Category: Augustus

Emperor Augustus of Rome was born Gaius Octavius on September 23, 63 B.C. Augustus took power in 44 B.C. after the murder of his uncle, Julius Ceaser. Augustus was a wise, bright and astute politician. He was able to restore peace in Rome after 100 years of civil war. Augustus was able to commission the following works which influenced the Rome politics (Kleiner, 385).

Emperor Augustus ordered Vergil to write an ambitious poem that would represent a legendary origin of the Roman Empire and the Roman people as well. This gave an opportunity to Vergil to fulfill his life time ambition to write a Homeric like epic about the adventures of Aenneas, the ancestor of Romulus and the whole Julian line.

He worked on a book called the Aeneid whose subject was not Aeneas. The poem told about Rome and the glories of the Empire. It was a difficult undertaking, and after eleven years of working on it, it was completed when the poet had been already dead. Vergil wished the poem to be burned if it had been unfinished. Augustus ordered Lucius, Varius, Rufus and Plotus Tucca to publish the poem with as minor editorial alterations as possible.

The Aeneid was recognized as a legendary masterpiece and a testament to the dignity of the Roman Empire (Kleiner, 540). Vergil’s name was thereafter covered with myths and legends, and his tomb became one of the most popular places of interest. Some Christians believed Vergil to be even a foreteller because he was considered to predict the appearance of Christ in some of his works.

Augustus commissioned the erection of a mausoleum for himself and his family in the present Piazza Augusto Imperatore. The mausoleum was set in a sacred precinct and used for religious purposes.

Augustus inaugurated the altar of the Augustan peace in Rome. The altar was carved by the best sculptors of the day. It took 3 years and a half to create this masterpiece which was dedicated to celebration of Augustus’ victorious campaigns in Spain and Gaul on January 30, 9 BC.

Changes in the representation of Christ and how they reflect the spread of Christianity and its acceptance by the Romans

Christianity was drastically transformed when Emperor Constantine defeated his main rival Maxentius at the battle of Milvian Bridge. Description of the battle revealed that Constantine saw a sign in the heavens foretelling his victory. After the victory, Constantine became a supporter of Christianity. This made it possible to transform Rome into a Christian Empire. Representation of Christ has been also changed in many ways.

In the fourth century, a mosaic in Santa Pudenziana represented Christ sitting at the centre on a jewel coated throne. He was dressed in a gold toga with purple trim, the colors showed imperial authority. His right hand was extended in the ad locutio gesture conventional in representations. Holding a book in his right hand signified that Christ was proclaiming his commandments to the word.

This representation was accepted in the Roman Empire as another convention of the Roman imperial art of traditio legis or handling down the law. This made a silver plate for Emperor Theodosius seem similar to that of Christ. Christianity was spread through the Roman Empire as the Romans wanted to identify themselves with Christ. Christianity underwent fundamental transformation after Constantine accepted it.

The Christian art according to Constantine was to emphasize on the authority of Christ and His church in the world. A good example proving this fact is presented in the Mosaic of Christ in the archiepiscopal palace in Ravenna. Christ is depicted there wearing the cuirass or the breastplate worn by Emperors. This represented the acceptance of Christ as a leader by the Romans (Kleiner, 335).

Byzantine ideal of sacred kingship

In the basilica S. Vitale, two popular mosaics are used to link it with the Byzantine court. Altar design comes from the imperial work shop. Justinian and his empress, Theodora, are accompanied by representatives, the local clergy, and ladies in waiting to attend the service. We see Justinian and Theodora as analogous to Christ and the Virgin Mary.

On the edge of Theodora’s cloak, we see three magi carrying their gifts to Mary and the new born king. Justinian is flanked by twelve men who personify the twelve apostles. This union of political and spiritual authority shows the “divine kingship” of the Byzantine emperor. Justinian, Theodora and their neighbors are intended to be of the same likenesses, but their features are differentiated from those of Archbishop, Maximianus.

Influence of 3^rd century Frescoes of Dura Europas on Byzantine art

The oldest surviving examples of art decorating the early churches were found in a synagogue in the town of Dura-Europos, modern Syria. Its walls are painted with animals, people and objects that represent a whole story or a theme across the wall, including Jesus’ miracles.

The Dura Europas has influenced the growth and development of byzantine art in several ways. The byzantine art emphasized on scriptures which did not depict Christ. In the byzantine era, painters were encouraged by the sculptures from Dura Europas, such as The purim Triumph, and from these ancient paintings, they generated their ideas for their new masterpieces.

Work Cited

Kleiner, Fred. Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Beverly, MA: Wadsworth Publishing, 2009. Print.

The scope of the Empire and the incapability of the Senate to ensure efficient management of power and the increasing importance of the army’s role were the major factors that provoked the thoughts in various social strata regarding the need for sole reign (Western Civilization 101 Online). In this way, the establishment of the individual, autocratic form of Augustus’s rule was not unexpected and did not cause any serious resistance. In Res Gestae, he stated, “I handed over the state from my power to the dominion of the senate and Roman people” (para. 34).

