Category: Attitude

Abstract

Understanding the complex human behaviours in response to climate change (CC) is important to undertake mitigation measures. The objective of this paper is to review the attitude, gaps and uncertainty of global climate change and the implications for Australia. While Australia is the most vulnerable country to climate change, an inevitable dismissive audience segments belief that climate change is not happening and strongly oppose the climate change mitigation action to archives low carbon future. Therefore, a comprehensive and continuous climate change educational advocacy is important to lift the uncertain audience segments to certain audience segments.

Introduction

Global warming is one of the major environmental, economic and social threat of the globe and for Australia in particular. 95 percent global warming has been persuaded by human-being from the use of fossil-fuel, whereas, only five percent being natural causes (Pachauri et al., 2014). The on-going human-induced CC having a widespread impact in every aspect of human life and natural systems which presenting in the form of record-breaking air and ocean temperature increase, extreme flooding and long-lasting drought, rapid melting of glaciers and ice sheets, and rising of average sea level (Pachauri et al., 2014; Armstrong et al., 2018; Huntley, 2019). That is why in the past few decades, CC has emerged as a major policy issue and a political debate across the globe. And, in 2015 all nations reached a landmark agreement and sign “The Paris Agreement” keeping the global temperature rise 1.5 to 2 degree Celsius to combat CC, while, United States and Australia still struggling to limit their greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions (Richie et al., 2019).

However, the global public attitude, belief, risk perception and motivation on CC and mitigation actions remain unclear and varies among countries (developed and developing countries), demography (age, gender, income, and education), geography and indigenous knowledge (Morrison et al 2013; Huntley, 2019). The objective of this paper is to review the attitude, gaps and uncertainty of global CC and the implications for Australia in comparison of other developed countries. The next section of this paper is organizing as global environmental change perspectives, gaps and uncertainties of climate science and implications for Australia CC actions.

Global Environmental Change Perspectives

A recent survey conducted by Poushter and Huang (2019) indicated that CC is the top global threat than the Islamic military group (ISIS) threat and cyber-attack. However, People’s perspective and understanding of global CC and its mitigation response varies from countries to countries and within the country (Hine at al., 2013; Huntley, 2019). According to Armstrong et al. (2018), 60 percent of the global adult population have awareness and belief CC is happening, whereas 40 percent not. The largest greenhouse gases emitting countries (USA, China and Australia) are the least believers than lower GHGs emitting (Latin America and Africa) countries (Poushter and Huang, 2019). Huntley (2019) stated that public attitudes and actions on CC are informed not just by understanding and acceptance of climate science but also by their indigenous knowledge in response to CC.

United States perspectives

United States emits one-fourth of the global GHGs to the atmosphere. However, a survey conducted by Poushter and Huang (2019) shows that global CC is the third major threat (59 percent) for Americans after Cyber-attack (74 percent) and ISIS threats (62 percent) respectively. The Yale Project for Climate Change (YPCC) and George Mason University Centre for Climate Change Communication (GMU4C) researchers develop six-unique audience segmentation analysis tool called “Global Warmings Six Americas” to understand the public attitude on CC (YPCC, 2009; Maibach et al., 2011; Morrison et al., 2013; Armstrong et al., 2018; Huntley, 2019). As shown in Fig.1, the alerted segment significantly increased by 13 percent in ten years, which means that US adult belief the happening global CC and strongly support climate action to reduce the threat. Surprisingly, the dismissive adults increased by three percent which they disbelief the happening CC and strongly opposed the climate action to archives low carbon future.

Global Warming Five Australia Segmentation Analysis

According to recent Richie et al. (2019) report, Australia GHGs emission increased by five percent from 2018 to reach 39 percent in 2019. Moreover, only 60 percent of Australian belief that global CC is a major threat other than the threat of Islamic military group (ISIS) and global cyber-attack (Poushter and Huang, 2019). Hine et al. (2013) adopt an Australian version the Global Warming Five Australia and conducted broad research and found that (Fig.2) 65% of Australians believe that CC is occurring and real which means they are alarmed and concerned, while 35 percent are uncertain or disbelief on the happening of CC. Indeed, Leviston et al. (2015) confirmed that three out of four Australians (77 percent) belief CC is happening. The results indicate that the public attitude towards CC in Australia is improving from time to time.

From the above two scenarios, Australians are the more aware of global CC threats than the United States adult generations which means that Australians strongly support CC actions to reduce GHGs emissions than the Americans. However, one person in ten people dismissive the happening of global CC in both countries which implies that they are strongly opposing CC actions to mitigate carbon emissions. Therefore, much more CC education advocate to be done on to bring the dismissive and doubtful people concerned and alarmed segments.

Gaps and Uncertainty of Climate Science

Gaps in climate change attitude research

Despite, the above Six-Americans and Five-Australia audience segmentation approach different researchers have used various research approach such as Information-deficit model, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and Gateway Belief to understand the public attitude and adaption to CC (Van der Linden et al., 2014; Arbuckle et al., 2015; Cook and Overpeck, 2018). However, the process of developing, conducting and analysing qualitative or quantitative on CC are questioned (Ding et al., 2011; Huntley, 2019).

The attitude and behaviour studies on CC requires continuous long-term and whole audience engagement. However, ample CC attitude studies more specific in study period as public attitudes vary over time (Akerlof et al., 2010;; Reser et al., 2011; Leviston et al., 2011; van der Linden et al., 2015). Therefore, effective audience segmentation approaches, long-term and efficacy of public engagement research are required to address how people thinks, feels, and acts on the issue of global warming and to develop CC actions in order achieve a low GHGs future (Hine et al., 2014; van der Linden et al., 2015; Huntley, 2019).

