Category: Australia

Introduction

Culture exists as people’s spiritual support, and has a non-negligible impact on people’s lifestyle, behavior, and values. It is not something fixed, instead, it is always changing with the expansion of social interaction and cognitive development (Schaeffer, 2011).

Multicultural education is becoming a trend in education, as it promotes the concepts of freedom, tolerance, equality, and harmony. With the process of globalization, modernization, and informatization, the coexistence and development of diverse cultures will unavoidably lead to a plurality of students’ values. Australia has always been a multicultural country due to its immigration policies, discrimination acts, and democracy. Every student is eager for success, and to gain acceptance from others. In the implementation of quality education, one pays attention to student’s differences and the different study demands, respects their personality, and builds a platform for them to fully present themselves (Schaeffer, 2011). Therefore, based on the confusion brought by multiculturalism, a thorough understanding of inter-culture will always be an essential need for Australian teachers and students. In the progress of this demand, there will be all kinds of challenges and changes that need to be faced and adapted (Australian Curriculum, 2019). This study focuses on the key drivers and reasons why intercultural understanding becomes and national and global education priority, and a further critical analysis of this priority is based on an interview with a teacher in Balwyn High School and a range of other research resources.

Definition of intercultural understanding

Intercultural understanding involves two main aspects: cognitive and affective domains of comprehension. Cognitive domains, refer to some degree of knowledge and awareness of one’s own and others’ cultures, similarities, and differences in a various cultural environment. Equipping an appropriate aptitude to appreciate, understand, and accept the varicosity of cultures in the aspect of empathy, curiosity, and respect is also an indispensable manner in the achievement of cross-cultural understanding (Habacon, 2015). At the affective levels, the significant indicator is intercultural sensitivity. Firstly, it means having the ability to be an effective part of cross-cultural communication. Secondly, processing the subjective experience that is dependent on people’s values and attitudes revealed by their perspectives and behaviors. Thirdly, being equipped to cultivate useful social relationships with people with diverse cultural backgrounds (Perry & Southwell, 2011).

Key drivers and reasons why intercultural understanding is a national and global education priority

At present, intercultural understanding has risen from a national education priority to a global issue level. This situation can be discussed through population composition, religion and beliefs, racism, equality, and laws in Australia.

One of the essential factors that promotes intercultural understanding is the large portion of the foreign population in Australia, especially immigrants, which has the biggest impact in all aspects of Australia. The latest numbers, based on the nationwide census conducted in 2016, show that Australia is a fast-changing, expanding, culturally diverse country. 67 percent of Australians were born in Australia. Nearly half (49%) of Australians were born overseas (first-generation Australians) or one or both parents were born overseas (second-generation Australians) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016). From 2010 to 2011, International education activities contribute $16.3 billion to the Australian economy (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2015). Thus, the complexity of demographic sources determines that intercultural understanding in Australian education is a national focus.

Although Australia has always been a country with cultural diversity, inequality in terms of racism has still been a serious unsolved issue. Based on the statistics given by the Australian Human Rights Commission (2015), one in ten Australians (1.5 million) believes that certain races are worse or better than others. 18% of Australians surveyed said they were discriminated against because of their race or religious beliefs. Of the 500 complaints filed under the Racial Discrimination Act in 2012-2013, 192 involved racial hatred. Nearly one-third (35%) of new immigrants said they encountered obstacles in finding their first job. Moreover, a study by the University of Western Sydney found that Muslims are three times more discriminatory than the national average. This deserves our attention as some communities may be vulnerable to racial or religious defamation. These all exemplify that discrimination and prejudice related to race and culture is a current urgent issue that needs the Australian Government to solve. Thus, one of the sufficient ways is by educating the young generation, to deeply understand the minority group’s culture, and maximize equality among all races. Australian multiculturalism faces many challenges, therefore, this reminds people that although it has achieved success, it is better not to be complacent, further cultural education in Australian schools then is a wise and conservative option to keep the awareness (Soutphommasane, 2016).

Discussion on whether intercultural understanding is an education priority based on school observation and personal interviews with school staff.

Through my observation and the short interview with Grace Yin, international student coordinator, in Balwyn High School, intercultural understanding is one of the most important education priorities for this school. However, there are still some improvements that can be made in terms of cultural fusion.

Several reasons lead me to conclude the importance of intercultural understanding for Balwyn High School. There is a Chinese international students program for Year 9 to Year 12 students, and there are international school partnerships, overseas trips, and exchanges; The School has specific classes for students to study English as an Additional Language, and other languages such as Chinese and French; Some of the teachers in the school are non-Australians. There are clubs related to foreign cultures such as Chinse Singing Club, Mah-jong Club, and Tai Ji Club; Students learn to sing Chinese songs in Choir for Graduation Night; International students perform Chinese classical music instruments and dances in Assemblies. The existence of these programs demonstrates that Balwyn High School respects the diversity of culture, and puts the effort in the development of a multicultural environment. Thus, the understanding of multi-culture would be a prior educational aim for school staff and students (Grace Yin, personal interview, 2019). Moreover, On Balwyn High School’s official website, some of the school’s specific improvement targets are related to intercultural understanding. Balwyn High School aims to create a performance and development culture; An international perspective characterized by compassion and tolerance; and An active concern for others and the environment, reflecting an understanding of their roles as responsible global citizens (Balwyn High School, 2019). These actions can help the school foster cross-cultural understanding and practices, leading students to integrate different types of values that appear in school. Therefore, it can be concluded that Balwyn High School has priority in popularising and educating intercultural understanding.

However, some phenomena seem to attempt to send a message of rejection in culture fusion. Firstly, the school provides overseas students with an international student center for them to rest, eat meals, and study. The fact that overseas students stay with Chinese in the center all the time causes they cannot to fit in with the mainstream local students, as it separates those Chinese from getting to know the local students’ after-class time and they have few opportunities to meet friends other than Chinese. Secondly, students tend to be friends with people who have the same or similar cultural backgrounds. There is no doubt that new immigrants or new students coming into the school, are urged to find a sense of belonging, and the best way is to make friends that come from the same region. Therefore, it cuts overseas students and mainstream students from knowing each other’s cultures, and backgrounds and stops them from learning the understanding of diverse cultures.

Critical analysis of intercultural understanding as an education priority

The purpose of a school’s values is to cultivate students’ value judgment ability and improve students’ moral level, developing students to become moral citizens who meet social expectations and requirements (Allen, Kern, Vella-Brodrick & Waters, 2018). The coexistence of multiculturalism has made school education on students’ values fall into the dilemma of whether to advocate the diversity of values or inherit the single mainstream culture to avoid confusion about values.

In some more closed environments, the youth’s growth culture is relatively simple, which is conducive to the formation and stability of young people’s values. However, in today’s multicultural coexistence society, despite the strong influence of the mainstream culture, the diversity of values ​​pushes young people to face the choice of confusion, bringing some degrees of positive or negative effects (Deprow, 2014).

With the youth’s accumulation of knowledge and experiences, their awareness of independence and self-reliance has increased, and their standards of value have also begun to form (Allen et al., 2018). However, due to the restrictions on the development of physical-mental health, and limitations of knowledge and cognitive ability, it is easy for adolescents to follow the trend of the public’s common value choices, and make judgments based on the value evaluation criteria of others. This fact reveals a certain degree of imitativeness and changeableness of the young generation. Due to the immature nature of adolescents’ physical and mental development, young people are easy to be confused about the basic value judgment (Walton, Priest, & Paradies, 2013).

Therefore, in contemporary Australia, the coexistence of multiculturalism is an objective reality, which has caused school value education to fall into the dilemma of whether to advocate the diversity of values or to inherit the single mainstream culture. On one side, advocating respect for the value and uniqueness of multicultural differences, and achieving the high-quality integration of multiculturalism will relatively undermine the foundation of social and cultural unification, resulting in a decline in the integration of social culture. On the other side, social stability could be well maintained if schools propose the dominant values ​​of society, assimilate foreign multiculturalism, and pay attention to the integration of socially dominant cultures.

Conclusion on the continuation of Intercultural understanding in Education Priority

The correct guidance of students’ values ​​is a current research hotspot not only in Australia but the whole world. In the context of cultural diversity, the impact on the values ​​of young students is multifaceted, therefore, both negative and positive effects should be taken into consideration in whether to continue to promote intercultural understanding as a priority or put emphasis on other aspects.

Referring to the interview with Grace Yin, and school observation, it can be concluded that the benefits of multiculturalism outweigh its potential negativities on students, and those defects could be eliminated through careful and deep prevention and control measures. Here are some of the possible strategies:

Firstly, students who have conflicting values due to the exposure to new perceptions from others should be encouraged to talk to others about the situation, asking teachers, parents, and psychologists for help. Secondly, schools could implement some regimes and programs to maximize intercultural communication and eliminate the repulsion due to the low sense of security in their own cultural identities such as culture-related school festivals, and rules to prevent students from speaking their first language all the time in schools. Thirdly, teachers could provide a framework based on the actual compositions of the class and students’ needs, so that the lesson suits different cultural and ethnic groups. Lastly, for students who are not interested in traditional teacher-centered classrooms due to language, culture, and ethnicity, teachers are encouraged to create a development-oriented and unconstrained classroom atmosphere, which allows students to develop trust in teachers (Australian Institution for Teaching and School Leadership, 2019).