He continually emphasized that he did not differ from all other magistrates in terms of decision making but merely had greater authority and took the leading position among them. However, despite his claims, he maintained the full autocratic power: had a lifelong title of an Emperor, was allocated with tribunician power every year, promoted candidates to the posts of magistrates, allocated financial resources, individually decided the war and peace issues, and conducted negotiations with the foreign states. As was mentioned by Polybius, “He concentrated in himself the functions of the Senate, the magistrates, and the laws” (10). According to Augustus, he paid respect to the Senate, submitted various problems for the discussion, and allowed the magistrates to share their opinions. However, he likely only pretended to respect the institution because most of the important issues were resolved during the consulate meetings participated in by Augustus’s approximates.

Augustus and his supporters believed that they had restored the Republic. It is possible to say that for Romans, the Republic, as a form of political organization, could be combined with any style of reign until it was legal and served the common good. As was mentioned above, Augustus’s actions and decisions had the purpose of abolishing triumvirs’ extraordinary powers and restoring freedom and the traditional system. However, in reality, the whole system of power was dramatically changed. Previously, there were clear distinctions between three major categories of power. The Senate was mainly concerned with “the management and disposal of the public treasure,” the consuls were “entrusted with the absolute direction of the preparations that are made for war,” and people were “the sole dispensers of rewards and punishments” (Polybius 3). The distinctions became somewhat vague under Augustus’s rule. Formally, the people remained sovereign, but everything they had once obtained through the civil community they now received using the princess’s authority.

The Senate became filled with Augustus’ approximates and obtained a subordinate role. It is possible to presume that he maintained the visibility of the Senate’s power and the privileges of the aristocracy to build up the elite. According to Crone, the transformation of diverse holders of political power into a nationwide elite helped rulers to unite privilege holders in their loyalty to the same polity (64). In this way, Augustus managed to strengthen his control over the situation in the country. The primary justification that Augustus had for his policies was the restoration of peace in the Empire. Like students A and B mentioned in their essays, this was the major distinction of Augustus’s Res Gestae from the general practices of the ruling. At the same time, the termination of terror became possible only when the previous militant actions achieved their goals: Augustus’s supporters were satisfied, the most irreconcilable opponents were destroyed, others switched to Augustus’s side, and those who could pose a real threat no longer existed. Despite this apparent controversy, the principles of peace restoration and clemency helped the governor to create a sense of confidence and belief in the arrival of peace in the public mind. This could be one of the reasons for the emperor’s political longevity.

Strategies used by Augustus to Restore Peace and Order in the Attempt to End the Cycle of Civil Wars and Internal Political Violence in Rome

Augustus Caesar is one of the most popular rulers known in the history of the world. The Roman Empire had suffered civil wars and political violence for over a century but Caesar managed to restore peace and order within a short period of time. He was a soldier and the first emperor of Rome, who was very dedicated in the endeavor to restore calm in his nation. His intention was to formulate a new government and way of life. He believed that most of the disasters that the citizens were experiencing were as a result of breakdown in religious traditions, immorality and political disorder. He felt that many individuals had neglected the old temples as well as old rites which made the gods unhappy. He therefore decided to instill moral and political polices to revive the traditional roman religion. He believed that, if individuals fulfilled religious rites, the gods would be impressed and would consequently, help to restore peace (Morey 34). The main measures that he employed in the endeavor to restore religion include; regulation of private behavior, reconstruction of public monuments and public religion and creating awareness by the use of literature that discussed the virtues of piety and morality.

His first mission in the revival of Rome was the restoration of public monuments. These were the temples of god and their reconstruction signified renewed faith of the Romans. In addition, some more monuments were constructed to facilitate the growth of roman religion. The monuments contained symbols and meanings that Augustus wanted to pass to the public. They conveyed a sense of peace and the pride of the Romans. Coins that circulated portrayed the attractive and refreshed monuments. He revived forgotten rites, lapsed ceremonies, and revived priesthood. He also promoted religious ceremonies and encouraged individuals to attend them. This touched the hearts of many who started observing the invigorated religious canons.

Another measure that Augustus took after reconstructing public monuments and religion was the restoration of moral standards. He came up with social reforms that regulated public behavior and discouraged the decay of roman morals (Starr 6). During his reign, he introduced policies that sought to punish certain forms of immoralities including adultery. A combination of traditional morality and religion helped to transform immorality among many individuals.

The use of poetry played a crucial role in restoring order and peace within the state. The circulated literature revealed that the success of the roman military depended on their religious piety. Different writers indicated that re-adoption of traditional moral standards were vital towards the creation of a strong unified state. Obedience to the will of gods was also accentuated to be one of the major factors that determined prosperity within the society. By employing these strategies, Augustus greatly succeeded in restoring peace and order in Rome.

