It is important to consider the amount of time available to make the decision. If time is limited, employees participation will make the process tedious and long. On the contrary, if time is unlimited, then a manager can consider allowing employees to participate.

The strengths of total quality management (TQM) in governance organizations include improved employee morale, improved and innovative processes, higher productivity, enhanced customer focus and satisfaction, and reduced costs (Pershing & Austin, 2015). In addition, it improves the process of resolving the problems of citizens and employees (Pershing & Austin, 2015). TQM had a significant impact on citizens and clients because its main focus is on people and not profitability. Strength is enhanced recognition and responsiveness to organizational behaviors and systems.

For example, it improves employees understanding of nonlinear communication within and across teams and improves overall system performance (Pershing & Austin, 2015). Weaknesses include complexity and high costs of implementation. The complexity of TQM makes it difficult for it to come to fruition and be sold to employees due to the need to entirely change the way how things are approached, considered, and carried out. Lack of proper communication regarding the team approach to TQM implementation could cause employee resistance and lead to low morale and productivity. Implementation of TQM requires additional employee training, improvement of infrastructure, team development, and extensive consultations, which are expensive.

The shift from production organizations to service organizations affects the implementation of TQM techniques in numerous ways because it involves more interaction and customer demands addressing. In production organizations, customers only interact with a product as a final output while in service industries, customers interact with products and services during the whole production process. The process of measuring quality is long and difficult because, unlike a tangible product that can be easily assessed in terms of quality, services are not so straightforward in this regard. Organizations depend on customer feedback in order to make improvements. On the other hand, the quality of services is evaluated based on aspects such as convenience, accuracy, courtesy, and consistency. The shift from production to service industries makes the implementation of TQM techniques more challenging and complex.

Reference

Pershing, S. P., & Austin, E. K. (2015). Organization theory and governance for the 21^st Century. New York, NY: CQ Press.

The presented rhetorical analysis is aimed at examining the rhetorical culture of the selected countries. According to Atkins, such kind of investigation assists in identifying the character of the authorities-citizens’ relations (Atkins & Finlayson 2013). Therefore, it is presumed that the following study will contribute to a better understanding of the relevant political structures and will help to consider the concept of democracies and authoritarian regimes in the framework of Iraq and Belarus.

To begin with, it is important to determine the difference between the contested autocracies and uncontested dictatorships. Thus, a contested autocrat is a politic that has to balance between exercising his power and minding the interests of his allies as the former have a chance to express their disagreement via a social rebel. On the contrary, an uncontested dictator is a politic whose power allows him to remain undependable on any external threats of his removal (Svolik 2012). Basing on this interpretation of the discussed concepts, one can refer Belarus’s political regime to the uncontested dictatorship whereas the Iraq political organization is to be defined as a contested autocracy. However, one would, probably, say that a “mixed-message politics” is employed in both cases (Goodin & Saward 2005).

Even though it is difficult to draw parallels between the two countries due to the instability in the Iraq’s environment, it is still possible to point out several peculiarities in the countries’ rhetorical culture. First of all, both countries have laws regulating their mass media institutes. In the case of Iraq, it is the Information Crimes Law that is widely criticized by the Human Rights Watch (Katzman & Humud 2015).

In Belarus, it is the Mass Media Law that implies a series of restrictions on the national mass media’s activity (Usov 2008). Another common point is a substantial religious impact that is present in both the rhetorical cultures. The Belarus’s regime regards the Orthodox Church as a solid base for its public rhetoric. It is considered to be a powerful means of the patriotism’s encouragement among the citizens (Usov 2008). Meanwhile, Islam plays an equally important role in the Iraq’s legal appeal to its society.

Nevertheless, there are some significant differences between these cultures as well. First of all, the recent changes in the Iraq’s political regime have made the authorities change their public rhetoric for the democratic direction. Although the country is a representative of the classic Eastern culture, the US’s interference has transformed the local environment significantly. Thus, now, the country’s rhetoric tries to avoid contradictions with the western world (Katzman & Humud 2015). On the contrary, Belarus’s authorities overtly announce their commitment to the conservative values that preserve the traditions of their background. These values are normally regarded as the throwback elements of the Soviet Union’s past (Usov 2008).