Reference list

1. Perry, L. B., & Southwell, L. (2011). Developing Intercultural Understanding and Skills: Models and Approaches. Intercultural education, 22(6), 453-466, DOI: 10.1080/14675986.2011.644948
2. Pandit, K., & Alderman, D. (2004). Border Crossings in the Classroom: The International Student Interview as a Strategy for Promoting Intercultural Understanding. Journal of Geography, 103(3), 127-136, doi: 10.1080/00221340408978587
3. Allen, K., Kern, M., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Waters, L. (2018). Understanding the Priorities of Australian Secondary Schools Through an Analysis of Their Mission and Vision Statements. Educational Administration Quarterly, 54(2), 249-274. doi: 10.1177/0013161×18758655
4. Habacon, A. (2015). What does ‘Intercultural Understanding’ actually mean? Retrieved from https://blogs.ubc.ca/interculturalu/2015/07/15/what-does-intercultural-understanding-actually-mean/
5. Australian bureau of statistics. (2016). 2016 Census: Multicultural. Retrieved from https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/lookup/Media%20Release3
6. Soutphommasane, T. (2016). The Success of Australia’s Multiculturalism. Retrieved from https://www.humanrights.gov.au/about/news/speeches/success-australias-multiculturalism
7. Schaeffer, J. (2011). Achieving Cross-cultural Competence in the Classroom: Culture’s Ways Explored. Michigan, USA: ProQuest.
8. Deprow, S. (2014). Effects of multicultural group projects on domestic students’ intercultural competence. Michigan, USA: ProQuest.
9. Walton, J., Priest, N., & Paradies, Y. (2013). Identifying and developing effective approaches to foster intercultural understanding in schools. Intercultural education, 24(3), 181-194, doi: 10.1080/14675986.2013.793036
10. Australian Curriculum. (2019). Intercultural Understanding. Retrieved from https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/general-capabilities/intercultural-understanding/
11. Australian Human Rights Commission. (2015). Face the facts: Cultural Diversity. Retrieved from https://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/education/face-facts-cultural-diversity
12. Balwyn High School. (2019). About Us. Retrieved from http://www.balwynhs.vic.edu.au/
13. Australian Institution for Teaching and School Leadership. (2019). Teacher Standards. Retrieved from https://www.aitsl.edu.au/teach/standards?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIvd7n_97H4gIVDh4rCh0_rAEhEAAYASAAEgKAPPD_BwE
14. Australian Institution for Teaching and School Leadership. (2019). Look At Classroom Practice. Retrieved from https://www.aitsl.edu.au/tools-resources/resource/looking-at-classroom-practice

The first colony of Australia was established at Sydney by Captain Arthur Phillip on January 26, 1788. They believed the land was terra nullius or empty land as they couldn’t see any evidence of buildings, crops, land development, fences, borders or governments. This assessment was incorrect as the land belonged to the Aborigines as they had lived there for over 60,000 years.

Chinese migration and settlement in New South Wales has a long history. Early records show evidence of Chinese migration, this influx of people was being considered as a solution to the labour shortage in the Colony during 1828. Many Chinese immigrants came to Australia working as shepherds, rural labourers, cooks and gardeners.

Many fortune seeking Australians ventured to different countries in search of gold. Edward Hargraves sailed to Californian for gold rush in 1849. He was unsuccessful but was struck by the topographical and geological similarities between California and the interior of New South Wales.

Governor Charles FitzRoy had heard rumours of the gold to be found in New South Wales and believed a mineral discovery in the colony could reverse the economic downturn. In 1849 he convinced the British government to offer a reward to anyone who found a commercially viable amount of gold.

In January 1851 Hargraves returned to the colony and immediately headed inland, convinced he would find gold and, more importantly, claim the government reward. Near Bathurst, Hargraves enlisted the aid of John Lister and brothers William and James Tom. Within weeks they had discovered a small amount of gold at a site Hargraves named Ophir. Hargraves returned to Sydney in March 1851 and presented his samples to the government. The government’s geologist Samuel Stutchbury was sent to confirm the gold. Hargraves was eventually awarded the £10,000 prize, which he refused to share with Lister or the Tom brothers. Between 1854 and 1855, about 31,000 Chinese people arrived on the Australian goldfields.

Gold was discovered in Victoria in 1851, James Esmond, he discovered gold in Clunes, it is approximately 40 kilometres north of Ballarat. James Esmond received a £200 reward from the Victorian Government as he was tye firs person to find gold within 320 kilometres of Melbourne. It was proclaimed that from 1 September 1851 all miners in Victoria must pay 30 shillings per month for a licence to dig for gold or risk prosecution.

Gold licenses were a method the government used to tax the miners and to attempt to control the number of people mining the goldfields. Governor La Trobe believed the tax would provide revenue to maintain law and order and discourage those thinking of leaving their regular employment.

The Eureka Stockade was caused by a disagreement over what gold miners felt were unfair laws and policing of their work by government.

The Chinese miners were quite different to the European miners, this is one of the key factors that sparked the anti-Chinese sentiment. Chinese miners grew vegetables which they used to eat instead of paying lots of money for extra food, this was not a common practice for European miners. The Chinese people were also disliked by Europeans as the mined as individuals whereas the Chinese miners worked in groups. The Chinese split tasks like cooking, cleaning and mining, this allowed the chines miners to work for longer hours, this wasn’t done by European miners. The Chinese miners also had different cultural practices to the European miners, like the use of opium. The chinese dressed and presented themselves in the same manner as China, their clothing and presentation was different to the Europeans. The chines miners of that time are often depicted with their hair in a ponytail and in clothing that is likely made of silk from their homeland. Even the Chinese’s anatomy was slightly different to the Europeans as their skin tone may have been different and the shape of their eyes was different. All of these differences cause a hate towards the Chines minority. There were many occasions where the government was unfair towards the Chinese miners (or institutionalised racism) and endorsed the horrific actions of some European miners.

Institutional discrimination took the form a series of punitive taxes on entering Victoria and then on taking up residence, while restrictive legal requirements impinged on where Chinese could stay.

From 1855 the Chinese were taxed a ten pound fee to arrive in Victoria by ship, and from 1857 additional annual residents’ fees of between 4 and 6 pounds were imposed on Chinese on top of the poll tax.

Starting in 1856, thousands of Chinese migrants travelled through Robe on their way to the Victorian goldfields. In 1857 alone, some 15,000 or so Chinese landed in Robe direct from China, to avoid a poll tax imposed by the Victorian government. After staying a few days, they gathered their supplies and set off on foot, walking more than 400 km through the bush.

Ultimately in 1901 a federated Australia would form on the basis of a White Australia policy, excluding Chinese immigration and in some instances refusing citizenship to those who had made a life in Australia.

Chinese diggers were subject to growing resentment on the gold fields. European miners were angered by the increasing Chinese presence in the goldfields and violently lashed out on several occasions in an attempt to drive the Chinese away away. In some instances, full scale rioting resulted as angry Europeans attacked the Chinese miners.

The Australian governments didn’t do anything to properly aid the Chinese miners, even after countless attacks and murders. The government endorsed the appalling actions of the European miners.

A prime example of the government endorsing the anti-Chinese mindset was anti-Chinese propaganda posters. These posters depicted the Chinese in a negative and derogatory manner. These were another method of institutionalised racism that the government used.

Although Europeans and Chinese came to Australia in search of gold but their experience were extremely different. The Europeans resented the Chinese for mining in groups, their different culture and even their appearance. They experienced institutionalised racism in the form of unjust taxes. Many Chinese miners were even killed during European led riots. Overall the treatment of the Chinese miners was appalling, the Europeans treated them in a disgusting, unfair and unjust manner. This image depicts the violence that occurred during anti-Chinese riots. Three anti-Chinese riots heave been listed below.

Buckland River

After a series of violent clashes between Chinese and European miners occurred at the Buckland River gold field a group of Europe miners decided they had enough. On July 4th, a small group began to charge through the Chinese camp tearing down tents and demanding that the Chinese leave. Acts of violence increased as the European crowd gained momentum. Chinese miners were trampled, robbed and beaten. A European wife of a Chinese miner was beaten and nearly killed, another Chinese miner had his finger severed for a gold ring. Tents, homes and properties were looted and burned.

Panic-stricken Chinese fled across the river and were given assistance and shelter by sympathetic European diggers and landowners. 2500 Chinese miners were expelled from their camps. The Victorian government granted compensation for the Chinese diggers and they were encouraged to return to the field under the guidance of police and an appointed Chinese Protector. The Chinese miners eventually returned to the goldfield to abating hostility, and camped among specially selected Chinese villages. A majority of the rioters were released without charges as the local juries believed their anger was understandable. This did not happen to………….

Ararat

While travelling overland, Chinese miners had stumbled upon a rich field in Ararat. The success of the Chinese was deeply resented, as they had been able to secure the best claims on the field. Several incidents occurred in May, and after a violent incident in a Chinese store where a small group charged the Chinese camp. European and American miners attacked the Chinese with timber and axe handles.

