Category: Australia

At the start of the World War I, Australia was getting so many soldiers volunteering to go over to fight because it was the first war that we were ever involved in. Number of volunteers would skyrocket up until the numbers of death recorded came back putting off so many from enlisting in the war. The Australian Prime Minister at the time did not like this and decided to use the power that he had to start the law that made it compulsory for those who were selected to go over and fight. This law is called the law of conscription and was known for dividing Australia in the process.

When the war started almost every young man in Australia wanted to serve because for most them it would have been an adventure due to nearly all of them having lived in Australia their whole lives. And those who didn’t enlist were called ‘cowards’ and were edged on to enlist by the women they were close to. As they were not allowed serve as soldiers, but as nurses, the problem was though not every woman that wanted to enlist knew how to be a nurse, so they couldn’t serve, but in doing so they caused a lot more men to enlist.

Eventually it got to the point where there were so many volunteers who went to fight that we had to start turning people away who wanted to fight. Then, during World War I, the then Prime Minister of Australia Billy Hughes went to England to talk with the then Prime Minister of England David George about the war and other military things and during that conversation because in Australia there were so many volunteers Billy Hughes promised David George even more men and George agreed and expected the additional number of soldiers that Hughes had promised as a minimum number. When Hughes got back home to Australia for him disaster struck, the number of Australian soldiers’ deaths that were recorded became public freaking those who wanted to enlist out so much they were scared to enlist because they were fearful of losing their lives on the battlefield like the many before them.

When Australia began implementing conscription, the public had mixed emotions: many hated the law and many loved it. There were many campaigns and rallies fighting against conscription, people called it the ‘death ballot’ and others compared voting at all to hanging themselves. There were also racial issues concerning the conscription. Since the first attempt to draft a law failed (49% for and 51% against), people from Germany and Italy were not allowed to vote.

Australian born citizens with a German or Italian background were not allowed to vote just in case of them being sent from Germany to stop Australia from sending men over to fight against them. After they introduced this rule, they held the second plebiscite and it was even more unsuccessful than the last one: 46% in favor and 54% against. All though it failed twice it was quite close both times, which shows how it managed to divide Australia. Conscription was and still is known for dividing Australia. Conscription divided Australia by splitting up families, destroying friendships, ruining marriages and destroying Australia’s infamous partnership in communities all around Australia.

People did not want to be compelled to go to war or force anyone to go to war because they knew how horrible it actually was. The Australians voted ‘no’, because they wanted independence of choice and not to be written up for conscription as though it was just a competition and they were the competitors.

South Africa is the second largest economy in Africa. Its people have a higher living standard and its economy is relatively stable compared with other African countries. South Africa has a vast territory and a developed transportation industry, which means that the demand for vehicles is large. However, South Africa has almost no auto brand of its own, which gives some Chinese auto companies a chance to see.

BAIC, a Chinese automobile manufacturer, after being put into operation in 2018, has become the largest one-time investment automobile factory in South Africa. BAIC’s chairman said the plant has created 1500 jobs for South Africa in the first phase and expects to create another 2500 after the project is finally completed. Seems like BAIC developed so well at the beginning.

However, in Australia, which is also a commonwealth country on the other side of the ocean, something remarkable has happened. Toyota stopped manufacturing cars and engines in Australia at the end of 2017, which is not the first car company to stop production in Australia. Many additional car companies have successively terminated their local automobile manufacturing businesses. Toyota’s output in Australia has been declining for nearly a decade, with 200000 in 2012 and 400000 in 2004. Toyota is such a big company that its cars are so popular all over the world, so it is hard to believe that even Toyota will be forced to stop production. We can’t help but wonder whether foreign auto companies in South Africa, such as BAIC, will encounter the same dilemma.

Economies of Scale refer to the cost advantage experienced by a firm when it increases its level of output. The advantage arises due to the inverse relationship between per-unit fixed cost and the quantity produced. The greater the quantity of output produced, the lower the per-unit fixed cost. Many factors can make enterprises achieve economies of scale, such as better use of fixed capacity, technical development, financial advantages, and specialization. But in my opinion, to achieve economies of scale, two things are crucial: low enough costs and large enough production scale. Australia’s economic environment and market demand have not allowed Toyota to achieve economies of scale. Will BAIC do better in South Africa?

It is reported that the main reasons for Toyota’s suspension in Australia are as follows: Firstly, the Aussie dollar is too strong. In 2017, the yen was 82 to 1 against the Australian dollar, which is not a good thing for Japanese enterprises like Toyota. In Australia, all initial investments, including plant construction, staff wages, raw material purchases, and other expenses, are settled in Australian dollars. Such a high exchange rate of the Australian dollar will undoubtedly increase the production cost. Secondly, labor costs in Australia are too high.

As we all know, Australia is a developed country with good social welfare, which means a high salary level. In 2017, Australia’s average salary was $80000, far higher than that of other big automakers such as China. As a result, because of the high cost, Toyota has no way to achieve the objective production scale and finally has to stop production. However, the South African market is so different from Australia that I don’t think the above two reasons will hinder BAIC’s development. First of all, the South African Rand’s exchange rate against RMB is very low, only 1 to 0.4. In recent years, the exchange rate has continued to decline, which is undoubtedly good news for Chinese auto companies like BAIC. Secondly, the labor cost in South Africa is also very low. The average monthly salary of South African workers is only 6400 Rand (about 400 dollars), while the salary of Chinese workers in the same period has more than doubled, which means that the firms can employ the same number of workers only by paying less than half of China’s wages. In short, the economic environment of South Africa can provide a very significant advantage, which helps BAIC to achieve economies of scale: much lower input price. On the other hand, in terms of market demand, South Africa can also make it easier for car companies to achieve economies of scale. The survey shows that the consumption of new cars in the Australian domestic market is declining. With the increase in population density in Australia’s big cities, more and more people choose public transportation or bicycle travel. In addition, the cars produced in Australia can only be sold in Australia. Because of Australia’s unique geographical location, it is very expensive to transport cars to countries other than New Zealand. These factors led to Australia’s automobile market demand not meeting the conditions for Toyota to reach scale economy. However, the car market in South Africa is considerable. And in recent years, there has been quite good growth. South Africa’s total auto revenue reached $38.1 billion in 2018, compared with $37.57 billion in 2017. Not only that, South Africa also has significant advantages in geographical location. South Africa borders many countries, which provides great convenience for automobile export. Cars produced in South Africa can be easily exported to other countries in Africa. In 2018, the export volume of automobile products was US $13.52 billion, equivalent to 14.3% of South Africa’s total exports. As the largest manufacturing sector in the country’s economy, South Africa’s manufacturing sector accounted for 29.9% of its manufacturing output in 2018.