In conclusion, one can point out that the national rhetoric is of great significance as it has an influence both on the country’s interior environment and its relationships with the world’s society. It is evident that the rhetoric of both countries, as well as any other rhetoric, represents a carefully planned strategy aimed at strengthening the ideologies and the governmental power (Edelman 1988). Unlike the democratic rhetoric, authoritarian appeal implies an emphasis on the particular values that are commonly found in the relevant nation. The significant peculiarity of such rhetoric is that it is aimed at the local inhabitants rather than at the international society.

Reference List

Atkins, J & Finlayson, A 2013, ‘‘… A 40-Year-Old Black Man Made the Point to Me’: Everyday Knowledge and the Performance of Leadership in Contemporary British Politics’, Political Studies, vol. 61, no.1, pp. 161-177.

Edelman, M 1988, Constructing the Political Spectacle, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Goodin, R & Saward, M 2005, ‘Dog Whistles and Democratic Mandates’, The Political Quarterly, vol. 76, no.4, pp. 471-476.

Katzman, K & Humud, CE 2015,Iraq: Politics and Governance. Web.

Svolik, MV 2012, The Politics of Authoritarian Rule, Cambridge University Press, New York.

Usov, P 2008, ‘The Neo-Authoritarian Regime in the Republic of Belarus’, Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review, vol. 21, no.1, pp. 86-111.

Francisco Franco was a Spanish general who gained power over Spain in 1936 just before the Spanish Civil War and stayed the Spanish leader until he died in 1975. Totalitarian nationalistic features characterize Franco’s political regime. However, they were slowly changing towards somewhat democratic values in the 60s and the 70s. Franco’s attitude towards his political opponents was hard and pushing.

The politically motivated actions, violent in the majority of cases (Lázaro 40) caused the death of more than 400,000 people during the rule of Franco (Richards 11). Franco also proclaimed the policy of nationalism and unification of the Spanish nation, trying to make it monolith and suppressing every attempt to separate Spain on ethnic, language, or cultural basics. The means might be questionable, but the attempt to bring and hold Spain together might be considered as successful as well as the pushing and strict social and economic policy resulted in Spanish Miracle and unemployment reduction to zero in 1974.

The attitude to Franco in modern Spanish society is a complex debatable question, as there are many ways to look at and explain his deeds for Spain at different times of her history under Franco, as well as from different points of view. I have interviewed five different people of different ages and occupations to find out what is the overall attitude to Francisco Franco in modern Spain and his role for Spain in general.

Pilar, a sixty-four-year-old woman, believes that Franco’s influence on Spain was more of a positive than of a negative kind. She says that Franco’s hand was strong enough to keep his course in the difficult times that the world struggled in the 30s and the 40s. The neutrality line of behavior that Spain kept saved it from communists as it could fall under the Soviet influence after WWII was finished. Moreover, in the 60s and the 70s, the regime brought social and economic prosperity, as everyone had a job and a more or less stable way of life and income.

The flexibility of Franco’s international policy and his well-thought actions on the international arena allowed Spain to gain support from countries that belonged to different sides, says Tueruel, a forty-five-year-old Portero, partially supporting Pilar’s point of view. Gaining support from both Communists and Nazis before and during WWII Spain did not play an active role in it, concentrating on its inner problems, avoiding massive destruction WWII has brought to Europe. However, the policy had drastically changed just after the war when co-operation with the United States has become the real way to redemption through shifting the old-style companions to new, more qualified. “He showed a broad way of thinking at this point,” Tueruel says.

Iris, the thirty-year-old shop owner, strongly disagrees that the overall impact Franco had in Spain was positive. “It was some kind of Dark Ages barbarism,” she says.

“First, creating horrible conditions that led to fleeing and violent annihilation of the greatest and brightest minds of Spanish society at the beginning of his rule just because they had other political views! No wonder that policy led to dying hundred of thousands of people of hunger just because of poor management. And the management came from authorities who stayed because their political views were similar to those of Franco. Second, this retrograde and abusive attitude towards women by depriving them of their civil rights and tying them up to households is awful.”