After the attack, the Government planning to confiscate the Chinese claims and hand them over to European diggers. The Chinese were finally forced from the field in 1858. A new law required all Chinese in Victoria to purchase a Residence Ticket. A Chinese digger without a ticket could not sue for the recovery of a mining claim that had been jumped. Many Chinese miners didn’t know this as it wasn’t communicated to them in a language they could understand. On February 3rd European diggers demanded to see the tickets. When the Chinese failed to produce them, the Europeans jumped over sixty claims, worth over 1000 pounds each. An inquiry was held but the only compensation awarded the angry Chinese was they were able to sell their mining equipment and timber used in their mines, they received a poor price in a buyers market. This did not happen to………….Lambing Flat

After many of the goldfields in Victoria had been raked bare, most diggers headed to new fields in New South Wales. In 1860 miners felt Lambing Flat was their last chance to find their fortune. By January of 1861, it was estimated that the population at Lambing Flat had grown to almost 15,000. A Miner’s Protective League had formed, petitioning for the removal of the Chinese ‘for the protection of native industry’. In February 1861. A brawl resulted from a ‘roll up’, 1500 Chinese fled. With the guidance of police, the Chinese returned to the field. However, on June 30th, one of the worst riots of the Australian gold rush occurred.

Between 2000 to 3000 European miners marched on the Chinese camp. The mob, hunted and whipped the Chinese, knocking them down with the butt ends of their whips… in many cases pulling their pig tails out by the roots, and planting their fresh trophies on their banners. Following this they searched through the tents for hidden gold, and then deliberately burnt every tent in the encampment. After the Europeans were done the camp was a heap of smouldering ruins. The miners who stayed to hide their gold in mine shafts were buried alive. Over a thousand Chinese miners fled, and almost five hundred were injured. Finding refuge on the nearby property of James Roberts, they received food and shelter for several weeks. This did not happen to………….This is one of many anti-Chinese propaganda posters. This poster depicts an unpleasant looking chinese man opposing Federation. There are European women attempting to hold him back. The Chinese man is depicted as large to symbolise the large power and threat they opposed to the Europeans. The facial expression of the chinese mane is angry and unpleasant. This did not happen to …..This image depicts the beginning of the Eureka Stockade

The miners felt this was an unfair system as they were unable to claim the land and could easily be relocated at a moment’s notice. They were also required by law to buy a licence and carry it with them at all times. They weren’t pleased and were prepared to fight for change.

In late November 1854. The miners refused to cooperate, and burned their licences. On 30 November, 500 miners gathered under the Eureka flag and elected Peter Lalor as their leader. The miners swore to fight together against police and military. On 3 December, there was an clash between the miners and the police/military forces. The miners planned their defence and attack carefully, they ultimately stood no chance against the superior firepower of police. When the battle was over, 125 miners were taken prisoner and many were badly wounded. Six of the police and troopers were killed and there were at least 22 deaths among the diggers:

Although the rebellion at the Eureka Stockade was unsuccessful, the miners were able to bring the changes they desired.

Within months all the miners were released, and the licensing laws were replaced with a system where miners paid a tax on gold they found, instead of paying for the possibility of striking gold. Miners were also given the right to own the land. This benefited both Europeans and Chinese miners.

In this analytical essay I will discuss the development of inclusive education over time with reference to key historical, political and legislative events (domestic and international). I will outline educators’ specific obligations in relation to the support of students with a disability under international instruments and Australian legislation.

The Development of Inclusive Education

There have been a number of key historical, political and legislative events (both domestic and international) which, over time, have contributed to the development of inclusive education in Australia. The education of students with disability has evolved and advanced from exclusion through segregation and integration to inclusion. The development of effective schooling for all Australian students reflects national and international movements to achieve social justice and equitability for all levels of society.

Between the 1940s and 1970s, Australian children with specific disabilities were educated in segregated special schools (Forlin, 2006). Special schools were initially established for children with hearing and vision impairments and later accepted children with other disabilities including physical and intellectual impairments (Ashman, 2019). In the 1970s, there was a shift from educational segregation towards school integration following civil rights movements and protests against special schools. More students with disabilities were enrolled in mainstream schools (Forlin, 2006; Slee, 1993). However, the implementation of integration was mostly concerned with the placement of students with disability in mainstream schools and did not address the physical, attitudinal and pedagogical barriers which remained and prevented students with disability from successfully engaging in learning (Foreman & Arthur-Kelly, 2014; Jung, 2019).

The Karmel Report of 1973 represented a significant policy change and emphasized equity and children’s rights. The Karmel Report systemized the Commonwealth’s involvement in primary and secondary schools (Lingard, 2000). This report raised important issues and recommended seven programs of Commonwealth expenditure (Lingard, 2000). These recommendations included special education, disadvantaged schools and providing funds to build teacher pedagogical skill to support students with disability (Andrews, 1973). These targeted programs were linked to social and educational justice.

In 1989 the Convention of the Rights of the Child was adopted by the United Nations. The Convention of the Rights of the Child consists of 54 Articles and emphasizes that all children have a right to education, and all children have a right to be consulted and be afforded liberty of opinion and expression. Children have a right to communicate their opinion in matters that impact them and their perspectives should be viewed as integral to building inclusive educational settings (Graham, 2020).

In 1990, the World Conference on ‘Education for All’ advocated that the only way to achieve the goal of ‘Education for All’ and meet the learning needs of all children, was through inclusive education (Anderson & Boyle, 2015). The publication of the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education in 1994 has had a significant impact on the development of inclusive education. The Salamanca Statement urged governments to sanction inclusive education. This international policy document provides an explicit framework for what inclusive education is and provides educational, social and economic justification for inclusive education. The Statement has led to important systemic changes.

Since the publication of the Salamanca Statement, Australia’s education system has taken an active approach to creating more inclusive schools. Inclusive school communities aim to fulfil the ideals of the Salamanca Statement and enact the more recent goals of the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (2008) by providing access to high-quality schooling for all students, including those with disability.

It cannot be denied that Australia’s education system has made gains towards realizing the ambitions of the Salamanca Statement. However, Forlin (2006) warns against complacency and Cologon (2016) argues that misunderstandings of inclusion often lead to micro and macro exclusions of students with disability in Australian schools. For example, it is not inclusion if a child is enrolled in a mainstream school but is segregated into a separate space or room for part of the day or for the whole day. Therefore, there continues to be instances of discrimination as a result of exclusionary practices. Schools must actively work to remove the barriers to participation for students with disability to experience belonging and success in learning.

Inclusive education is fundamentally different from exclusion, segregation and integration. Guthrie and Waldeck (2008) describe inclusive education as a “rights-based humanitarian approach to education”. Inclusive education is founded in principles of social justice and equity. It goes beyond notions of integration and mere ‘inclusion’ of students and works to ensure full participation of students with disability. Inclusive education reduces educational inequity by embracing and educating all students together including students with disabilities. Inclusive education embraces students with disabilities and engages them in successful learning in the general education classroom with the provision of appropriate supports and services as needed. Inclusive education recognizes and respects the rights and self-worth of people with disability.

Implications for Educators

Educators have specific obligations in relation to the support of students with a disability under international instruments and Australian legislation. The first legally binding international policy to establish the right to inclusive education for people with disability is the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). The CRPD was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2006 and ratified by Australia in July 2008. Significantly, the CRPD is informed by the social model of disability, rather than a medical one, and promotes equality. The CRPD mandates educational and social inclusion for students with disability.

Inclusive education in Australia has been influenced by the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) (DDA) and the Disability Standards for Education (2005) (DSE). The DDA and DSE outline legal and moral obligations for teachers of students with disability. The DDA aims to eliminate discrimination towards people with disability. The DDA makes it unlawful for educational authorities to discriminate against someone on the basis of their disability. Students with disability must be treated on the same basis as students without disability and must not be denied access to educational benefits unless it would impose an unjustifiable hardship on the educational authority (Commonwealth of Australia, 1992). The DDA was revised in 2009 to take into account the newly ratified CRPD.

The Disability Standards for Education were developed to provide further clarification of the legal obligations of schools and teachers in relation to education under the DDA. The Standards apply to enrolment, participation, curriculum development, accreditation and delivery, student support services, and elimination of harassment and victimization for students with disability. The Standards require schools to provide reasonable adjustments and accommodations for students with disability. Schools and educators are obligated to make reasonable adjustments to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment to ensure students with disability have full access to, and participation in all aspects of school life. This includes modifying behavior codes and expectations to take into account behaviors that are part of a disability. Some students will require supplementary, substantial or extensive adjustments. When making adjustments, educators are obligated to consult the student or advocate for the student, consider the impact of the adjustment on the student and others, and maintain academic integrity. Recourse may be made to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission to investigate and resolve complaints about alleged contraventions to disability standards.

One highly effective approach to instructional design that can benefit all students is Universal Design for Learning (UDL). The Universal Design for Learning philosophy and framework is a process of designing and planning for learning which addresses the needs of diverse learners by anticipating learner variability and structuring instructional experiences which build supports and scaffolds into the curriculum and pedagogy from the outset. This approach supports educators to deliver a high-quality education for all students, including students with disabilities. In doing so, educators fulfil their obligations under international human rights law and national anti-discrimination legislation to ensure schools are inclusive. UDL supports the aims of the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) and the Disability Standards for Education (2005) (Alchin, 2014).