The huge market demand and the convenience of export have brought great dividends to the automobile industry in South Africa, which undoubtedly provides excellent conditions for the formation of a scale economy.

Finally, if you want to know more about the production efficiency of South Africa’s automobile industry, I would like to introduce a measurement method called two-stage DEA.

As we mentioned earlier, the cost of car production in South Africa is already very low. If car companies want to maximize profits, they should increase profits rather than reduce costs, so we are supposed to use the approach of output maximization. In the first phase, we are measuring the productivity of wages and investment, which is the effectiveness of transforming wages and investment to yield. In the second stage, we want to measure the transformation of products to revenue, which is the speed of cost recovery and the profit created by the cars that have been produced. By using this method, we can have a more intuitive understanding of the production efficiency of the automobile industry in South Africa.

That’s everything, thanks for your reading!

In Australia’s society it’s essential to have respect for others rights, needs and viewpoints due to the idea of all people are created equal and that government or society should not unjustifiably restrict what individuals can think, say or worship, whom they associate with and how they enjoy the rewards of their work.

Racism is defined by the Australian Human Rights Commission as ‘racism takes many forms and can happen in many places; it includes prejudice, discrimination or hatred directed at someone because of their color, ethnicity or national region’. Australia is known as a very culturally diverse country, about half of Australians were born overseas or had one or more parents born overseas. It is stated by the Scanlon Foundation’s Mapping Social Cohesion survey in 2016 that 20% of Australians had experienced racial or religious discrimination during the past 12 months, these numbers are made up of diverse cultures such as Asian, Indian, Muslim, Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander and Africans. Majority of the cases reported are in public areas including transport areas, in streets and shops (32% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander respondents experienced racial discrimination from local shop owners and/or staff and 7 out of 10 Muslims reported experiencing racism on public transport or on the street). The constant exposure to racism in people’s daily lives, in the media, hearing it in the Australian parliament, being confronted by it every day will undermine people’s sense of self. It can strip away self-worth and confidence in engaging in the Australian society around them. It indefinitely contributes to feelings of powerlessness and hopelessness that leads to far too many of people taking their lives. It is recorded that racism is a factor in the suicide and mental health crisis gripping our communities, examples of this can be described as depression, anxiety, stress, anger and constant fear of verbal or physical abuse. Racism is not only seen within the public, racism can occur anywhere including schools, workplaces, sports, media and online.

Australia’s culture is flooded with sports Australia is most known for their professional AFL, NRL, BBL and Cricket teams, it is estimated 60% of Australians (11 million) are involved in sports. Racism is widely seen within the AFL (been around for 123 years), the earliest incident being in 1993 and the issue is still present to this day. One of the most known cases of racism seen in AFL is the Adam Goodes saga, in May 2013, during the AFL’s indigenous round, a 13-year-old Collingwood supporter called Goodes an ‘ape’ (who later apologized to Goodes, did not realize that what she had said was a racial slur). Over the following years Goodes was repeatedly booed at majority of the games he attended. The booing was foreseen to most as unacceptable and motivated by racism, either because those booing felt affronted by his race or by the political positions Goodes had taken on racial issues. Later in 2015 Goodes celebrated a goal by performing an Indigenous war dance in which he acted in throwing an imaginary spear in the direction of the Carlton supporters. Goodes intended this act as an expression of Indigenous pride during the Indigenous Round, not in an offensive or to intimidate the crowd. Following these events Goodes decided the best option was to retire from his beloved sport and end his career short. Goodes would later join ‘Racism It Stops with Me’ scheme in 2019. However, racism in Australian sports isn’t always at the professional league or adult league. Junior sports also face the same attitudes towards foreign players. Osman Jebara (the Paramatta Eels NRL coach) migrated from Lebanon to Australia at a young age, and can still vividly recount his first encounter with racism. In an interview with the ABC Osman states “when I was 12 years old, I was stopped on the street by an older man in a car. He looked at me and then said ‘You’re a f**king wog. You’re a f**king wog, aren’t you?”, – he recalls. “I was just a kid … and I didn’t want to say anything to him. So, I just kept quiet and didn’t look back at him”. Racism is still highly evident within the Australian sporting culture, with the most recent case being only two weeks ago at the start of September 2020.

A national survey of more than 2000 people found 82% of Asian Australians had experienced discrimination, along with 81% of Australians with a Middle Eastern background and 71% were Indigenous Australians. Most Asian Australians reported being discriminated against at shops and restaurants, followed by in the workplace or educational institutions. In September of 2019 the ANU poll surveyed 1996 adults. Results if the ANU poll were astonishing with the highest reports being 82% Asian Australians, 81% Middle Eastern Australians and 71% Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. When asked where they experienced racial discrimination 65% accounted in the workplace. Ms Nguyen (legal director of PWC Australia and former president of the Asian Australian Lawyers Association) stated “the barriers included systemic racism and prejudice – including ‘unconscious bias’, which refers to attitudes that people are not aware they have”. A toxic workplace environment leads to a lack of psychological safety for its employees. This leads to disengagement, lower productivity and higher staff turnover, their creativity and innovation begin to suffer, harm towards health and an organization’s productivity and possible boycott of businesses and negative reputations. Australia’s attitudes and values of one another dependent of their race or ethnicity within the workplace is appalling as seen via the national and ANU surveys statistics.