Augustus Words in the Res Gatae

In the Res Gatae, Augustus proudly proclaims that he was able to restore the Republic as he had promised the roman people he would, if he emerged victorious in his struggle against Mark Antony. The proclamation however contains true and false assertions in it. Augustus is known for his great contributions in reinstating the republic of Rome. His greatest achievement was the restoration of peace and order (Everitt 5). The republic had been engaged in civil wars for one hundred years, and re-establishing peace led to the maintenance of an honest and stable government which came as a result of his fight for morality. As a politician, he used his power to ensure that the republic regained its status quo. The currency system in the republic had been destroyed but Augustus managed to reinstate it. The highway connecting Rome to the far flung empire was also constructed during his reign. Other than just restoring destroyed property, he also came up with new implementations such as an efficient postal service unit. During the period when the civil war prevailed, trade had really deteriorated in the state. When Augustus took the leadership, he helped foster free trade among the provinces that comprised Rome. He also built and repaired many bridges that had been destroyed during the war. Throughout his political career, he dedicated most of his time in restoring the republic.

More often than not, many politicians are biased when required to account for their lives. Habitually, they only reveal their positive side and try to conceal the negative one. For instance, in the Res Gestae, most of the recorded events only portray the good side of Augustus life as an outstanding leader, and yet, there are claims that he misappropriated public funds when he was in power. Such funds could have been used to build the nation. Some of the monuments that were created were also not necessary. If the funds were used appropriately, the republic could have been restored much faster. He is also known to have been a dictator who came up with polices that denied individuals off their rights of freedom. All in all, human is to error and no individual is known to be faultless. It would therefore be very unfair if we underrated Augustus achievements in restoring back the glory of Rome.

Works Cited

Everitt, Anthony. Augustus: The Life of Rome’s First Emperor. New York: Routledge, 1904. Print.

Morey, William. Outlines of Roman History. New York: American Book Company, 1901.Print.

Starr, Chester. How did Augustus stop the Roman Revolution? 2000. Web.

Introduction

Augustus was born in 63 BC and in 44 BC he was adopted by his uncle Julius Cesar; it was during the same year that he became Rome’s emperor after the sudden demise of his uncle. He ruled the empire till he died in AD 14. In 43 BC he collaborated with Mark Anthony and Marcus Lepidicus and together they introduced a form of dictatorship which was known as the Second Triumvirate. He ruled Rome and numerous of its provinces and even took consular power after the demise of consuls Hirtius and Pansa, he even made himself be re-elected continuously.

Dictatorship however came to an end due to its rulers ambitions; Lepidus went into exile while Anthony strangled himself to death after he was defeated by Augustus in the battle of Actium in 31 BC. After the death of dictatorship, Augustus revived the outward frontage of the Roman republic, with governmental powers entrusted on the Roman Senate. Augustus took a couple of years to come up with a structure of a republican state that could be ruled by a single ruler. The result of the developed structure came to be known as the Roman Empire.

Augustus successes

The reasons behind Augustus success in moving Rome from a republican form of government to an imperial one lies within the successes and victories he had in major combats. One of the reasons of his success was the hurting taunts that were hurled by anti cesaerian individuals; such comments made the senate induct him as senator and gave him commanding power which legalized his command on troops. In 43 BC Augustus went for war together with consuls Hirtius and Pansa against Anthony, he managed to defeat Anthony army, however he lost both of the consuls leaving him in full command of the army (George, 38).

After the war Decimus Brutus received more praises than Augustus and even the senate wanted to give him command of the consular legions, but Augustus declined. In August 19, 43 BC Augustus was elected as consul to fill the vacancy that was left by the demise of Hirtius and Pansa. In October of 43 BC, Augustus, Anthony and Lepidus established the second triumvirate. The triumvirate set up proscriptions which saw 300 senators branded as outlaws and were striped of their property and those who never escaped were killed. This was a means of obtaining cash to pay soldiers salary for the war against Cesar murderers. The demise of republican senators enabled the triumvirs occupy their positions. The scenario is branded the name Roman revolution; it cleared the old order and formed a basis of Augustus form of leadership.

On January 1, 42 BC, the senate declared Caesar as a divine figure of the Roman state. This strengthened Augustus leadership as he was seen as the son of God by his subjects. In the same year Augustus divorced his wife Clodia claiming that his marriage to her had not been legal. Clodia wanted to revenge for the humiliation she had undergone due to the divorce. She collaborated with Lucious Antonious who was Antonys brother and the two waged a war against Augustus. The two however lost the war as they were forced to surrender. Augustus victory over this war further heightened his political career (George, 42).

The rivalry between Anthony and Augustus had heightened and the two even were planning to wage a war against each other in 40 BC. However the war never occurred since the Centurions of both the two who were very important political figures refused to participate in the war. The sudden death of Antonys wife Fulvia made the centurions on both sides force the two to reconcile. In the year 40 BC, both Augustus and Anthony signed the treaty of Brundisium, which saw Lepidus remain in Africa, Anthony remain in the East and Augustus in the West. The agreement strengthened the alliance of the two.

As time went on Augustus and Sextus Pompeius were involved in a territorial conflict; the conflict resulted in the two signing a temporary peace treaty. However with time the peace treaty began to fall. Augustus needed Antony’s help to invade Pompeius, the two signed an agreement would see Anthony supply 120 ships for Augustus to use against pompadours and Augustus to supply 20,000 soldiers to support Anthony in his war against Parthia.