Conclusion

In conclusion, inclusive education in Australia has evolved over time in an effort to improve educational access and participation for students with disability. Inclusive education has a range of implications including educational policies and inclusionary teaching and learning practices. Educational policies including the Karmel Report (1973), the Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989), and the Salamanca Statement (1994) have shaped the movement towards inclusive education in Australia. These policies have a bearing on educational practice and teachers have legal and moral obligations to employ inclusionary practices and thinking. This includes making reasonable adjustments for students with disability and utilizing pedagogical practices including Universal Design for Learning to plan for learning experiences that benefit all students.

Finally, inclusion relies on teachers’ attitudes towards students with disability and towards inclusive education. Educators play an essential role in making certain all students are catered for with appropriate academic goals and learning experiences. Teachers should strive to develop their knowledge and expertise to effectively teach a diverse population of students. Teachers must understand and apply the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) and Disability Standards for Education (2005) to achieve non-discrimination and respect the rights and self-worth of students with disability. This will effectively enhance the development of inclusive schools in Australia.

References

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12. Duncan, J., Punch, R., Gauntlett, M., & Talbot-Stokes, R. (2020). Missing the Mark or Scoring a Goal? Achieving Non-Discrimination for Students with Disability in Primary and Secondary Education in Australia: A Scoping Review. Australian Journal of Education, 64(1), 54–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004944119896816
13. Forlin, C. (2006). Inclusive Education in Australia Ten Years after Salamanca. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 21(3), 265–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173415
14. Foreman, P., & Arthur-Kelly. (2014). Inclusion in Action with Student Access 12 Months. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
15. Gargiulo, R., & Metcalf, D. (2017). Teaching in Today’s Inclusive Classrooms : A Universal Design for Learning Approach. Australia: Cengage Learning.
16. Graham, L. (2020). Inclusive Education for the 21st Century: Theory, Policy and Practice. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
17. Guthrie, R., & Waldeck, E. (2008). Disability Standards and Inclusiveness in Education: A Review of the Australian Landscape. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 9(3), 133–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/135822910800900302
18. Jung, L. (2019). Your Students, My Students, Our Students: Rethinking Equitable and Inclusive Classrooms. Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD.
19. Lingard, B. (2000). Federalism in Schooling since the Karmel Report (1973), Schools in Australia : From Modernist Hope to Postmodernist Performativity. The Australian Educational Researcher, 27(2), 25–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03219720
20. Reid, G. (2015). Inclusive Education. London, UK: SAGE Publications Ltd.
21. Slee, R. (1993). Is There a Desk with My Name on It? The Politics of Integration. Washington, D.C.;: Falmer Press.
22. Spandagou, I. (2018). A Long Journey: Disability and Inclusive Education in International Law. In The Palgrave Handbook of Education Law for Schools (pp. 413–428). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77751-1_19
23. Squelch, J. (2015). Accommodating Students with Disabilities : Implementing Disability Standards for Education. Special Education Perspectives, 24(2), 13–21.

Work enables people to keep up a schedule, a feeling of direction and advances a person’s psychological well-being. “our physical and mental health is generally improved through work- we recover from sickness quicker and are at less risk of long term illness and incapacity” The ideas of ’social construction’ and the ’sociological imagination’ sees joblessness as a rising social issue in Australian culture. Joblessness has various negative socially developed generalizations joined to it. In any case, using sociological imagination, an idea detailed by American sociologist C. Wright Mills, people can view joblessness from an alternate point of view to comprehend the conceivable external forces that could be adding to the lack of jobs in Australia.

People that are unemployed can endure genuine pessimistic, individual and social impacts that run from economic hardship, destitution, lodging pressure, breakdown, family strains and vagrancy. Joblessness in Australia has an appended, socially developed, westernized stigma which is comprised of negative views and can additionally influence a person’s possibility of future work. The possibility of jobless individuals being ‘social loafers’, ‘dole bludgers’ and ‘lethargic’ makes it progressively troublesome for people to enter the work constrain, as these assumptions of joblessness cause more deterrents in the trouble of achieving business. Ben Stein features the repercussions of this socially built disgrace, expressing “the people who have been laid off and cannot find are generally people with poor work habits and poor personalities”. This statement exhibits the one-sided perspectives on future boss’ because of the socially constructed view that numerous individuals may have. His hiring bias makes it difficult for the individuals who are jobless and are wishing to look for work.

Age is an issue within society as these are uncontrollable personal factors that become external factor within employment. “every teenager wants to work”, Ashley said. “I don’t think I’ve talked to a single one that just wants to sit at home and sit on the dole.

Ashley is a 19yr old male that is searching for work in a flourishing effort ‘job hunter not dole bludger’ featuring that they’re not jobless because of individual issues, they are jobless because of outer factors, for example, their age that keeps them from getting work. Thus, she is pushing individuals to utilize their sociological imagination and view joblessness from new viewpoints. These youths have a difficult beginning in regard to joining the work force. Due to the low skill set, a lack of experience and it being a new environment for the youth, these fixed personal factors become external factors within the work force in relation to the sociological imagination.

In conclusion, it is evident that unemployment is understood as a social problem. By looking at unemployment through the ideas of social construction and the sociological imagination, it enables individuals to identify the problems that surround unemployment like the one-sided perspectives on employers because of the socially constructed view, making it difficult for the individuals who are jobless and are wishing to look for work or uncontrollable personal factors that become external factor within employment like age.

Dating back to 1880, the nickname ‘Marvelous Melbourne’ was given to our city, this was introduced when Melbourne was progressing into a major world city. This was a result of the Gold Rush. The Gold Rush caused Melbourne to become one of the richest cities in the world. During this time of the Gold Rush, Melbourne expanded rapidly, causing the population to rise by. This essay will investigate the creation of Melbourne and how it came to be a ‘Marvelous City’. This essay will also answer the question how did Melbourne become known as the ‘marvelous’ city.

The Gold Rush throughout the 1850s and 1860s resulted in people flocking the goldfields in search of gold and wealth. The Gold Rush helped form the Australia we know today. The chaos of the Gold Rush caused was unimaginable. As soon as the word got out people flooded the goldfields with shovels and a hope for prosperity. Many people achieved a plethora of wealth, others didn’t. The economic impact of the Gold Rush mostly affected Victoria. The goldfields were rich and plentiful in towns such as Ballarat and Bendigo. They flourished with new wealth and a whole new population of people. As people digging for gold made their fortune, so did shop owners, butchers and of course, the government. Around 174 tons of gold worth 14,000,000 pounds was found in 1852 alone, the rich fields caused ridiculous numbers of immigrants from Europe and China to pile into Australia. These extra people picked up jobs that were abandoned by people searching for gold, and were paid very highly for their effort. The London Times wrote this “this is California all over again, but, it would, appear, California on a larger scale”. This was after the ships returned to England carrying eight tons of Australian gold. This shows that the gold found in Victoria was of a much more substantial amount than the Californian Gold Rush.

The rise in population in Melbourne from people all around the world resulted in the city needing to expand, so new ideas and technologies needed to be installed. The goldfields were Australia’s first encounter with a truly diverse and multicultural population. Between 1851 and 1854, the population of Victoria grew from around 77,000 to more than 200,000. In 1850 the estimated population of Australia was around 400,000, but by 1860 the population increased to around 1 million. The value of imported goods from outside Victoria reached an extraordinary 18 million, everything needed was shipped into Victoria, from mining to food, houses and equipment. More than 86 million grams of gold we mined in 1856. Victoria was the fastest growing city in the British empire during the gold rush, with the discovery of gold came a lot of great wealth. During this time many find buildings and houses were built. On the fields apart from gold miners, there were people supplying the miners with goods and services, mine managers, miner’s families, farmers, government officials and local indigenous people. “The delightful idea of going to such a country was great, then I tried to achieve as much money as I could”, – said Lum Khen Yang in ‘The Wesleyan Chronicle’, 1st of February 1859.

The income of Melbourne brought many new buildings and developments, from 1853 to 1854 the number of buildings in Melbourne doubled. Many young and talented British architects were drawn to Melbourne by the building boom, such as John James Clark, Peter Kerr and William Wilkinson Wardell, who in fact designed the Wardell building at Genazzano. They created grand buildings with elegant designs similar to those in European cities. The Victorian Legislative Council drafted Victoria’s first constitution, after the need and want for greater democracy and a home for political debate. After this they started building the Victorian Parliament House. Many other things were built during this time such as the Public Library, the Old Customs House, the Old Treasury, the Royal Amphitheatre and the ANZ Gothic Bank. There were also buildings devoted to Italian classicism, banks offices and clubs were reinterpretations of villas, palaces and temples. New buildings also displayed state power and wealth from the gold rush contributed to the construction of many churches, school galleries, the State Library and Flinders Street Station. Elegant and ornate buildings with attractive paved and tree-lined streetscapes were built. The Royal Exhibition Centre drew large amounts of popularity to Melbourne. In 1880 Melbourne hosted the International Exhibition which brought almost 1.3 million people over the 7 months it ran for, and at this time the population of Melbourne was only about 220,000. After 2 very prestigious and famous events were held at the Exhibition Centre it is now world heritage listed.