Racism in Australian schooling is quite present as racism is seen within primary and high school students. Researchers from the Australian National University and Western Sydney University surveyed 4,600 primary and secondary students on their experiences of racial discrimination in schools. The study found that 40% of students from years 5-9 from non-Anglo or European backgrounds reported experiencing racial discrimination by their peers, 20% of students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds reported experiencing racial discrimination from their teachers and 1 in 3 students from non-Anglo or European backgrounds reported experiences of racial discrimination in schooling. With racism being so prominent in Australian Schools, effects will be a large factor when determining the student’s future attitudes and beliefs to different races. Students who experience racism often consist of having reduced levels of self-confidence and feelings of insecurity or failure, reduced levels of self-esteem and self-worth and feel that they have no place in the schooling system. These incidents may lead to a rejection of their own culture, language and values and a subsequent loss of identity. Students who have been subjected to racism are frequently unable to concentrate in class and may be unwilling to participate or take risks in learning due to fear or being ridiculed, racism is also linked with diminished morale, lower productivity and an increase in the incidence of stress and absenteeism. As stated by the above statistics racism is a blatant factor when addressing attitudes, mental health and lack of education seen within Australia’s schooling system.

As noticed by the above statistics, it can be concluded that racism is still a present and large issue when discussing the importance of having respect for others rights, needs and viewpoints due to the extent of the effects in which it can cause within all generations.

Human well-being is referred to as the standard of life of a population that embraces everyone regarding individuals whether their age, culture, religion, or political environment. This is the development of improving and expanding living conditions. India will be compared to Australia in terms of health, education, and income. The Human Development Index (HDI) is an implement used to classify and rank the social and economic growth of the world’s countries in order from most developed to least developed. It is utilized to measure human well-being that targets to summarise the state of development of a nation. The indicators that are used to direct HDI are life expectancy at birth, education index, and a decent standard of living. Life expectancy at birth is a long and healthy life, education index is the mean of years of schooling and expected years of schooling, and a decent standard of living in the Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (PPP US$). The HDI indicators are vital in determining a country’s level of well-being by covering all aspects of human development to create an accurate level of well-being in a country.

Australia and India have a substantial difference within their spatial variations in human well-being as their HDI rankings have an extensive difference of 127 as Australia is ranked 3rd and India ranked 130th this is due to the inconsistency of a developed and developing country. India is ranked lower as they are a developing country that has a higher population which causes more poverty to occur and does not have enough resources to provide for everyone in the country compared to Australia. Australia has a lower population making it easier to accommodate everyone and have an increase in government funds rather than India which has sufficient government funds.

There are many differences and similarities more differences as India and Australia are polar opposite countries due to their human well-being. Some similarities between the two countries are they both have poor people and live in poverty. Due to Australia being a developed country and India being a developing country, there are numerous differences such as their population, expectancy at birth, education index, and Gross Domestic Product (GDP). India has a soaring population of 1.339 billion and Australia has a population of 24.6 million which is a 1314400000 difference that indicates that India is overpopulated affecting their human wellbeing. The expectancy at birth for Australia is 83.1 years and India is 68.8 years due to the health rates between the two countries. Their education index Australia’s expected years of schooling is 22.9 and India’s is 12.3. These statistics are immensely different due to their affected human well-being resulting in their HDI rankings being so far apart. Both countries have vastly different GDPs as populations, limited resources, and government funding affect it causing it to affect the funds to spend on public goods such as infrastructure, schools, health care, etc. These are some factors that define the differences and similarities between Australia and India.

However, there are sufficient strategies implemented in Australia and India to improve their well-being status. Australia has a National Preventative Health Strategy that limits the consumption of alcohol and tobacco and reduces obesity. These include increasing tobacco taxes, clearer nutritional information on food labels, bans on junk food advertising to children, and alcohol advertising during live sports broadcasts. These improve human well-being by informing consumers about the true contexts of foods and higher prices of tobacco to prevent fewer purchases. India has recently adopted the National Health Policy it aims to attain the highest possible level of health and well-being for all at all ages through an ‘obstructive and promotive health care orientation in all developmental policies, and universal access to good quality health care services without anyone having to face financial hardship as a consequence’. These strategies have been implemented in the hope of bettering both the standard of living and human well-being within the two countries.

Overall, I believe Australia has a preferable human well-being over India due to it being more of a developed country and higher HDI ranking. The HDI indicators sufficiently prove that Australia has adequate social and economic growth and are statically proven through the HDI indicators by the life expectancy at birth, education index, and a decent standard of living in Australia. India and Australia both have vast differences and similarities with spatial variations in human well-being in terms of health, education, and income as their human development is affected in many aspects within their governments. 

Child labour and the effects on life

During the Industrial Revolution, a number of children were forced to work in non-suitable environments. As a result, their quality of lives was drastically affected in terms of health, and society. However, it was a prevalent phenomenon of using younger workers because of demands across industries. The children workforce will be discussed and then lead to a reasonable conclusion. Child labour played a significant role during the Revolution. Many work fields relied on younger workforces in order to produce competitive products. Children were cheaper and more obedient than adult workers, as well as supplying high demands of workers required. As of their small body sizes, they were able to fit into machines, mine tunnels and even in condensed conditions. By having their presences, the production of goods increased, which resulted in the introduction of grand innovations such as steam engines (History Crunch, 2015).

Child labour was a foundation of the Revolution, however, many children were exposed to hazardous conditions that were life-threatening. For children, a lack of safety measures in workplaces had a major impact on their upbringing. In many factories, no ventilation and lighting were present which caused children to be exposed to toxic chemicals and smoke. They also worked with machines with no safety guards. Countless children were packed into small rooms with outsized machines, resulting in children bending down for long hours. In mines, explosive gas would be released, which children had to breathe in (History on the Net, 2015). Joseph Hebergram, a child labourer, had “… a weakness fell into my knees and ankles that continued, and… got worse,” that formed from bending down in crowded factories for over nine hours. Following this, children developed spinal defects from cramped spaces, lung diseases from chemicals, smoke and gas, and sleep deprivation from the absence of sleep (Sadler, 1832). Children’s lives were changed due to their working environment.