Anna, the seventeen-year-old student, strongly supports Iris at this point: “Yes, Franco initialized the Spanish Miracle, but he had to pull the country out of the black hole of poverty and misery, his unskilled management dragged it in”. She is also revolted by the social role of women if Franco’s Spain, as well as suppression of student and university movements and the total social and police control.

Luiz, a taxi driver, claims that Franco’s regime had both positive and negative features that are reflected in the attitude to it all over Spain. As he often talks to different people of different ages, he says that the opinions change a lot. Some say that Franco was a strong leader who saved the country from many troubles other countries faced at the same time, bringing the stability; others call him a cruel dictator, a butcher who killed his fellow countrymen in cold blood. Luiz himself thinks that Franco’s greatest contribution despite all his negative sides was the unification of Spain and the precaution of separatism. “All the regions have specific traditions, but we all understand each other. We all call ourselves Spaniards”, he says.

Referring to Luiz, it would be fair to note that the overall opinion on Franco’s role among the modern citizens of Spain is dual. Of course, there are certain disadvantages and dark sides of his dictatorship, as every dictatorship has, being the realization of thoughts and views of a single person having unlimited powers. But on the other hand, Franco had a talent or a capacity to change, fit his views and preferences towards the opportunity of making the life of Spaniards more stable and prosperous, unwillingly creating the basement for the future democracy and tolerance.

Works Cited

Lázaro, Alberto. “James Joyce’s Encounters with Spanish Censorship, 1939–1966.” Joyce Studies Annual 12.1 (2001): 38-54. Print.

Richards, Michael. A Time of Silence: Civil War and the Culture of Repression in Franco’s Spain, 1936-1945. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Print.

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2007). Mussolini’s Italy: Life under the fascist dictatorship, 1915-1945. Penguin Books.

This book aims to describe life in Italy under the dictatorship of Mussolini. The intended audience is historians and people interested in Italian history. The book is relevant to my topic because it explores how fascism developed in Italy, how people lived under Mussolini’s dictatorship, and what economic consequences were brought by his rule. The author is an Australian historian specializing in fascist Italy and has written many publications on this topic. In this source, Bosworth (2007) observes how Italy lived under the fascist regime and how people resisted this ideology. My conclusion is that this book vividly describes the events in the history of fascist Italy and will help me better understand Mussolini’s fascist dictatorship.

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2021). Mussolini and the eclipse of Italian fascism: From dictatorship to populism. Yale University Press.

The purpose of this book is to compare Mussolini to other dictators – Hitler and Stalin – and figure out whether he was the worst of them. The intended audience is historians willing to understand Mussolini’s dictatorship in the context of European history. The book is relevant to my topic because it explains what guided Mussolini’s dictatorship and Italian fascism and how it affected history. The author is an expert on fascist Italy who wrote many books, articles, and chapters on Italian history. Bosworth (2021) concludes that, although Mussolini was the first fascist leader in Europe, his power weakened because of a weak regime and a failed ideology. I have concluded from this book that, even though Mussolini was a fascist dictator, his actions brought less harm than those of other dictators.

Gooch, J. (2020). Mussolini’s war: Fascist Italy from triumph to collapse, 1935-1943. Pegasus Books.

The main aim of this book is to discuss Mussolini’s decision to enter World War II. The intended audience for this source is scholars, educators, and other people interested in Italy’s engagement in that war and its life under Mussolini’s dictatorship. The book is relevant to the economic aspect of my topic because it describes how Mussolini’s decision to enter the war affected the Italian economy. The author is a Professor Emeritus at the University of Leeds and is famous for his writings on Italy and the two world wars. Gooch (2020) concludes that Mussolini’s decision to enter World War II was a serious miscalculation. My conclusion is that Mussolini was an ambitious but ineffective leader who involved an unprepared and poorly developed country in a war that he could not win.

Iodice, E. F. (2018). Lessons from history: The startling rise to power of Benito Mussolini. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 11(2), 3. Web.