In conclusion, Melbourne became a ‘marvelous’ city because of the Gold Rush, the nickname was given to our ever developing and growing city. The Gold Rush helped Melbourne to evolve and grow into the fabulous city we know today. The Gold Rush also assisted in Melbourne’s economy giving the population better income and more money to build elegant buildings. Building elegant buildings gained more population for Melbourne. These developments gave Melbourne a name and gave us the nickname ‘Marvelous Melbourne’. The growing population required new machinery and transport, giving people the opportunity to invent new things.

Australia. The place where multiculturalism and diversity thrive. The place where over 20 religions are practiced and over 200 languages are spoken. The place containing rich history and stories that have passed down by many before us. The place that most of us call home. We as a country have formed a long-lasting colonial identity presenting ourselves as a multicultural society that welcomes all ethnicities and backgrounds. Over time we have formed this identity through a number of significant events, one of the most prominent being the Gold Rush. Although gold had been discovered before it had almost always been hushed by higher officials in fear of mutiny. This was until, on the 7th of October 1851 when a man by the name Edward Hargraves discovered gold in Bathurst New South Wales (Gold Oz, 2017). It proved to be one of the most pivotal moments in Australia’s history. From a social perspective, it caused a paradigm shift in the working and living conditions of the population, resulting in many abandoning their jobs to seek fortunes. From a democratic perspective, it was the catalyst for the government taking notice and responsibility for the rights of diggers and tax. Finally, from a long-term perspective, it has led to the diverse and multicultural society today.

Firstly, there are some key factors that contributed heavily to the occurrence of the Gold Rush, one of the most prominent being the first discovery of payable gold. This discovery was made by Edward Hargraves aged 36 after returning to the colonies, immediately heading inland in desperate search for gold (National Museum of Australia, 2019). He immediately noticed that gold was more prevalent in the sloping parts of the mountains. Soon after Hargraves and his team of 4 were successful as they excavated 13 pounds of gold near Summer Hill Creek. He was subsequently rewarded with 50,000 pounds from the Colonial Secretary and news of his findings spread. Prospectors cancelled their trips to California, servants and convicts abandoned their work as thousands rushed to seek fortune. In less than a week over 400 people engulfed the Australian goldfields and within a year more than 500,000 immigrants from all around the world flocked to the newly named ‘Ophir’ gold field. It was going to change the nation…the first Australian Gold Rush had begun (Cavendish, 2001).

Secondly, the Gold Rush had an immense impact on both the working and living conditions of the population. As over half a million people from around the world travelled to Victoria’s goldfields, conditions for those living there became more and more severe. Due to the lack of workers at previous jobs, housing prices tripled leaving scarce and everything from food to travel was extremely expensive (National Museum of Australia, 2019). Digging was a back-breaking, dangerous, dirty occupation with no certainty of any return. However, at a time when most labored long and hard just to keep food on the table and a roof over their heads, when an accident or bout of sickness could plunge a family into poverty, it is small wonder that the chance to ‘make a fortune’ induced men to flock to the diggings (National Geographic, 2019). Living conditions in the fields were also far from luxurious. Tents were pitched on the outskirts, consisting of minimal ‘furniture’, packing cases, logs and stumps with a mound of straw or leaves on the floor and covered by a flea ridden blanket, serving as a bed. Due to the lack of a nutritious diet many diggers suffered from constant weariness and long hours working resulted in worn out limbs. Inadequate sanitary arrangements and polluted water led to outbreaks of dysentery, and sand fly bites caused ‘sandy blight’ (MelbourneHistoryGuide, 2019). Hygiene was also a problem and the diggers were prone to a variety of illnesses. Injury and death from mining accidents were also numerous. Doctors, many of whom had no qualifications except initiative, did a thriving trade.

The Gold Rush was a monumental event that is considered one of the most important in Australia’s history as it triggered immigration on a major scale, introducing a new and diverse background to the colonies, brought about political change and led to the establishment of new technology and infrastructure. The Gold Rush caught the attention of many international countries inviting young and skilled migrants to Australia. With these immigrant’s cam their culture which had a massive influence on the colonies. Many started to adapt these cultural differences (Kids Encyclopedia, 2019). To accommodate this boost in population the government began to broaden land settlement and saw the establishment of rural centers and infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, telephone lines as well as the founding of the first railway track in date. As digging became more extensive, higher advanced heavy machinery replaced the simple pan and cradle that was once used. Soon those from overseas brought their own ideas of rights and fair treatment which in the long term helped to push for independence and federation (Gold Oz, 2017).

It is evident that the Gold Rush has had some of the longest lasting impacts on Australia’s colonial identity. Firstly, it instigated a fundamental change in the way the government viewed people’s rights and our political system (Sexton, 2019). The democratic system we have today was began with protests for equal rights in places like the goldfields and immensely assisted with our independence and federation today. Now voting is compulsory and over 16.4 million Australian people get their say each year (AEC, 2019). Secondly, the discovery of gold served as a catalyst for the opening of Australia’s doors to the international immigrants of the world leading to a flurry of skilled migrants. This impact is still evident today as we live in one of the most multicultural countries in the world. It led to rapid economic expansion. Gold provided a firmer financial base for Australia, encouraging foreign investment (Kid Cyber Network, 2019). Primary production expanded to support an increase in migrant numbers. All these long-term effects of the Gold Rush have led to the multicultural, fair and developed country that we are today.

The Gold Rush played a major role in shaping Australia’s colonial identity as it changed many aspects of life at the time including occupational opportunities, transportation networks and rights for the workers. It had a very significant role in establishing Australia’s colonial identity as it led to a massive population boom, brought about social and cultural development as well as a new democratic system and the overall multicultural Australia we have today. It changed the way the government viewed equality and will always be recognized as a monumental moment in history.

This report will detail the current trends in three key economic indicators within Australia, and the impacts of these if they are too high, or too low. Economic indicators are a piece of economic data, that is used by analysts to interpret current or future investment possibilities. This report uses three economic indicators: inflation, unemployment and income/wealth distribution. It has been seen that there is: an above average unemployment, a highly unequal wealth distribution and a below normal inflation. The Australian government needs to address the abnormal unemployment rate and wealth distribution.

Analysis

Inflation

“Inflation is an increase in the level of prices of goods and services that households buy. This is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), the rate of change in those prices” (RBA, n.d.). In 1993 the RBA, Reserve Bank of Australia, set an inflation target of 2-3%, Which the CPI has stayed within until just before 2017 when began to start dropping lower. The current CPI for the June quarter 2019 is 1.6%, just higher than the expected 1.5%, but still lower than the wanted 2-3% quarterly. This CPI increase was because an increase in the following areas: food (highest in last 5 years), transport, recreation and culture, and clothing and footwear. This is linked to general decrease in Australia’s GDP, gross domestic product, which is about to hit the lowest rate in almost 2 decades (Clench, 2019). Although inflation has slightly increased, the expected inflation, expected change of inflation by consumers, has fallen of the past 2 years. This drop has been from mostly self-employed and skilled/unskilled workers. This drop in expected inflation may be a leading indicator for continued inflation drop, as if the people with money, the employed, think prices will continue to drop they will postpone purchase’s, causing a drop in inflation. Inflation and expected inflation are both in a downward trend, following a similar historical trend.

Unemployment

“Unemployment is those whom are without work, are available to begin work and are actively seeking employment” (CHAPPELOW, 2019). It is measured in a total unemployed over total employed, to give an unemployment rate. In Australia the wanted jobless rate is 4-5%, compared to the currently 5.2% in the recent quarter. The total increase in unemployment is well above expectations and is starting to align with leading indicators, such as job vacancies and advertisements, all pointing to a slowdown in employment growth. To counter this growth RBA has cut interest rates, aiming to decrease unemployment to 4.5%.

Looking at the last year’s unemployment rate has had a general decrease in unemployment which is beneficial for the economy. Compared to the past 5 years, it is clear there is a general decrease in unemployment, except for in these current months which it has slightly increased. This is showing a good trend, which needs to be continued.

Australian labor market evolving with a job mix of 22% different in 2018 than January 2014, including a growth in the amount of ‘blue collar’ and more laborious jobs and a decrease in the hospitably sector. This ‘evolution’ of the Australian job market is much higher compared to similar countries (e.g., America, Canada), and is linked to a weak jobs market. The greatest Gap between posting positions and people with resume’s that fit those positions, are those with a higher education requirement. This was because Australian job seekers, with a higher education, were more likely to go overseas to find work, than to stay here. “While May job ad volumes are still down from 2018, it is important to note that 2018 was somewhat of an anomaly, with the highest [job ad volumes] in the past decade, proving that 5.2% unemployment rate may not be as bad as it seems (Janda, 2019).

Income and Wealth Distribution

“Income and wealth distribution, the way in which the wealth and income of a nation are divided among its population” (Encylopedia Britanica, n.d.). This is measured by the Gini coefficient. It is measured on a scale from 0.0 to 1.0, where 0 means everyone is equal and 1 meaning one person gets everything (Janda, 2019). The Australian Bureau of Statistics’ ABS Household Income and Wealth Report 2017-2018 shows that incomes remain unchanged, as does the distribution of income. However, wealth is highly concentrated.