On the other hand, child labour affected various people in society. Children from poor families could earn an income to supply essentials such as bread and water. In addition, the economy rose because cheaper goods were available because more child workers supplied the demands in factories. Besides, many inventions were developed as more materials were being supplied, such as coal (Britannica, 2016). Consequently, children were stripped away from their education rights. Abuse was present in and many children got kicked or beaten for mistakes. These conditions caused children to develop physical and mental issues that affected their quality of life (Peel, 1816). However, it has changed present society because child labour is illegal in Australia and children are required to attend school.

Laws are enforced around the age children can work, where they are permitted to work, how safe their workplace is and fair payment for their job (History Crunch, 2015). Hence, child labour has contributed to the Revolution, but it has also changed the current society. In summary, child labour had changed children’s quality of life by stripping them away from education and forcing them into treacherous labour. But child labour had increased trades and economy and introduced inventions. Nowadays, child labour is illegal in Australia after the enforcement of the laws.   

Introduction

The Blue Mountains is a mountainous region and ecosystem located within a mountain range in New South Wales. It is within the boundaries of both the Nepean and Hawkesbury Rivers, the Wolgan and Colo Rivers, and the Coxs River to Lake Burragorang. It covers a significant area of 1436 square kilometers. The Blue Mountains is classified as a tourist attraction. It is a place to visit for tourists, locals, and residents of Australia.

Abiotic Factors

An abiotic factor is a non-living essential component of the ecosystem. Several different types of abiotic factors affect the living elements within the ecosystem. These include air, sunlight, water, light, soil, oxygen, climate, and temperature.

Two different types of abiotic factors that can be measured in the Blue Mountains ecosystem are climate and soil.

Climate

The Blue Mountains consist of one million hectares with a variety of cliffs, waterfalls, and canyons. The winds in this area are usually dry. On an annual basis, the Blue Mountains region incurs around 80 days that are clear and 145 cloudy and rainy days. It receives rainfall of 1050mm and 50mm every year. Similarly, the average temperature in summer is around 22 degrees Celsius whilst the average temperature during winter is approximately 2-3 degrees Celsius. Depending on the climate, the Blue Mountain’s ecosystem has around two or three snowfalls every year.

These climatic conditions are somewhat mild. The reason for this is to encourage plant growth and maintenance. This is pivotal especially during spring as this season is classified as the season of growth and nourishment.

Soil

Soil is a contributing factor to the Blue Mountains ecosystem. There is a plethora of soil types that can be found in this region. Depending on the area and location soil differs and is distinguished between rich soil to sandstone ground. For example, in the Mt Tomah region, the soil is fertile and very rich. This is caused by Basalt. Basalt derives from molten rock found deep in the ground. When this is visible to the sun, the basalt rock elements turn into red soil. This red color is produced from high iron. This soil becomes like a fertilizer and is very strong and moist allowing for plant growth to be successful. It also provides a habitat for animals and for different types of plants to grow.

In other regions, the ground is found to be sandstone with granite, basalt, and shales surrounding it. These soils are typically dry, acidic, infertile, and have minimal phosphorus. This means that plant growth in this region is slow and inconsistent which in turn will not allow it to survive.

Biotic Factors

A biotic factor consists of all the living elements that form the ecosystem. This includes flora, fauna, bacteria, and fungi. These elements allow organisms to utilize their survival strategies and allow them to be balanced and feasible. Many biotic factors rely on abiotic factors found in the ecosystem. These factors when joined together are the basis for life and survival.

Two different types of abiotic factors that can be measured in the Blue Mountains ecosystem are flora and fauna.

Flora

The Black-Eyed Susan is a type of plant found in the Blue Mountains. This plant is a shrub that has hairy leaves. Small pink flowers grow on them. Similarly, the Wollemi pine is also classified as one of the oldest and rarest plants. There are less than 100 trees that currently exist in the blue mountain region; with each tree reaching 40 meters in height and a diameter of 1 meter. Furthermore, the Spider Orchid is also a short hairy leaf. This type of plant only grows from August to October and its flowers are coloured yellow and green with a brown petal.

Fauna

The Blue Mountain consists of several animals. These animals are classified as carnivores and herbivores. The following animals are found in the Blue Mountains ecosystem:

• Owl.
• Swamp wallaby.
• Koalas.
• Eastern Grey Kangaroos.
• Large-eared pied bat.
• Green frogs.

Climate change

Climate change is best described as a change in conditions like rainfall and temperature. This is a process where our planet heats up. Climate change will only impact the weather making it unpredictable and unknown. Climate change is caused by increases in temperature and rainfall.

There are many advantages and disadvantages of climate change. An example of an advantage is that there is potential for plants and agriculture to improve their growth and productivity. It also increases vegetation and forest growth which assists in habitation.

Climate change impacts animals, plants, and humans. A negative impact of climate change is that animals are not able to adapt to this sudden and unexpected change. This also impacts water supplies, risks of fire, ecosystem change, increased stresses, and deaths due to the heatwaves and extremely hot weather. This also impacts the environment as rainforests release carbon dioxide due to dry regions. Additionally, climate change results in economic loss and damage including damage to buildings and infrastructures and reduced levels of water supplies. This places consumers and businesses at a risk of economic loss resulting in depression and anxiety. Moreover, human health is also impacted significantly increasing death rates and hospitalization.

Impacts of Bushfires on the Blue Mountains

The smoke that comes from the fire is orbiting the planet and is increasing carbon dioxide emissions. The smoke rising from the fires is being absorbed around the planet, inserting aerosols in the top section of the atmosphere and raising the amount of carbon dioxide. However, the fire can burn and damage various properties such as the blue mountains and communities such as the rainforests that can take more than 100 years to recuperate. This issue can also kill individuals and animals and can also cause erosion and sedimentation of creeks and wetlands. Furthermore, this issue can impact animals in the Blue Mountains region by injuring their habitats and their food sources. The unintended effects of bushfires are more sensitive and contain the social and financial costs of reconstructing damaged organizations as well as environmental effects such as destruction to water drainage and possible effects on the international carbon progression.

In addition, a strategy that can be applied to the bushfire in the Blue Mountain region is fuel reduction to reduce the fuel levels in an indicated area. Also, another strategy is ecological where it attains biological objectives. The use of water drainage defense is used to limit the spread of bushfires in forested water in drainage areas.

Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is the interaction and collaboration with the environment to avoid the reduction and ruin of natural resources and allow for such resources to be sustained.

The positive effects of environmental sustainability are that it helps ensure that the needs of the current population are met. It also does not jeopardize the opportunity for future generations to utilize these natural resources of the planet.

In the past, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders have implemented several fire management strategies to reduce the likelihood and chances of a bushfire from occurring. This fire management consists of lighting fires in certain areas that are prone to bushfires during the dry season in March and July.

These mini-fires reduce the fuel loads and create fire breaks. This results in certain areas being burnt and unburnt. This alternative eliminates fuel for bigger fires in the dry season especially when the weather is humid and hot. This is an advantage as it protects the habitat for animals as well as plants.   

The first colony of Australia was established at Sydney by Captain Arthur Phillip on January 26, 1788. They believed the land was terra nullius or empty land as they couldn’t see any evidence of buildings, crops, land development, fences, borders or governments. This assessment was incorrect as the land belonged to the Aborigines as they had lived there for over 60,000 years.

Chinese migration and settlement in New South Wales has a long history. Early records show evidence of Chinese migration, this influx of people was being considered as a solution to the labour shortage in the Colony during 1828. Many Chinese immigrants came to Australia working as shepherds, rural labourers, cooks and gardeners.

Many fortune seeking Australians ventured to different countries in search of gold. Edward Hargraves sailed to Californian for gold rush in 1849. He was unsuccessful but was struck by the topographical and geological similarities between California and the interior of New South Wales.

Governor Charles FitzRoy had heard rumours of the gold to be found in New South Wales and believed a mineral discovery in the colony could reverse the economic downturn. In 1849 he convinced the British government to offer a reward to anyone who found a commercially viable amount of gold.

In January 1851 Hargraves returned to the colony and immediately headed inland, convinced he would find gold and, more importantly, claim the government reward. Near Bathurst, Hargraves enlisted the aid of John Lister and brothers William and James Tom. Within weeks they had discovered a small amount of gold at a site Hargraves named Ophir. Hargraves returned to Sydney in March 1851 and presented his samples to the government. The government’s geologist Samuel Stutchbury was sent to confirm the gold. Hargraves was eventually awarded the £10,000 prize, which he refused to share with Lister or the Tom brothers. Between 1854 and 1855, about 31,000 Chinese people arrived on the Australian goldfields.

Gold was discovered in Victoria in 1851, James Esmond, he discovered gold in Clunes, it is approximately 40 kilometres north of Ballarat. James Esmond received a £200 reward from the Victorian Government as he was tye firs person to find gold within 320 kilometres of Melbourne. It was proclaimed that from 1 September 1851 all miners in Victoria must pay 30 shillings per month for a licence to dig for gold or risk prosecution.

Gold licenses were a method the government used to tax the miners and to attempt to control the number of people mining the goldfields. Governor La Trobe believed the tax would provide revenue to maintain law and order and discourage those thinking of leaving their regular employment.

The Eureka Stockade was caused by a disagreement over what gold miners felt were unfair laws and policing of their work by government.

The Chinese miners were quite different to the European miners, this is one of the key factors that sparked the anti-Chinese sentiment. Chinese miners grew vegetables which they used to eat instead of paying lots of money for extra food, this was not a common practice for European miners. The Chinese people were also disliked by Europeans as the mined as individuals whereas the Chinese miners worked in groups. The Chinese split tasks like cooking, cleaning and mining, this allowed the chines miners to work for longer hours, this wasn’t done by European miners. The Chinese miners also had different cultural practices to the European miners, like the use of opium. The chinese dressed and presented themselves in the same manner as China, their clothing and presentation was different to the Europeans. The chines miners of that time are often depicted with their hair in a ponytail and in clothing that is likely made of silk from their homeland. Even the Chinese’s anatomy was slightly different to the Europeans as their skin tone may have been different and the shape of their eyes was different. All of these differences cause a hate towards the Chines minority. There were many occasions where the government was unfair towards the Chinese miners (or institutionalised racism) and endorsed the horrific actions of some European miners.

Institutional discrimination took the form a series of punitive taxes on entering Victoria and then on taking up residence, while restrictive legal requirements impinged on where Chinese could stay.

From 1855 the Chinese were taxed a ten pound fee to arrive in Victoria by ship, and from 1857 additional annual residents’ fees of between 4 and 6 pounds were imposed on Chinese on top of the poll tax.

Starting in 1856, thousands of Chinese migrants travelled through Robe on their way to the Victorian goldfields. In 1857 alone, some 15,000 or so Chinese landed in Robe direct from China, to avoid a poll tax imposed by the Victorian government. After staying a few days, they gathered their supplies and set off on foot, walking more than 400 km through the bush.

Ultimately in 1901 a federated Australia would form on the basis of a White Australia policy, excluding Chinese immigration and in some instances refusing citizenship to those who had made a life in Australia.

Chinese diggers were subject to growing resentment on the gold fields. European miners were angered by the increasing Chinese presence in the goldfields and violently lashed out on several occasions in an attempt to drive the Chinese away away. In some instances, full scale rioting resulted as angry Europeans attacked the Chinese miners.

The Australian governments didn’t do anything to properly aid the Chinese miners, even after countless attacks and murders. The government endorsed the appalling actions of the European miners.

A prime example of the government endorsing the anti-Chinese mindset was anti-Chinese propaganda posters. These posters depicted the Chinese in a negative and derogatory manner. These were another method of institutionalised racism that the government used.

Although Europeans and Chinese came to Australia in search of gold but their experience were extremely different. The Europeans resented the Chinese for mining in groups, their different culture and even their appearance. They experienced institutionalised racism in the form of unjust taxes. Many Chinese miners were even killed during European led riots. Overall the treatment of the Chinese miners was appalling, the Europeans treated them in a disgusting, unfair and unjust manner. This image depicts the violence that occurred during anti-Chinese riots. Three anti-Chinese riots heave been listed below.