However Augustus never kept his promise as he only supplied a tenth of the number of soldiers he had agreed to supply. After the war against Parthia, Augustus managed to convince Lepidas army to defect to his camp since he enticed them with high salaries. This made Lepidus surrender to him which brought an end to Lepidus career. The Romans were now divided between Anthony in the East and Augustus in the West. Augustus was able to maintain peace and stability in his empire by ensuring the rights of his citizens’ property (Emilio, 106).

The war Anthony waged against Parthia tarnished his image; he further tarnished his image by having an affair with Cleopatra and sending his wife Olivia back to Rome. In 34 BC after the Roman troops invaded Armenia, Anthony made his son Alexander King of Armenia and he also named Cleopatra Queen of Kings. Augustus used this to convince the Roman senate that Anthony characters were meant to tarnish the Romans name.

Many of the Consuls defected from Antonys side to support Augustus. In 32 BC the senate took off Antonys power as consul and waged a war against Cleopatra in Egypt. Augustus emerged victorious in the war. Anthony and Cleopatra managed to escape and after another loss that occurred in Alexandria in 30 BC both Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Augustus went ahead to kill Caesarion so that he could remain as the only Caesar.

After Augustus victory over Anthony and Cleopatra, he ruled the entire republic. However to rule effectively he had to increase his powers, courting the senate and people and still maintaining Rome’s traditions so that he could not be viewed as practicing dictatorship. As him and Agrippa walked into Rome, they were elected as double consuls by the senate. The many years of civil wars had left Rome in a state of disorderliness but the state was also not ready to accept Augustus leadership. Augustus on the other hand was not prepared to give up his power without waging a civil war with the Roman generals. The main aim of Augustus was to return Rome into a state of normalcy (George, 52).

In 27 BC, Augustus gained full authority over the Roman state and also had full authority over all Roman provinces and its armies. Although he had no direct control of the armies, he still was able to have the Roman soldiers remain loyal to him. One of the reasons that made Augustus successful was many clients and adherents depended on him for financial help.

The strength of his power came from the number of offices given to him by the senate and the citizens, second from his wealth, and thirdly from a relationship he had created with a number of individual groups all over the empire. The public in general supported him because they were aware of his immense wealth. At one time when senators failed to finance the construction of roads in Italy, he decided to take over the responsibility, this deed was highly publicized in 16 BC after he supplied enormous amount of money to the public treasury (George, 54).

Augustus authority was based on the practice of a predominant military strength and he also exercised force to his subjects. In the Senate, Augustus maintained the constitution of the Roman republic and he also accepted the responsibility of controlling all the provinces that were in a mismanaged state. He also had to control some of the areas Rome had concurred which included Hispania, Gaul, Syria and Cicilia, Cyprus and Egypt. Augustus control over the provinces provided him with authority of over most of the Rome legions. While he was a consul in Rome, he controlled the other legions by using senators he had appointed as his representatives.

However some of the provinces that were not under his command were controlled by governors who had been appointed by the Roman senate. During his reign Augustus became one of the most authoritative political image in Rome and the rest of its provinces and yet he lacked a single monopoly on political power. The senate managed North Africa which was an essential provider of grain and other regions such as Illyria and Macedonia. However the senate powers could still not compare to those of Augustus since he controlled 20 legions as compared to five which were under the senate (Emilio, 119).

Conclusion

It is clear to state that Augustus was a successful leader, and his success of converting in moving Rome from a republican form of government to an imperial one was made possible from the success he had in the wars he waged in. The war that mostly propelled his success was the one he waged against Cleopatra and Anthony that enabled him to have full control of the whole of Rome as a single emperor. Other reasons that played a huge part are his financial stability and his ruling style which was efficient.

Works Cited

George, M, “Rome under Augustus”, Oxford press (1992), 38-54.

Emilio, B, “Roman history”, Princeton publishers (1989), 101-119.

Mosaic Emperor Justinian and Courtiers and Augustan Sculpture are objects of Roman cultural heritage which present mighty rulers from different epochs. At the same time, both pieces of art are created according to artistic canons and reflect cultural, historical and religious situation of their days.

The first and maybe the main point in this opposition of times and customs is the role of a ruler. In the Ara Paris Augustus is represented “as the first among equals rather than supreme ruler; although he leads the procession he is marked by no special richness of dress” (Cunningham and Reich 98). In fact, the Ara Pacis contains Augustus notions about his reign and his main guidelines. The altar is devoted to the idea of piece and consent between people; it is an altar with opened palm.

As many other Roman works of art, the Ara Pacis combines Greek and Roman standards of art, with vivid and natural way of presenting a composition. Members of emperor’s family are also included to the scene and depicted with portrait precision; children smile and talk with each other, walk half-turned, in contrast to serious adults. These details emphasize Augustus’ concern for future generations. Presentation of Aeneas reminds not so much about Augustus divine origin as about Rome’s fame and glorious past.

Message, included into the mosaic Emperor Justinian and Courtiers is completely different. Justinian’s presentation does not contain any personal qualities. Emperor’s eyes are big and aloof, posture is motionless. Cloaks hide shapes of figures, and turn them into flat, fusing with wall silhouettes. There is a great contrast between the idealized picture of the young emperor and his courtiers. A bishop has sparse hair; a monk’s face is bony and sinewy. Justinian is presented as an ideal ruler, illumined with imprints of divine glory. He is dressed in purple, with crown on his head. In the Byzantine culture purple was the color of the greatest ruler, God on heavens and his regent, emperor, on earth. Gospel bindings were covered with purple textile. Purple is also observed as the color Virgin Maries clothes on sacred icons (Cunningham and Reich 163-164).