Another study also found 95% of people didn’t know how much inequality there is in Australia and where they sit on the national income distribution (Martino, Spraggon, Byrd, Liddy, & Tilley, 2019). Using the Gini coefficient, Australia’s income distribution is just above 0.3, which is good for developed countries. However, wealth distribution is 0.6, meaning its twice as unequal as income distribution. The current trend of Australian Wealth distribution being much higher than Income distribution, is summed up in the sentence “The rich get richer, and the poor get richer more slowly” (Janda, 2019).

Evaluation

Impacts of Too High/Low Inflation

If inflation is above the recommended 2-3%, then consumers purchasing power is greatly reduced, as one product will cost more than in last quarter. Also, increased prices, due to increased inflation, could lead to companies decreasing their employee numbers (RBA, n.d.). It also gives lower returns on investment. Another major impact of inflation if it is too high, is that Australia can lose its competitiveness against other countries, because why spend more when the same product can be bought for less? These impacts are unlikely at the current state, as the key trend is a decrease in inflation which leads to the opposite of this, but also has one major impact on the economy. If inflation continues to drop below 2% then consumers will delay purchase’s, which in turn cause’s inflation and the economy to continue dropping. Although inflation can negatively affect the Australian economy, the current trend isn’t as urgent to focus on compared to the other indicators.

Impacts of High Unemployment

“The Fairfax Lateral Economics Well-Being Index, which uses a range of indicators to measure changes in national welfare, shows the cost of long-term unemployment to Australia’s collective well-being has reached $3.3 billion a year” (Wade, 2014). Not only this, but high unemployment also results in economic loss and a decrease in health and well-being. Only one of these impacts of unemployment is recorded within traditional economic indicators, less income tax. People being unemployed can lead to changed relationships within the family and the fact that one member of the family now spends more time at home with no clearly defined role’ can lead to frustration and resentment. Although Australia’s unemployment rate seems normal, the average rate of long-term unemployment has doubled since 2008. Unemployment also causes mental health, which is felt majority by males. Unemployment affects Australia’s; economy and its population’s health and well-being, needs to be focused on by the Australian government.

Impacts of a High Income and/or Wealth Distribution

Australia’s current trend of a very high wealth distribution is impactful on its population. This Trend isn’t positive and affects people’s health and well-being. Recent research seems to point to ill health caused by inequality in wealth and income. Also, education is affected by income/wealth distribution because “if children are less successful at school, they are less likely to become highly skilled workers” (Ingraham, 2018). This may be because poorer people have less importance on education, which is passed on to their children. Another major impact of this continued trend is economic growth slowing down. Allowing income and wealth distribution to become too large could be fatal for Australia. A highly unequal wealth distribution, needs to be the Australian government’s focus.

Conclusion

In conclusion, all these economic indicators are showing continued negative trends. It is extremely important for the Australian government to focus on at fixing one of these indicators. Unemployment is abnormally high and has many catastrophic impacts. If unemployment is continued to stay above the recommended 4-5%, then Australia will experience a decrease in both mental and physical health, and an economic loss. Another priority area to focus on is wealth distribution. This has similar impacts of unemployment, with focuses on people’s mental health. The Australian government needs to focus on the abnormally high unemployment and the highly unequal wealth distribution.

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In today’s day and age, the terms “Inclusive” and “Inclusion” are used interchangeably, in the education world and in today’s society. Novak (2018) has defined Inclusion as “involving all children in class regardless of their capabilities and variability” while defining Inclusive as the actual practice wherein children are given opportunities to learn through cooperative and adaptive learning. These approaches serve to challenge and support individuals in their interactions with others. Renowned psychologist and Early Childhood theorist Lev Vygotsky emphasized the importance of positive interaction and strong relationship in children’s learning and development, wherein the less advanced peer learn from the more knowledgeable peer and adult in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Berk, 1996). Developmental theorists from the likes of Montessori, Piaget, Steiner, and Gardner have all at some point stressed that it is through social relationships, experiences, and context that children are molded and shaped (Nolan & Raban, 2015). On the other hand, Socio-Cultural theorists like Bruner, Vygotsky, Bronfrenbrener, Malaguzzi and Rogoff indicated that “Children’s learning and development occurs in the context of children’s communities (Nolan and Raban, 2015). Inclusion in education has been recognized as a “basic human right and the foundation for a more just and equal society (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2012 as cited in Australian Research Alliance for Children and youth, 2013).

Australia, known as a diverse country, comes with rich cultures, beliefs, and traditions. Thus, the masses of people have differing views, perspectives, and understanding of disability, which can affect their attitudes toward inclusion. Lexico (2019) defines disability as “a physical or mental condition that limits a person’s movement, senses, or activities”. In order to fully support children with or without additional needs, it is important to take into consideration the environmental setting as it is the key to a successful implementation of an inclusive practice. According to the Early Years Learning Framework, an inclusive environment is a space that caters to and supports children’s varying interests and capabilities (DEEWR, 2009). In the year 2005, the Australian Attorney General formulated the Disability Standards for Education under the Disability Act 1992, wherein the standard provided a framework that informs all education systems of their obligations and responsibilities in regard to enrolment, access, curriculum, support services, active participation and most importantly, policies that prevent harassment and victimization of children. The United Nations Convention’s Rights of the Child (1989) highlighted children’s right to a sense of belonging. This is supported in Article 2, which states that every child has the right to belong without being discriminated against, while Article 23 states that children with additional needs are entitled to enjoy a full and decent life that facilitates active participation. The United Nations on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) on the other hand has noted that a person with a disability should be provided access to an inclusive education complete with equal opportunity for active participation without being “directly or indirectly discriminated” (Equality Act, 2010).

Enrollment

The first step to take in order to get admission to any educational institution is to undergo a process called enrolment. The Disability Standards of Education (2005) has stressed that all potential student enrollees with or without disability, should have the right to enrol and seek admission without being discriminated. It is clearly stated in Division 2 Section 22 under “Education” of the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) that it is unlawful for any educational institution to discriminate and refuse a student’s application for admission due to their condition; or disability. During the enrolment process, education facilities should acknowledge that students are unique members of our diverse community, and therefore, it is critical that their needs be acknowledged and addressed. This is especially true in cases of children with learning difficulties and disability. This is to ensure that the school and relevant parties can work collaboratively to put programs into place to support the student’s curriculum needs. In addition, it is of great importance that all educational institutions and organizations make reasonable adjustments and accommodations necessary for students and their associates’ ease of access. These adjustments and accommodations should be implemented in consultation with the student’s families, carers, specialists special support programs, etc. Reasonable adjustments and accommodations used in enrolments include but are not limited to the availability of a range of enrolment and admission formats (Disability Standards, 2005).

Participation

Participation has always been classified as an important aspect of children’s learning. The International Classification of Function (ICF, 2001) has noted its preference to use the word “participation” rather than “inclusion”. Encouraging classroom participation promotes students’ sense of belonging, being, and becoming (EYLF, 2009). When children participate in meaningful and dignified class learning experiences, they are able to learn skills to express ideas and obtain information that enhances their own understanding of a topic. Although this is generally the case for non-disabled children, the opposite is to be said for students with disability. The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW, 2017) noted “While people with disability participate actively in all aspects of Australian Life, they are more likely to face challenges than people without disability. This is where the role of the teacher with an inclusive pedagogy comes in. Every teacher strives for an active classroom full of eager and engaged students in order to assess, promote, and support children’s learning. A teacher that is not only capable of delivering quality teaching, but also able to provide an adaptable environment that caters and supports open-ended questions, meaningful conversations, positive interactions, differing learning styles, and capabilities. Loris Malaguzzi’s Montessori Approach regarded the environment as “third teachers” (ACECQA, 2018). Qualities of an inclusive teacher include but are not limited to being creative, accepting, patient, organized, understanding, and calm in nature.

Curriculum

Teachers have a significant and multifaceted role in student’s learning and development. One of the key roles of teachers is to ensure that students are guided and able to participate in an Australian Curriculum, where inclusive education is promoted and practiced through reasonable adjustments and accommodations in order to maximize and provide as many opportunities for active participation in a meaningful and dignified program for all diverse learners and their capabilities. It is imperative that when developing and delivering an inclusive curriculum, adaptive and differentiated instructions; Universal Designs for Learning (UDL) are in order to support all learners. It is through these strategies and approaches that teachers are able to avoid stereotyping individuals as belonging to a specific category with having either predictable or fixed learning. “Children are unique (UNICEF, 2001) competent and capable individuals”(Community Child Care, 2011) with differing learning styles, capabilities, and intelligence. Teachers being advocates for children need to educate their students on the value of inclusivity, so in turn they can acquire the skills to accept and embrace people who are unique and different from them.