Buckland River

After a series of violent clashes between Chinese and European miners occurred at the Buckland River gold field a group of Europe miners decided they had enough. On July 4th, a small group began to charge through the Chinese camp tearing down tents and demanding that the Chinese leave. Acts of violence increased as the European crowd gained momentum. Chinese miners were trampled, robbed and beaten. A European wife of a Chinese miner was beaten and nearly killed, another Chinese miner had his finger severed for a gold ring. Tents, homes and properties were looted and burned.

Panic-stricken Chinese fled across the river and were given assistance and shelter by sympathetic European diggers and landowners. 2500 Chinese miners were expelled from their camps. The Victorian government granted compensation for the Chinese diggers and they were encouraged to return to the field under the guidance of police and an appointed Chinese Protector. The Chinese miners eventually returned to the goldfield to abating hostility, and camped among specially selected Chinese villages. A majority of the rioters were released without charges as the local juries believed their anger was understandable. This did not happen to………….

Ararat

While travelling overland, Chinese miners had stumbled upon a rich field in Ararat. The success of the Chinese was deeply resented, as they had been able to secure the best claims on the field. Several incidents occurred in May, and after a violent incident in a Chinese store where a small group charged the Chinese camp. European and American miners attacked the Chinese with timber and axe handles.

After the attack, the Government planning to confiscate the Chinese claims and hand them over to European diggers. The Chinese were finally forced from the field in 1858. A new law required all Chinese in Victoria to purchase a Residence Ticket. A Chinese digger without a ticket could not sue for the recovery of a mining claim that had been jumped. Many Chinese miners didn’t know this as it wasn’t communicated to them in a language they could understand. On February 3rd European diggers demanded to see the tickets. When the Chinese failed to produce them, the Europeans jumped over sixty claims, worth over 1000 pounds each. An inquiry was held but the only compensation awarded the angry Chinese was they were able to sell their mining equipment and timber used in their mines, they received a poor price in a buyers market. This did not happen to………….Lambing Flat

After many of the goldfields in Victoria had been raked bare, most diggers headed to new fields in New South Wales. In 1860 miners felt Lambing Flat was their last chance to find their fortune. By January of 1861, it was estimated that the population at Lambing Flat had grown to almost 15,000. A Miner’s Protective League had formed, petitioning for the removal of the Chinese ‘for the protection of native industry’. In February 1861. A brawl resulted from a ‘roll up’, 1500 Chinese fled. With the guidance of police, the Chinese returned to the field. However, on June 30th, one of the worst riots of the Australian gold rush occurred.

Between 2000 to 3000 European miners marched on the Chinese camp. The mob, hunted and whipped the Chinese, knocking them down with the butt ends of their whips… in many cases pulling their pig tails out by the roots, and planting their fresh trophies on their banners. Following this they searched through the tents for hidden gold, and then deliberately burnt every tent in the encampment. After the Europeans were done the camp was a heap of smouldering ruins. The miners who stayed to hide their gold in mine shafts were buried alive. Over a thousand Chinese miners fled, and almost five hundred were injured. Finding refuge on the nearby property of James Roberts, they received food and shelter for several weeks. This did not happen to………….This is one of many anti-Chinese propaganda posters. This poster depicts an unpleasant looking chinese man opposing Federation. There are European women attempting to hold him back. The Chinese man is depicted as large to symbolise the large power and threat they opposed to the Europeans. The facial expression of the chinese mane is angry and unpleasant. This did not happen to …..This image depicts the beginning of the Eureka Stockade

The miners felt this was an unfair system as they were unable to claim the land and could easily be relocated at a moment’s notice. They were also required by law to buy a licence and carry it with them at all times. They weren’t pleased and were prepared to fight for change.

In late November 1854. The miners refused to cooperate, and burned their licences. On 30 November, 500 miners gathered under the Eureka flag and elected Peter Lalor as their leader. The miners swore to fight together against police and military. On 3 December, there was an clash between the miners and the police/military forces. The miners planned their defence and attack carefully, they ultimately stood no chance against the superior firepower of police. When the battle was over, 125 miners were taken prisoner and many were badly wounded. Six of the police and troopers were killed and there were at least 22 deaths among the diggers:

Although the rebellion at the Eureka Stockade was unsuccessful, the miners were able to bring the changes they desired.

Within months all the miners were released, and the licensing laws were replaced with a system where miners paid a tax on gold they found, instead of paying for the possibility of striking gold. Miners were also given the right to own the land. This benefited both Europeans and Chinese miners.

In this analytical essay I will discuss the development of inclusive education over time with reference to key historical, political and legislative events (domestic and international). I will outline educators’ specific obligations in relation to the support of students with a disability under international instruments and Australian legislation.

The Development of Inclusive Education

There have been a number of key historical, political and legislative events (both domestic and international) which, over time, have contributed to the development of inclusive education in Australia. The education of students with disability has evolved and advanced from exclusion through segregation and integration to inclusion. The development of effective schooling for all Australian students reflects national and international movements to achieve social justice and equitability for all levels of society.

Between the 1940s and 1970s, Australian children with specific disabilities were educated in segregated special schools (Forlin, 2006). Special schools were initially established for children with hearing and vision impairments and later accepted children with other disabilities including physical and intellectual impairments (Ashman, 2019). In the 1970s, there was a shift from educational segregation towards school integration following civil rights movements and protests against special schools. More students with disabilities were enrolled in mainstream schools (Forlin, 2006; Slee, 1993). However, the implementation of integration was mostly concerned with the placement of students with disability in mainstream schools and did not address the physical, attitudinal and pedagogical barriers which remained and prevented students with disability from successfully engaging in learning (Foreman & Arthur-Kelly, 2014; Jung, 2019).

The Karmel Report of 1973 represented a significant policy change and emphasized equity and children’s rights. The Karmel Report systemized the Commonwealth’s involvement in primary and secondary schools (Lingard, 2000). This report raised important issues and recommended seven programs of Commonwealth expenditure (Lingard, 2000). These recommendations included special education, disadvantaged schools and providing funds to build teacher pedagogical skill to support students with disability (Andrews, 1973). These targeted programs were linked to social and educational justice.