The Byzantine artist tried to express the divine nature of emperor’s power. The composition is V-shaped with Justinian ahead what personifies stern, preterhuman greatness of emperor’s power. The message is expressed by means of figures, which stand as an impenetrable wall and intently look directly at viewers. It seems that inquiring and searching eyes are only vivid details on the mosaic.

Emperor Augustus is presented as the first between equal. His position was grounded not only by the fame of Augustus family, but also by his personal services. He was the first, as long as he was considered a patron of classical traditions, protector of future generations, and wise and fair ruler. At the same time, he was equal to other Roman people, as long as Roman nation was great and mighty. Belonging to Roman nation was the highest honor.

At the same time, Justinian was the main and the first thanks to divine will and predestination. While Augustus ennobles together with his nation, Justinian is initially superior to his people. While Augustus is depicted vividly, he seems an earthy man, Justinian is presented as a heavenly figure, which is alien to earthy sins. His will is impeccable, and ordinary people should follow it without hesitation. Comparing messages in mosaic Emperor Justinian and Courtiers and Augustan Sculpture one may clearly observe appearance of a gap between an emperor and his nation, which was absent in times of emperor Augusts but emerged in the coarse of Byzantine Empire.

Work Cited

Cunningham, Lawrence and Reich, John. Culture and Values: A Survey of the Humanities. Stamford: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.

A Roman portraiture and sculpture are characterized by specific stylistics. Each stage of sculpture and, especially, portraiture, is marked with certain elements that were a characteristic of each dynasty.

One of the brightest representatives of such portraiture is a statue of Augustus of Prima Porta. It is not only a statue of a man, it is a symbol of new époque of Rome, new tendencies in sculpture and portrait. Thus, the sculpture of Augustus is symbol of a rupture with “the worst of times” and its traditions, and it is an important mean of propaganda.

As it has already been mentioned, the statue of Augustus marked a new period when Roman Republic became Roman Empire. Everything had changed. An old Iron Age passed and new Golden Age became the riches and the most glorious time in the history of the Roman Empire. The city was restored after the last political conflict (Civil War) in the Republic that exhausted the country.

Augustus called this time “the worst of time”. Constant wars did not let the country to develop its sciences and art. The brightest characteristic of the Roman Republic is the portraiture. A realistic “face” with all its lacks and imperfections is associated with “the worst of times”.

The old “face” of the Republic was very detailed and realistic. That is why it disclosed every wrinkle and every skin imperfection to show the wisdom and courage of the person. A military prowess and blind devotion to public service were the most important traits of every politician.

The sculptors tried to reflect these traits in busts and statues. According to the rules of Republican traditions, the form of the sculpture should preset the idea that the artistic model wanted to express (concern about the nation, wisdom that he acquired during his “cursus honorum”, etc).

The traditions of the Golden Age of the Rome Empire ruined old traditions and reconsidered the meaning of the sculpture and portraits. The image of the sculpture was completely different: not “wrinkles”, but “youth” of a face and the whole pose of a statue expressed the power and greatness of a person. Now, the sculpture was a means of ideology and propaganda.

A completely different scheme for portrait was adopted. New techniques were based on a traditional Roman art, however, it was original and innovative at the same time. These new statues emphasized the greatness of emperors, their divinity and heroism. The youth, beauty and majestic pose were the major treats of signs of power and braveness. And these are the traits that every portrait possessed.

“Augustus was portrayed in numerous statues and portraits” (Cunningham and Reich 111). The Augustus in Prima Porta was created during the emperor’s reign. It is the manifestation of his talents, authority and connection to Olympic gods.

Indeed, the statue is the best example of propaganda, as every detail, from head to toes on his barefoot legs, symbolizes his leadership abilities. The artist put into the sculpture the orator’s gesture and body proportions of a Greek Doryphoros. The impression as if Augustus speaks to his people and shows them his justice and wisdom.

He looks younger than he really was because youth and brave look of his eyes symbolize his greatness. These features make the statue completely different from the republic statues. In Republic architects considered that and faded and calm look symbolized the wisdom of a king. “New” statue used the pose and “activeness” to express this feature, moreover, it showed that the emperor was ready for radical actions for the sake of his people.

Another feature that distinguishes the statue of Augustus from works of the Republic period is the presence of additional attributes of power and “divinity” of the emperor. The first one is the statue of Cupid, which rides a dolphin. It shows the emperor’s consanguinity with the goddess Venus. It indicated that Augustus, as well as Aeneas, who was the founder of Rome, and Cupid himself, was the son of Aphrodite. Consequently, he was the only and competent ruler of the Empire.

The breastplate is the most significant detail of the statue. The reliefs show his great achievements, victories and people conquered. There, we can see the reliefs of the goddess Diana, Augustus’ patron, Apollo, two sphinx that signified the victory over Cleopatra and many other significant figures from life of Roman Empire. The breastplate is the most significant propagandistic detail of the sculpture.