This source aims to analyze Mussolini’s rise to power and dictatorship. The intended audience is historians studying fascism and its possibility of happening in the modern world. The article is relevant to my topic because it explains how Mussolini came to power and became a dictator. Iodice is Director Emeritus and Professor of Leadership at Loyola University Chicago and the author of several books and articles on leadership. This article concludes that Mussolini’s totalitarian leadership left Italy in ruins and deprived people of their freedom. My conclusion from this source is that dictatorship does not benefit the country, but short-sighted people can find dictatorship ideologies attractive, thus letting dictators rise to power.

Knight, P. (2003). Mussolini and fascism. Routledge.

The purpose of this source is to explore important issues related to Italian fascism, such as the origins and rise of fascism, Mussolini’s totalitarian regime, and the impact of fascist social and economic policies. The intended audience is history students. Chapter 5 of this book is especially relevant to my topic because it explores the economic consequences of Mussolini’s fascist dictatorship. The author is a historian, and this book is part of a series that teaches students to apply historiographical thinking. Knight (2003) observes and analyzes many topics concerning Mussolini’s dictatorship and concludes that Mussolini was not a successful ruler, in particular, because he failed to improve Italy’s economic status. My conclusion is that, despite his efforts, Mussolini did not manage to make Italy great again.

Mussolini, B. (1932). The doctrine of fascism. World Future Fund. Web.

The primary aim of this source is to explain the essence and the principles of fascism. The intended audience was people in Italy and Europe who were expected to support the ideology of fascism. This document is relevant to my topic because it is a primary source revealing Mussolini’s views of fascism. The author was an Italian dictator whose political activity was based on fascist ideas. Mussolini’s (1932) conclusion is that fascism is a new turn in history, rejecting all previous models, such as democracy or socialism. From this source, I have concluded that fascism is an ideology that opposes peace, supports war, and advocates for a strong state that makes decisions for the population.

Parkash, B. (2019). The concept of fascism: A review of Italian ideology. History Research Journal, 5(4), 308-312. Web.

This article aims to discuss key aspects of fascism. The intended audience is historians researching the question of fascist ideology. This article is relevant to my topic because it discusses the roots of fascism in Italy and its key features. The author of this source is an Associate Professor in Political Science at Chhotu Ram Kisan College, India. Parkash (2019) observes how fascism emerged in Italy under Mussolini, what features it possessed, and how it ended after World War II. My conclusion is that fascism is distinguished by racism, dictatorship, militarism, and destructive policies.

Singh, R. S. (2017). Advent of fascism and Nazism. Journal of National Development, 30(2), 85-90.

The main purpose of this source is to explain and compare the concepts of Italian fascism and German Nazism. The intended audience is scholars exploring the topics of dictatorships and wider audiences aiming to understand the difference between fascism and Nazism. This source is relevant to my topic because it explores the causes, main objectives, and the rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini’s dictatorship. The author is an associate professor at the Department of History of the Government Girls Degree College in India, and he uses relevant sources to support his arguments. Singh (2017) concludes that fascism and Nazism have many similarities, such as pursuing imperial goals and stemming from totalitarian regimes. My conclusion is that this source is helpful for understanding the development and the essence of Italian fascism.

References

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2007). Mussolini’s Italy: Life under the fascist dictatorship, 1915-1945. Penguin Books.

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2021). Mussolini and the eclipse of Italian fascism: From dictatorship to populism. Yale University Press.

Gooch, J. (2020). Mussolini’s war: Fascist Italy from triumph to collapse, 1935-1943. Pegasus Books.

Iodice, E. F. (2018). Lessons from history: The startling rise to power of Benito Mussolini. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 11(2), 3. Web.

Knight, P. (2003). Mussolini and fascism. Routledge.

Mussolini, B. (1932). The doctrine of fascism. World Future Fund. Web.

Parkash, D. B. (2019). The concept of fascism: A review of Italian ideology. History Research Journal, 5(4), 308-312. Web.

Singh, R. S. (2017). Advent of fascism and Nazism. Journal of National Development, 30(2), 85-90.