In 1989 the Convention of the Rights of the Child was adopted by the United Nations. The Convention of the Rights of the Child consists of 54 Articles and emphasizes that all children have a right to education, and all children have a right to be consulted and be afforded liberty of opinion and expression. Children have a right to communicate their opinion in matters that impact them and their perspectives should be viewed as integral to building inclusive educational settings (Graham, 2020).

In 1990, the World Conference on ‘Education for All’ advocated that the only way to achieve the goal of ‘Education for All’ and meet the learning needs of all children, was through inclusive education (Anderson & Boyle, 2015). The publication of the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education in 1994 has had a significant impact on the development of inclusive education. The Salamanca Statement urged governments to sanction inclusive education. This international policy document provides an explicit framework for what inclusive education is and provides educational, social and economic justification for inclusive education. The Statement has led to important systemic changes.

Since the publication of the Salamanca Statement, Australia’s education system has taken an active approach to creating more inclusive schools. Inclusive school communities aim to fulfil the ideals of the Salamanca Statement and enact the more recent goals of the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (2008) by providing access to high-quality schooling for all students, including those with disability.

It cannot be denied that Australia’s education system has made gains towards realizing the ambitions of the Salamanca Statement. However, Forlin (2006) warns against complacency and Cologon (2016) argues that misunderstandings of inclusion often lead to micro and macro exclusions of students with disability in Australian schools. For example, it is not inclusion if a child is enrolled in a mainstream school but is segregated into a separate space or room for part of the day or for the whole day. Therefore, there continues to be instances of discrimination as a result of exclusionary practices. Schools must actively work to remove the barriers to participation for students with disability to experience belonging and success in learning.

Inclusive education is fundamentally different from exclusion, segregation and integration. Guthrie and Waldeck (2008) describe inclusive education as a “rights-based humanitarian approach to education”. Inclusive education is founded in principles of social justice and equity. It goes beyond notions of integration and mere ‘inclusion’ of students and works to ensure full participation of students with disability. Inclusive education reduces educational inequity by embracing and educating all students together including students with disabilities. Inclusive education embraces students with disabilities and engages them in successful learning in the general education classroom with the provision of appropriate supports and services as needed. Inclusive education recognizes and respects the rights and self-worth of people with disability.

Implications for Educators

Educators have specific obligations in relation to the support of students with a disability under international instruments and Australian legislation. The first legally binding international policy to establish the right to inclusive education for people with disability is the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). The CRPD was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2006 and ratified by Australia in July 2008. Significantly, the CRPD is informed by the social model of disability, rather than a medical one, and promotes equality. The CRPD mandates educational and social inclusion for students with disability.

Inclusive education in Australia has been influenced by the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) (DDA) and the Disability Standards for Education (2005) (DSE). The DDA and DSE outline legal and moral obligations for teachers of students with disability. The DDA aims to eliminate discrimination towards people with disability. The DDA makes it unlawful for educational authorities to discriminate against someone on the basis of their disability. Students with disability must be treated on the same basis as students without disability and must not be denied access to educational benefits unless it would impose an unjustifiable hardship on the educational authority (Commonwealth of Australia, 1992). The DDA was revised in 2009 to take into account the newly ratified CRPD.

The Disability Standards for Education were developed to provide further clarification of the legal obligations of schools and teachers in relation to education under the DDA. The Standards apply to enrolment, participation, curriculum development, accreditation and delivery, student support services, and elimination of harassment and victimization for students with disability. The Standards require schools to provide reasonable adjustments and accommodations for students with disability. Schools and educators are obligated to make reasonable adjustments to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment to ensure students with disability have full access to, and participation in all aspects of school life. This includes modifying behavior codes and expectations to take into account behaviors that are part of a disability. Some students will require supplementary, substantial or extensive adjustments. When making adjustments, educators are obligated to consult the student or advocate for the student, consider the impact of the adjustment on the student and others, and maintain academic integrity. Recourse may be made to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission to investigate and resolve complaints about alleged contraventions to disability standards.

One highly effective approach to instructional design that can benefit all students is Universal Design for Learning (UDL). The Universal Design for Learning philosophy and framework is a process of designing and planning for learning which addresses the needs of diverse learners by anticipating learner variability and structuring instructional experiences which build supports and scaffolds into the curriculum and pedagogy from the outset. This approach supports educators to deliver a high-quality education for all students, including students with disabilities. In doing so, educators fulfil their obligations under international human rights law and national anti-discrimination legislation to ensure schools are inclusive. UDL supports the aims of the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) and the Disability Standards for Education (2005) (Alchin, 2014).

Conclusion

In conclusion, inclusive education in Australia has evolved over time in an effort to improve educational access and participation for students with disability. Inclusive education has a range of implications including educational policies and inclusionary teaching and learning practices. Educational policies including the Karmel Report (1973), the Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989), and the Salamanca Statement (1994) have shaped the movement towards inclusive education in Australia. These policies have a bearing on educational practice and teachers have legal and moral obligations to employ inclusionary practices and thinking. This includes making reasonable adjustments for students with disability and utilizing pedagogical practices including Universal Design for Learning to plan for learning experiences that benefit all students.

Finally, inclusion relies on teachers’ attitudes towards students with disability and towards inclusive education. Educators play an essential role in making certain all students are catered for with appropriate academic goals and learning experiences. Teachers should strive to develop their knowledge and expertise to effectively teach a diverse population of students. Teachers must understand and apply the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) and Disability Standards for Education (2005) to achieve non-discrimination and respect the rights and self-worth of students with disability. This will effectively enhance the development of inclusive schools in Australia.

References

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Work enables people to keep up a schedule, a feeling of direction and advances a person’s psychological well-being. “our physical and mental health is generally improved through work- we recover from sickness quicker and are at less risk of long term illness and incapacity” The ideas of ’social construction’ and the ’sociological imagination’ sees joblessness as a rising social issue in Australian culture. Joblessness has various negative socially developed generalizations joined to it. In any case, using sociological imagination, an idea detailed by American sociologist C. Wright Mills, people can view joblessness from an alternate point of view to comprehend the conceivable external forces that could be adding to the lack of jobs in Australia.