The Augustus of Prima Porta is one of the brightest examples of early propaganda. In addition, it is not only a symbol of power and divinity of the emperor, it is a symbol of new era without old traditions of life, art and politics.

Works Cited

Cunningham, Lawrence S. and John J. Reich. Culture and Values: A Survey of the Humanities. vol. 1. 7th ed. Boston: Cengage Learning. 2009.

For most people, ancient statues are just a work of art, an object that carries the function of aesthetic beauty. However, there is something more behind it, namely, an element of propaganda. Anyone who ordered one’s sculpture wanted to emphasize greatness and strength and symbolize power. Thereby, the two statues, Augustus of Prima Porta (made in the 20th year BC, Imperial period) and Aulus Metellus (made in the early first century BC, Republican period), were created to highlight majesty and power.

The Orator, or Aulus Metellus (Latin), is a bronze sculpture portraying an Etruscan senator Aulus Metellus, and it was founded in 1566. The statue is 179 cm in height, with a classic at that time clothes, namely a tunic thrown over the left shoulder, leaving the free right hand (Arena et al. 2021). Such clothes were popular among senators or high-ranking magistrates, emphasizing their status. The pose, named contrapposto, is formulated by one leg supporting the weight of the body, and the right hand is pulled forward.

The Augustus of Prima Porta is more than two meters in height statue of Augustus, found in 1863 year, in the villa of the emperor’s wife. It depicts Octavian Augustus delivering a speech to a crowd of thousands, calling for a war against his political opponent. Despite the sculptures being similar (the same style and pose), there are some differences. Thus, Augustus is depicted in more detail, and there are more clothing elements, namely a military breastplate. Further, one may also notice the image of a child on Octavian’s right leg. In addition, on the sculpture, there is also a cane in the left hand of Augustus as a symbol of power and strength.

To sum up, it is worth mentioning that despite the differences, it is difficult not to notice the true purpose of these sculptures. Namely, to perpetuate and emphasize the strength and monumentality of the depicted persons. It is especially noticeable in the position of the head of both sculptures, namely the look forward, the straight posture, and the athletic bodies.

Reference

Arena, V., Prag, J. R., & Stiles, A. (2021). A companion to the political culture of the roman republic. John Wiley & Sons.

The growing prosperity of the authorities made Roman architecture impressive and luxurious, but it lacked humanity. The Roman Empire was a despotic state, and its power was based on the severe exploitation of the conquered nations. Roman architecture was one of the main instruments for glorifying and strengthening state power. The planning and shapes were to suppress an individual, to direct his movement.

Thus, the importance of the Roman buildings is defined by a range of factors, such as political, cultural, ideological, and social.

Augustus

During the reign of Augustus, the building activity intensified extremely, showing quick evolution of the shapes and the materials used. Among several architecture achievements, it is necessary to single out the construction of the Forum Augustum and the evolution of the citizens’ dwellings. The poor began to live in multistory houses instead of the simple round huts; the palaces of the rich citizens became much more pompous and luxurious (Stamper 137). This evolution had a strong impact on the social life of the Empire, as the increase of the living standard furthers strengthening of the society’s spirit. Having felt the smell of luxury, the Roman strengthened their lust for power, wealth, and conquests.

However, the Forum Augustum contributed more to the social evolution within the Roman Empire, as it functioned as an embodiment of the social mechanisms’ institutional organization (the center of the political life, the place for legal proceedings and education) (Forum of Augustus). The Temple of Mars Ultor reflected the martial character of the Roman spirit and of God.

At the same time, the Forum impacted strongly on the power of religion within the Empire. The numerous architecture and art elements amazed and restrained the citizens.

Tiberius

In the period of Tiberius’ reign, the building activity went down. However, Tiberius’ Bridge can be considered an outstanding construction. Not only did the bridge survive until the present, but it still remains exploited (Laurence 45). The Tiberius’ Bridge shows the facilities of Roman architecture.

Caligula

Among the most important buildings of Caligula’s period are the military constructions, which were created during Caligula’s military campaigns, and the personal Caligula’s buildings. The most amazing construction was the Caligula’s Giant Ship, which was a floating palace full of pompous artworks and complicated enginery. The dimension of this ship seems impossible in ancient times (Selkirk 166). Some mechanisms, such as revolving platforms, “passed ahead” of the technical progress for several centuries, which makes Caligula’s Giant Ship an outstanding architecture specimen.

Claudius

The most advanced construction of the Claudius period was the Aqua Claudia. Water supply is of huge importance for every community, as history shows that the evolution of the civilization has been influenced much by the availability and location of water resources.

Although the first Roman aqueducts were constructed in the IVth Century B.C., the Aqua Claudia became a symbol of the Roman Empire’s glory and its engineering achievements. Owing to its complicated construction, the Aqua Claudia was 30 meters shorter than the previous aqueduct (Evans 116).