Barriers of inclusion

Teachers and students alike encounter inclusion barriers on a day-to-day basis. One major contributor to non-inclusion by teachers is the lack of time and in-depth understanding of the specific needs of children. It is through this lack of understanding that teachers not only struggle to adequately support children in achieving outcomes but also create fear in teachers. “Fear” influences the teacher’s attitude and in turn could potentially impact children’s learning and development negatively. This has been supported by Gibbs (2009) who noted that “fear is a kind of fungus: invisible, insidious, perfectly designed to decompose your peace of mind”. Another inclusion barrier teachers encounter is the refusal of families to work hand in hand with teachers in regard to children’s learning and development. This refusal can lead to help being delayed as specialists and appropriate programs will have difficulty connecting. Students also face barriers of inclusion of their own, especially the ones with a disability. Disability students encounter barriers in their educational experience through the lack of understanding of professionals regarding their condition. Another barrier is the physical settings, which include but are not limited to access, passageways, doors, etc, and Intentional Attitudinal such as bullying intimidation, and harassment (McComas and Laflamme, 2002).

Strategies to combat inclusion barriers

Some of the strategies that were used and implemented by professionals in the education field are as follows: building strong and trusting relationships with students and their families to know the students’ interests, capabilities, and abilities, incorporating Interactive Communication Technology (ICT), Effective communication with visual aids, Flexible routine, etc. and accessing to supplementary funding for students with disability in regular schools (NSW Department of Education and Training (DET,2004). These strategies not only promote active participation and engagement amongst children and their peers but also create a strong bond between families and professionals as they work collaboratively together to ensure an effective deliverance of adaptive and inclusive programs and curricula. According to the National Quality Standards Professional Learning Program (2012), Inclusive Practice occurs when teachers make thoughtful and informed curriculum decisions and work in partnership with families and professionals especially when working together towards a common goal and accommodations; developing an appropriate plan such as Educational Adjustment Plan (EAP), Student Support Plan (SSP), Individual Behaviour Program (IBP), Individual Learning Profile (ILP), Health Care Plan (HCP), Risk Assessment and Individual and Transition Plan (I/TP) etc.

Conclusion

Through my vigorous research and studies, I have come to understand that as our communities have become increasingly diverse and nations become globally connected, the implementation of inclusion practices has become a standard norm not only in the education system but also in our society where laws are put into place to guide every one of one’s responsibilities and obligations. I see inclusion as a philosophy of acceptance where everyone is entitled to a sense of belonging, being, and becoming (EYLF, 2009). For a teacher to run a successful and effective inclusive classroom, one needs to understand that it is not a one-way streak but instead an ongoing process; a journey full of professional commitment and focused reflection. Teachers also need to upskill their current knowledge through professional development courses, training, research, etc., in order to expand knowledge, enhance existing skills, or develop new ones.

I have also learned that the children’s right to enroll, right to a dignified curriculum, right to participate, and, right to being supported and sheltered from any form of harassment and victimization, make up an inclusive education system. “When all children, regardless of their differences, are educated together, everyone benefits—– this is the cornerstone of inclusive education” (Study International 2019). I also believe that when teachers understand differing views, perspectives, and frameworks, it enables them to adequately respond to new challenges and complexities. Fleer and Williams–Kennedy (2002) indicated “While attempting to understand diverse cultural framework is challenging, it also brings rewards, including the ability to connect with and begin to see the world from a different perspective”. I believe if everyone takes positive steps to promote equality, our world will be a better place.

Gross domestic product (GDP) gauges a nation’s financial exhibition over a given period, commonly one year or one quarter. Thus, estimating the economy of the nation is the most significant monetary measure. This paper investigates the development and diversity of Australia’s gross domestic product.

Australia’s Growth Decade

As indicated by the report by Aslani et al. (2017), the growth rate of Australia’s gross domestic product was 2.8%, with a gross domestic product of US$734.283 million. In 2005, it was predicted that the Australian economy would perform better than expected in 2006, as evidenced by solid financial performance (Aslani et al., 2017). According to forecasters, in 2006 Australia’s gross domestic product grew at a rate of 3.8%, with a per capita gross domestic product of US$37,869. The increase in wages per capita for Australians has caused a change in the lifestyles of people living in the economy. The gross domestic product indicated a comparable upward pattern till the year 2008. Till the year 2008, the normal gross domestic product development pace of the Australian economy was comparable to 3.4% (Parker et al., 2016). In any case, in the year 2009 the economy saw worldwide money-related emergency. Because of which, the economy confronted downturn and the development pace of the Australian gross domestic product was diminished to 1.6%. The report by Chime and Hindmoor (2019), expressed that Australian economy demonstrated extraordinary strength to the worldwide money-related emergency, and got one of only a handful hardly any nations that had the option to convey positive development even in the time of emergency (Ringer and Hindmoor, 2019). For the following three years, i.e., from 2010-2013, the normal gross domestic product development pace of the Australian economy was comparable to 2.7%. In the year 2014, the development pace of gross domestic product diminished to 2.3%, and the supreme estimation of gross domestic product additionally decreased when contrasted with the earlier years (Cantore et al., 2017). One of the main reasons of the lull in the development rate was the diminished profitability gains in the economy. The development pace of the economy somewhat expanded to 3.25% in the time of 2016, however dropped again to 2.4% in the year 2017.

Australia’s Growth Variation

It very well may be broken down from the transient developments in the Australian economy that the economy saw monetary extension beginning from the year 1970s. After this period, the normal gross domestic product development of the Australian economy was proportional to 3.7 percent, which was lower when contrasted with the gross domestic product development pace of the economy in the extension stage. In the year 2005 the Australian economy was encountering a period of current development, when the gross domestic product development pace of the economy was comparable to 2.8% (Robinson et al., 2015). In the year the oil costs were expanding in the economy alongside the expanding request of mechanical products by the Chinese economy. The expansion in the interest of modern merchandise additionally made an upward weight on the product costs in the Australian economy. The expansion in the item costs helped in expanding the terms of exchange of the economy by 30 percent. The expansion in the terms of exchange of the Australian economy further aided in expanding per capita salary of the purchaser which expanded the spending rate in the Australian economy. The improvement in the terms of exchange of the Australian economy led to an expansion in the development pace of economy by 3.8% in the year 2006 (Williams et al., 2017). In 2006, the organizations in the economy demonstrated solid money-related development and demonstrated positive speculation development.

The ideal conditions in the economy expanded the benefit of the associations, which further expanded the asset limit use in the economy. Alongside the corporate development, the Australian economy was additionally seeing a positive development in the offer market, which further quickened the monetary development of Australia. The offer costs expanded at higher rates when contrasted with the earlier years. The positive presentation of the financial markers prompts an expansion in the gross domestic product development pace of the economy by 3.8%. Till the year 2008, the normal gross domestic product development pace of the Australian economy was comparable to 3.4% (Charlton, 2019). It has been said that the development in the gross domestic product pace of the Australian economy was led by the asset segment.

The year 2009 denoted the development of worldwide money-related emergency, which prompted a decline on the planet yield kevel by 1.1 percent. The market analyst express that Australian economy had the option to successfully adapt up to the money-related emergency and had the option to convey positive financial development dissimilar to different economies. The main reason of the positive development of the economy was effective presentation of the monetary arrangement of the economy. The economy saw a ruin in the business rate because of decrease in the yield level was as yet ready to develop superior to the next cutting-edge economies because of its solid money-related market (Charlton, 2019). The financial and money-related strategies in light of the emergency looked by the economy helped the economy in managing the negative effects of the downturn. One of the strategic moves made by the Australian economy because of the emergency was the adaptability in its swapping scale.

Nonetheless, the decrease in the work level and acquiring intensity of the individuals living in the Australian economy prompted sharp diminishing in the offer market and gainfulness of the associations in the market. The money-related foundations likewise saw a sharp lessening in their offer costs, which prompted their breakdown (Pandya and Sisombat, 2017) The negative exhibition of the monetary markers prompted a sharp diminishing in the development pace of the economy. The development pace of the Australian gross domestic product was diminished to 1.6% in the year 2009. In accordance with the expectations, the development pace of the Australian economy somewhat expanded in the final quarter of the monetary year of 2010. Be that as it may, it was foreseen that the development pace of the Australian economy would not have the option to show an upward development rate in the initial barely any months of the year 2011. For the following three years, for example from 2010-2013, the normal gross domestic product development pace of the Australian economy was identical to 2.7%. In this period, the economy was recuperating from the impacts of the worldwide monetary emergency. The local interest in the Australian economy upheld the development pace of the economy in this period. There was an expansion in the fare add up to the Asian nations in this period that aided in expanding the development pace of the Australian economy (Courvisanos et al., 2016). The expansion in the generation limit of coal and iron in these years helped in expanding the Australian fares which further aided in expanding the yield development and work level in the economy. Be that as it may, the Australian economy saw a change in this period. Prior, the assembling business of the Australian business was viewed as biggest industry of the Australian economy (Nelson et al., 2019). Be that as it may, the yield development pace of the assembling business of the Australian economy decreased, and along these lines preceding the emergency the budgetary area of the Australian economy was viewed as the biggest business of the Australian economy.