People that are unemployed can endure genuine pessimistic, individual and social impacts that run from economic hardship, destitution, lodging pressure, breakdown, family strains and vagrancy. Joblessness in Australia has an appended, socially developed, westernized stigma which is comprised of negative views and can additionally influence a person’s possibility of future work. The possibility of jobless individuals being ‘social loafers’, ‘dole bludgers’ and ‘lethargic’ makes it progressively troublesome for people to enter the work constrain, as these assumptions of joblessness cause more deterrents in the trouble of achieving business. Ben Stein features the repercussions of this socially built disgrace, expressing “the people who have been laid off and cannot find are generally people with poor work habits and poor personalities”. This statement exhibits the one-sided perspectives on future boss’ because of the socially constructed view that numerous individuals may have. His hiring bias makes it difficult for the individuals who are jobless and are wishing to look for work.

Age is an issue within society as these are uncontrollable personal factors that become external factor within employment. “every teenager wants to work”, Ashley said. “I don’t think I’ve talked to a single one that just wants to sit at home and sit on the dole.

Ashley is a 19yr old male that is searching for work in a flourishing effort ‘job hunter not dole bludger’ featuring that they’re not jobless because of individual issues, they are jobless because of outer factors, for example, their age that keeps them from getting work. Thus, she is pushing individuals to utilize their sociological imagination and view joblessness from new viewpoints. These youths have a difficult beginning in regard to joining the work force. Due to the low skill set, a lack of experience and it being a new environment for the youth, these fixed personal factors become external factors within the work force in relation to the sociological imagination.

In conclusion, it is evident that unemployment is understood as a social problem. By looking at unemployment through the ideas of social construction and the sociological imagination, it enables individuals to identify the problems that surround unemployment like the one-sided perspectives on employers because of the socially constructed view, making it difficult for the individuals who are jobless and are wishing to look for work or uncontrollable personal factors that become external factor within employment like age.

Dating back to 1880, the nickname ‘Marvelous Melbourne’ was given to our city, this was introduced when Melbourne was progressing into a major world city. This was a result of the Gold Rush. The Gold Rush caused Melbourne to become one of the richest cities in the world. During this time of the Gold Rush, Melbourne expanded rapidly, causing the population to rise by. This essay will investigate the creation of Melbourne and how it came to be a ‘Marvelous City’. This essay will also answer the question how did Melbourne become known as the ‘marvelous’ city.

The Gold Rush throughout the 1850s and 1860s resulted in people flocking the goldfields in search of gold and wealth. The Gold Rush helped form the Australia we know today. The chaos of the Gold Rush caused was unimaginable. As soon as the word got out people flooded the goldfields with shovels and a hope for prosperity. Many people achieved a plethora of wealth, others didn’t. The economic impact of the Gold Rush mostly affected Victoria. The goldfields were rich and plentiful in towns such as Ballarat and Bendigo. They flourished with new wealth and a whole new population of people. As people digging for gold made their fortune, so did shop owners, butchers and of course, the government. Around 174 tons of gold worth 14,000,000 pounds was found in 1852 alone, the rich fields caused ridiculous numbers of immigrants from Europe and China to pile into Australia. These extra people picked up jobs that were abandoned by people searching for gold, and were paid very highly for their effort. The London Times wrote this “this is California all over again, but, it would, appear, California on a larger scale”. This was after the ships returned to England carrying eight tons of Australian gold. This shows that the gold found in Victoria was of a much more substantial amount than the Californian Gold Rush.

The rise in population in Melbourne from people all around the world resulted in the city needing to expand, so new ideas and technologies needed to be installed. The goldfields were Australia’s first encounter with a truly diverse and multicultural population. Between 1851 and 1854, the population of Victoria grew from around 77,000 to more than 200,000. In 1850 the estimated population of Australia was around 400,000, but by 1860 the population increased to around 1 million. The value of imported goods from outside Victoria reached an extraordinary 18 million, everything needed was shipped into Victoria, from mining to food, houses and equipment. More than 86 million grams of gold we mined in 1856. Victoria was the fastest growing city in the British empire during the gold rush, with the discovery of gold came a lot of great wealth. During this time many find buildings and houses were built. On the fields apart from gold miners, there were people supplying the miners with goods and services, mine managers, miner’s families, farmers, government officials and local indigenous people. “The delightful idea of going to such a country was great, then I tried to achieve as much money as I could”, – said Lum Khen Yang in ‘The Wesleyan Chronicle’, 1st of February 1859.

The income of Melbourne brought many new buildings and developments, from 1853 to 1854 the number of buildings in Melbourne doubled. Many young and talented British architects were drawn to Melbourne by the building boom, such as John James Clark, Peter Kerr and William Wilkinson Wardell, who in fact designed the Wardell building at Genazzano. They created grand buildings with elegant designs similar to those in European cities. The Victorian Legislative Council drafted Victoria’s first constitution, after the need and want for greater democracy and a home for political debate. After this they started building the Victorian Parliament House. Many other things were built during this time such as the Public Library, the Old Customs House, the Old Treasury, the Royal Amphitheatre and the ANZ Gothic Bank. There were also buildings devoted to Italian classicism, banks offices and clubs were reinterpretations of villas, palaces and temples. New buildings also displayed state power and wealth from the gold rush contributed to the construction of many churches, school galleries, the State Library and Flinders Street Station. Elegant and ornate buildings with attractive paved and tree-lined streetscapes were built. The Royal Exhibition Centre drew large amounts of popularity to Melbourne. In 1880 Melbourne hosted the International Exhibition which brought almost 1.3 million people over the 7 months it ran for, and at this time the population of Melbourne was only about 220,000. After 2 very prestigious and famous events were held at the Exhibition Centre it is now world heritage listed.

In conclusion, Melbourne became a ‘marvelous’ city because of the Gold Rush, the nickname was given to our ever developing and growing city. The Gold Rush helped Melbourne to evolve and grow into the fabulous city we know today. The Gold Rush also assisted in Melbourne’s economy giving the population better income and more money to build elegant buildings. Building elegant buildings gained more population for Melbourne. These developments gave Melbourne a name and gave us the nickname ‘Marvelous Melbourne’. The growing population required new machinery and transport, giving people the opportunity to invent new things.