Nero

The architecture element which embodies Nero’s spirit the most precisely is the Domus Aurea. Nero was an emperor who contributed much to building the spirit of his nation, using a wide range of both “stick and carrot” methods. He took measures to increase the citizens’ standard of living; being fond of arts, he participated in cultural events (Ferrero 109). At the same time, he defended the Roman tradition and religion, struggling against the beginnings of Christianity (Ferrero 107).

The construction of Nero’s Golden House started in 64, after a huge destructive fire. He started the construction of a pompous palace, which maintained the spirit of the aggrieved nation and showed the strength of the Roman power. For that period, the palace was an architectural masterpiece full of extravagances. Some elements used in the House’s construction influenced Roman architecture and were repeated in numerous buildings. A huge statue of Nero became an embodiment of his glory (Claridge 291).

Thus, architecture had huge importance for the political, social, and religious life of the Roman Empire, reflecting its development. The Roman constructions help to study Roman history in detail and evaluate the level of Roman architecture and engineering.

Works of art have always been the personification of a specific period. It does not matter at what period the art was made, it is simply understanding what it refers to and what time it describes just by looking at it. Artworks have been appreciated by society due to their significance and excellence. Artists of all times create stories that will be imprinted in their works forever. This paper provides an analysis of the statue of Augustus from Prima Porta and describes its connection to Roman Pragmatism.

The rigorous forms of the Greek classics turned out to be the most harmonical with the conceptions of the grandness of the empire, engaging each aspect of the essence of Rome in the period of Emperor Augustus. Simplicity and clearness of construction, the aspiration for generalization, the idealization of the appearance, and at the same time, the strict Roman individualism of the characters are the leading attributes of the portraits of the times of August classicism. Moreover, the sculpture of August was one of the first attempts of ancient society to propagandize art.

Besides, the sculpture of Augustus from Prima Porta is the finest work of this period. It was discovered in 1863 near Rome, in the house of Livia, the wife of Augustus. He was created as a hero, and his sculptures were usually made lofty (Wang 212). The emperor is portrayed as a commander addressing the soldiers with a speech. Augustus’ correct portrait facial features are interpreted in a generalized and slightly idealized way. The luxurious chased armor of the emperor is decorated with images of allegorical figures – the Earth and Sky, the Sun and the Moon, in the center – a Parthian warrior, dutifully returning the banners once captured from the Romans to the god Mars. The figurine of Cupid on a dolphin at the feet of Augustus recalls the divine origin of the emperor’s family from Venus and Aeneas, sung by Virgil.

Pragmatism is one of the components of philosophy that aims to achieve a practical result. According to American scientists, philosophy should also be a solution to the existential problems of humanity. Thus, they put forward the theory that pragmatism embodies the behavioral essence, his adaptation to his natural and social environment. In this case, the connection between pragmatism and the statue of August from Prima Porta is visible. The emperor is depicted as a majestic commander, which correlates with the reality of those times, and approves the statement of the scientists.

What is more, Roman art originates from the classical Greek period due to its close geo-culture location. The statue of August of Prima Porta embodies the ideals and standards of Roman Pragmatism. The idea of Roman Pragmatism in that period was to embody the strict figures of huge, solid, and majestic people which fascinated by their robust appearance. The ancient Romans chose The Doryphoros of Polykleitos, which is the representative work of the classical Greek period, as the basic framework of Augustus of Prima Porta and made some changes to make it more in line with the aesthetic taste of Roman society at that time (Wang 213). It is possible to say that the statue of August from Prima Porta was the visualization of Roman Pragmatism in the artwork.

Work Cited

Wang, Keyang. “Comparison of Ancient Greek Art and Ancient Roman Art.”Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, vol. 638, 2022, pp. 211–215. Crossref.

In the following paper I have my goal to discuss the way Augustus Caesar marble portrait reveals his outstanding personal qualities as I believe that Roman portraits represent both the person’s appearance and inner world. Roman ruler’ portraits had the very important objective of bringing the impressive massage of Caesar’s powerful identity and his achievements. Here I will discuss August Caesar marble portrait of ca. A.D. 14–37 from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. I have my goal to examine the way the portrait reveals the features communicating a message of the ruler’s glory and divine nature.

To examine Augustus portray I believe it is important to mention some facts from his biography so that to be able to analyze his personality depicted in marble in the light of historical facts and thus have a better understanding of the artist depicting Augustus.

Speaking about August Caesar I think the first fact to be mentioned is that he is considered to be the first emperor of the Roman Empire. He ruled from 27 BC until 14 AD when he died. He played a dramatic role in organizing the regime in Roman Empire which lasted for about fifteen hundred years until its fall in 1453. August used his absolute power in a wise and moderate way and has made the Roman Empire blessed with all the benefits in the world. And this was achieved despite long hard years of extremely severe and cruel civil and international wars. Augustus did not possess the genius of Julius Caesar; however he had unique planning abilities and was very skilled in using all the possible means in accomplishing his plans. He had a great respect towards sciences, even was the poet himself and has initiated the whole epoch of remarkable flourishing of science and art. All these outstanding achievements make Augustus a remarkable person in Rome’s history and encourage multitudes of men of art to praise his glorious entity. Here are the words of praise by Vergil for example:

Let now your visionary glance look long
On this your race, these your Romans.
Here Caesar, of Iulus’ glorious seed,
Behold ascending to the world of light!
Behold, at last, that man, for this is he,
So often foretold to your listening ears,
Augustus Caesar, kindred of Jupiter.
He brings a golden age… (Yong-Ling Ow)

The Augustus portrait under consideration is yet another work to glorify his outstanding achievements and sort of idealize him thus in peoples’ minds. The portray is also a way to advertise the Emperor as during those times no media advertizing existed and politicians had to resort to the use of sculptors’ favors in rising their popularity among people. (Stokstad et al. 26+).