The development pace of the Australian economy again decreased in the year 2014. The financial analysts express that the Australian economy was experiencing significant change stage in the year 2014. It was said that the economy was in a change stage, in light of the fact that the economy was developing at a moderate pace. In any case, a portion of the significant advancements occurred in the Australian economy that aided in the asset blast in the economy. In this asset blast, the yield creation of the economy expanded, which further aided in the expanding the fares development in the economy. This fares development positively affected the general development of the economy (Charlton, 2019). As indicated by the estimates made by the market analysts it was foreseen that the gross domestic product development rate in the year 2014 will be like the development rate in the earlier year of 2013. In the year 2014, the development pace of gross domestic product decreased to 2.3%, and the total estimation of gross domestic product likewise diminished when contrasted with the earlier year. At that point the gross domestic product development pace of the Australian economy somewhat expanded to 2.8% in the year 2015 (Reid and Coiacetto, 2017). A comparative development rate was seen by the Australian economy in the year 2016. One of the fundamental reasons of the stable monetary development of the economy was the commitment done by the farming division of the economy.

The development in the farming yield helped in giving a lift to the administration area of the economy, that together aided in expanding the pay levels and the buying intensity of the whole economy in general. The expansion in the buying intensity of the families helped in expanding the family unit utilization in the economy in the year 2017, which helped in quickening the gross fixed capital development in the following years (Borio et al., 2017).

The general customer certainty expanded in the economy alongside the well-being of the money-related organizations of the economy. In any case, it was assessed that in this period the pay levels in the economy were low, and thusly the purchasers in the economy saw value pressures.

The value pressures and the low pay development prompted a frail gross domestic product development pace of the Australian economy; the gross domestic product development pace of the Australian economy dropped again to 2.4% in the year 2017 (Pham et al., 2017).

Challenges Australia Faces with Future Growth

One of the main challenges that the Australian economy is managing is that the family unit utilization in the economy has diminished and the sparing proportion per family has expanded. The decrease in the interest levels in the market is adversely affecting the gainfulness of the associations, which further has a negative relationship with the general monetary development of Australia (Dungey et al., 2016). Taking a gander at the present interest levels in the economy the organizations are feeling beneficiary to put resources into the economy, which really decreases the remote direct interests in the economy. In light of this test, the legislature has chosen to pick monetary combination so as to additionally fortify the money-related establishments of the economy. The improvement in the budgetary organizations of the economy will help in expanding the trust of the shoppers in the economy, which will in the long run help in expanding the pace of utilization and use by the clients in the market (Greasley et al., 2017). Another explanation of the low spending of the Australian family units is the low compensation development rates and the low per capita salary of the person. The low per capita pay decreases the buying intensity of the individuals living in the economy prompting delicate household spending in the Australian economy (Reid and Coiacetto, 2017). As indicated by the measurements, the family units have not seen any expansion in their per capita pay throughout the previous three years.

Another test that the Australian economy is managing powerless budgetary framework. It gets significant for the economy to chip away at its nature of money-related administrations and receive compelling prudential oversight. During the worldwide money-related emergency, the Australia economy saw a breakdown of a presumed insurance agency, which demonstrated that there is have to fabricate a solid budgetary administrative framework so as to viably keep up the obligation level of the economy and high venture rate by the business organizations. Careless conduct was seen from the financial structure of the Australian economy, which prompted numerous poor speculations and over the top obtaining in the economy (Fotis et al., 2017). In this way, the frail prudential administrative arrangement of the Australian economy is one of the significant difficulties saw by the Australian economy. Australia needs to reinforce its strategy design and embrace budgetary change process so as to guarantee sufficient obligation levels and proper venture level in the economy (Stanford et al., 2018). The supervisions over the financial activities can be expanded and loaning conduct can be checked so as to build the security of the money-related arrangement of the economy.

Another test that the Australian economy is managing is high extent of matured populace. This demonstrates the working populace is less in the economy so as to fulfill the developing need for wares in the market. Throughout the years, the profitability has additionally diminished in the Australian economy. Hence, so as to repay the accessibility of less working individuals in the economy it gets significant for the Australian economy to embrace innovation so as to expand the efficiency for satisfying the need levels in the market.

Conclusion

The development of the gross domestic product is generally considered as the most important indicator for assessing the country’s monetary status. The rate of real change in GDP is called monetary development and is the best indicator of the economy’s highs and lows. This paper examines the growth rate of Australia’s gross domestic product, primarily considering the various variables that caused the growth rate to fluctuate between 2006 and 2017.

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With increasing concentrations of the world’s population migrating to urban areas in recent years, the relationship between social and economic development has become one of utmost importance. A concept that has been concerned with the diminution of this is social polarization, a contemporary term that Woodward (1995) describes as the widening of the gap between specific groups of people in terms of their socioeconomic circumstances and opportunities. Within Australian cities and towns, this process is best exemplified through wealth inequality. Originating from pre-established social polarity and economic structures, wealth inequality stimulates conditions that directly impact these dimensions of Australia in ways that will persist until the consolidative government and public initiatives are implemented.

Causes of Wealth Polarisation in Australia

The conceptualization of wealth inequality in Australia is established within the interdependence of the social and economic dimensions, attributable to the working class and income polarization. Igudia et al. (2016) believe that urban centers experience dualism whereby two distinct workplaces known as the formal sector and informal sector coexist, a statement which is expounded by Hamnett (1996) who expresses that cities are increasingly being distributed into a highly skilled/income upper stratum (formal sector) and a growing low skilled/income stratum (informal sector). The increasing growth within the subordinate position of this polarization can be recognized as being appealing to vulnerable individuals such as low-skilled manual or migrant workers unable to obtain more desirable, higher-quality jobs in the formal sector (Song et al. 2016). An estimate published in 2017 found that out of the 3 billion workers worldwide, the scale of employment in the informal sector amounts to as much as 1.8 billion workers (Ghecham 2017); while Bajada (2008) estimates that the informal sector creates an informal economy that is equivalent to approximately 15% of Australia’s US$1.053 trillion GDP.

An understanding of income inequality can be gained from the knowledge of each sector, as it can be understood that workers in the informal sector are very likely to have low incomes compared to those in the formal sector. To substantiate this claim, the Australian Bureau of Statistics released data in 2018 that indicated that individuals in the top 20% of the income distribution receive 47.5% of all pre-tax and transfer income while individuals in the bottom 20% of the distribution accounted for a mere 3.6% of total income before taxes and government income transfers (Australian Council of Trade Unions 2019). From this, the capitalist system within Australia further encourages the polarization of wealth inequality.

The inextricable link between Western societies and capitalism has been argued to deepen the duality of wealth distribution in several countries. The Australian Council of Trade Unions (2019) found that Australian labor has increased dramatically over the past 27 years, yet only the corporate elites have benefited through increased executive salaries and bonuses while average incomes have remained relatively unchanged. Karl Marx concluded that there is capital accumulation for the capitalist class, yet commodified labor, limited wages, and hard social conditions for workers and the dispossessed – thus increasing inequalities (Franzini & Piant 2011). Through these perspectives, it is evident that capitalism enables contemporary wealth polarization and exemplifies the aphorism that the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. Formal recognition of the problem of inequality and its economic origins was discussed by Christine Lagarde, the Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund, as she said ‘Excessive inequality makes capitalism less inclusive… It hinders people from participating fully and developing their potential… The disparity also brings division. The principles of solidarity and reciprocity that bind societies together are more likely to erode in excessively unequal societies’ (Commonwealth of Australia 2014). Despite the aforementioned corroborating arguments, Joseph (2018) proposes the concept that capitalism is used as a scapegoat for the moral shortcomings of governments, regulators, and individuals regarding wealth inequality.

Impacts of Wealth Polarization within Australia

The primary impact of wealth polarization within Australia’s urbanized cities and towns can be physically demonstrated through spatial disadvantage. This is a further socially polarizing process as the increasing inequality is expressed and exemplified in the geography of human settlements (Pawson et al. 2015). Expanding on this, Kawachi (2002) presents the rationality that the connection between wealth/income inequality and spatial disadvantage is undoubtedly casual, as wealthy individuals relocate to affluent areas and thus displace those of lower wealth. It has been discovered by Daley et al. (2017) that the average income and wealth per person is higher closer to the state capital, while the disadvantaged populations of Australia’s cities are substantially clustered into suburbs predominantly located in middle and outer metropolitan areas (Kawachi 2002). This information, Burke & Hulse (2015) state that inner-city spatial disadvantage has been greatly reduced since the 1960s due to gentrification. The choropleth map of South East Queensland featured in Figure One accurately visualizes the abovementioned statement by Daley et al. (2017), whereas the following claim is shown to be. While this impact of wealth inequality can be materialized, the economic and political dimensions have to be assessed through other means.

An additional impact of wealth polarization in Australia is the threat of political instability. In a 1993 report by Alesina & Perotti, it was determined that the presence of a wealthy middle class enhances political stability –yet the shift away from an egg-shaped distribution of wealth to awards a distribution where the bottom and top ends are growing highlights the instability (Hamnett 1996). Further, it has been demonstrated that greater levels of wealth polarization critically depress political interest and participation in all individuals apart from affluent citizens, thus providing evidence that wealth polarization yields great impacts within the Australian nation (Solt 2008). A paper published by The Centre for Independent Studies presented the concept that millennials within Australia are becoming increasingly sympathetic to alternative systems to capitalism such as socialism (Joseph 2018), further accentuating the political instability faced by contemporary society.