Now I will analyze the Augustus portrait itself and the message it brings to the viewers. Speaking about some basic facts of the portrait’s format, it should be noticed that the portrait is accomplished of marble, which is one of the most noble and honorable stones among sculptors. I believe it makes its due endowment into glorifying and idolizing the emperor. Marble is as white and pure as Augusts’ intentions to provide great future for his nation and is as hard and strong as his will to conquer all the obstacles on the way to Rome’s great future. In addition, the portrait has the dimension of 12 inches or 30.48 centimeters, which is much bigger than human head size. So such size portrait may be the fragment of the emperor’s oversized seated statue made during Augustus successor Tiberius. I believe that size is a very important feature of the marble portrait as it brings some important ideas to the viewers’ mind. Enlarged portraits bring more attention to the depicted personality as they reveal its superiority over others and in this particular case represent August significance as a ruler of divine nature.

As far as I understand the most significant part in the portrait is the set of face features of the one depicted and face expression of course. First of all, it is an interesting fact that the portrait represents the Emperor as a young ageless and idealized person, even though it was made after his death. And it is known that he died at the age of seventy-seven being quite old man and looking far away from what was shown in the portrait. Thus, the sculptor emphasizes on his eternal unfading glory which cannot be affected by the years to pass. In addition, ageing process is about humans not gods and Augustus portrait tends to show him as ever young deity whose youngish beauty cannot be touched with time.

Speaking about the Emperor’s face features in general, it should be mentioned that this portrait shows him with close resemblance to the other Augustus’ portraits and statues. As in all the other his portraits, Augustus is outstandingly handsome and of the very dignified gait. The portrait shows him with his eyebrows met above the nose, his ears to be of moderate size, a nose to project a little at the top and bend slightly inward and lips of beautiful form with a sort of a mild smile. The Augustus forehead is rather big thus emphasizing on his outstanding thinking abilities and intellectual potential. Again, there is not a single wrinkle on his face. All his face features make a great combination and are astounding as to their proportions. Thus a picture of a stunningly handsome young man comes to the viewer’s mind to make them love, adore and even worship this divine-like personality. We all know how important it is to be a good-looking person to be admired by crowds as people love with their eyes and the portrait definitely accomplishes this important goal.

Another important point in the emperor’s appearance is his hair. He is depicted with curly dense hair organized in a Roman like style wavy hair-do. His hairstyle matches his face features perfectly. Augustus’ hairstyle is also rather short here if compared with other Emperors’ portraits. I believe this is a yet another way to show his strong character as it is believed that men with shorter hairstyles are more confident, intelligent, strong-willed, brave, determined and focused.

The Emperor’s face expression is also of great importance, even better to say of primary importance. When I look to the portrait I believe I see a very high-minded, intelligent, confident, wise, determined person. Augustus face expressing is very attractive with its positivity as well, though it is difficult to say definitely that the Emperor is smiling it is quite evident in his lips and eyes that he has sort of a warm inner smile showing him as a very positive thinking and kind-hearted man. I believe this feature of this particular Augustus’ portrait to be remarkable as if to compare it with the other depictions of the Emperor where he is mostly shown with serious and strict face expression it is a very successful portraying variant; the Emperor appears to be much more appealing to the viewer and thus the advertizing purpose of the portrait is better accomplished.

In general, the Emperor’s whole appearance with his dignified glance and attractive look makes an impression of a confident, strong-willed, intelligent, determined, courageous and brave person. Not like other Emperor’s portraits, this one shows Augustus Caesar as a person with positive outlook and sanguine disposition, what is especially expressed with his lips’ form and his “warm” so to say glance.

Taking all the above mentioned into consideration I believe that this portrait of August Caesar is a great piece of art very successfully depicting the Emperor’s outstanding personality. Everything from the portrait’s medium, portrait’s size to the portrayed set of Augustus face features adds to the Emperor’s popularization among the wide range of viewers. Augustus face expression depicted in the portrait is a unique means to show his character features: the Emperor appears to us as high-minded, noble, intelligent, wise, positive, strong-willed, brave, divinely handsome person. This Augustus Caesar’s marble portrait is definitely a great way to save a glorified memory of his great achievements in the history of Roman Empire and the humanity in general. This portrait is obviously a great success in depicting the outstanding personality of one of the most successful rulers ever, Augustus Caesar.

Works Cited

1. “Octavian/Augustus”. janusquirinus.org. Yong-Ling Ow, n.d. Web. 2011.
2. Stokstad, Marilyn, & Cothren, Michael. Art: A Brief History. Fourth Edition. United States: Prentice Hall, 2009. Print.