Uncertainty of public trust in climate science

The reasons behind public disbelief on CC a major threat are due to lack of communication, trust and faith in climate science. Furthermore, an inevitable number of doubtful and dismissive audience segments which distrust climate scientists and information are strongly opposed for CC mitigation strategies and actions. This is more explained in many developed countries political election including Australia which dissonance what people thought and vote (Armstrong et al., 2018; Huntley, 2019). Thus, it is very essential to build climate science trust and convince the dismissive and doubtful cohort to shift to the highest belief in global warming (Goodwin and Dahlstrom, 2013; Huntley, 2019).

Implications of Climate Change Actions for Australia

Ensuring public engagement in climate action

Australia is the most vulnerable country to CC in the developed world. 77 percent Australian beliefs CC is happening, only 25 percent are fully engaged (alarmed) in CC action to reduce GHGs threat (Hine at al., 2014). However, the consequences of CC on record-breaking hot summer, bushfire, extreme drought and flooding in Australia is undeniable even for doubtful and dismissive cohort. Thus, understanding the scientific consensus around CC to build faith and attitude on CC is a key factor in moving uncertain segments toward supporting climate actions (Huntley, 2019).

Encouraging climate science research

A continuous long-term and whole society segmentation research approaches are very crucial to understand the public mindset on CC attitude, belief, risk perception and motivations. However, without proper funding and donations and genuine public participation and government support the expected results will not be real. Furthermore, Hine et al. (2013), Armstrong et al. (2018) and Huntley (2019) suggest that scientists and policymakers should actively focus on cooperation values rather than competitive values in climate science.

Conclusion

The global public attitude, belief, risk perception and motivation on CC and mitigation actions varies among countries, demography, geography and indigenous knowledge. While Australia is the most vulnerable country to climate change, an inevitable dismissive audience segments belief that climate change is not happening and strongly oppose the climate change mitigation action to archives low carbon future. Therefore, a comprehensive and continuous climate change educational advocacy is important to lift the uncertain audience segments to certain audience segments. Furthermore, climate scientists and commentators, and all audience segments responsibility to support and act CC action for current and future generation health and wellbeing.

References

1. Akerlof, K., DeBono, R., Berry, P., Leiserowitz, A., Roser-Renouf, C., Clarke, K.L., Rogaeva, A., Nisbet, M.C., Weathers, M.R. and Maibach, E.W., 2010. Public perceptions of climate change as a human health risk: surveys of the United States, Canada and Malta. International journal of environmental research and public health, 7(6), pp.2559-2606.
2. Arbuckle Jr, J.G., Morton, L.W. and Hobbs, J., 2015. Understanding farmer perspectives on climate change adaptation and mitigation: The roles of trust in sources of climate information, climate change beliefs, and perceived risk. Environment and behavior, 47(2), pp.205-234.
3. Armstrong, A.K., Krasny, M.E. and Schuldt, J.P., 2018. Communicating Climate Change: A Guide for Educators. Comstock Publishing Associates.
4. Cook, B.R. and Overpeck, J.T., 2019. Relationship‐building between climate scientists and publics as an alternative to information transfer. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 10(2), p.e570. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.570
5. Ding, D., Maibach, E.W., Zhao, X., Roser-Renouf, C. and Leiserowitz, A., 2011. Support for climate policy and societal action are linked to perceptions about scientific agreement. Nature Climate Change, 1(9), pp.462-466.
6. Goodwin, J. and Dahlstrom, M.F., 2014. Communication strategies for earning trust in climate change debates. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 5(1), pp.151-160. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.262
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15. Poushter, J. and Huang, C., 2019. Climate change still seen as the top global threat but cyberattacks a rising concern. Pew Research Center, February 10.
16. Reser, J.P., Bradley, G.L., Glendon, A.I., Ellul, M.C. and Callaghan, R., 2012. Public risk perceptions, understandings, and responses to climate change and natural disasters in Australia and Great Britain. National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Gold Coast.
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19. Van der Linden, S.L., Leiserowitz, A.A., Feinberg, G.D. and Maibach, E.W., 2014. How to communicate the scientific consensus on climate change: plain facts, pie charts or metaphors?. Climatic Change, 126(1-2), pp.255-262.
20. Yale Climate Change Project (YCCP) (2009). Global warming’s Six Americas 2009: An audience segmentation analysis. Yale University and George Mason University. http://environment.yale.edu/climate/files/climatechange-6americas.pdf.
21. Global Warming Six Americas of United States 2009-2019

2009

The researcher will be researching about attitude of insurance residents in the northern republic of Cyprus in their respective pursuit of attaining quality health care. Firstly, attitude is defined as per literary virage below so as to get a vivide comprehension about on attitude, the Turkish Republic of Cyprus, health insurance , and healthcare quality.

ATTITUDE

Fabrigar L and Wegener D (2010) stipulated in their finding the concept of attitude is presumotively recorded as the most disctinctive and indispensible concept in contemporary American social psychology.Evidentially it has been noted that no other term appears most frequently in experimebtal and theoretical literature.It’s famous popularity is known to be quiet fascinating and comprehendable to explain.it has been ushered unto the floor of favour. First of all because it ain’t solely utilised in the one school of psychology school of thought ,and therefore applicable and fascinates the purpose of eclectic writers. Furthermore , it is a concept which evicts the ancient controversy related to the relative impact of heredity and environment.

Since attitude is an embodiment of instincts and habit in any quantifiable terms, it avoids the accrued commitement of both the instinct theory and environmentalism. The term is elastic enouph to apply either to the dispositions of single, isoliated individuals or to broad patterns of culture. Psychologist and sociologist have found it relevant as a point of discussion and studies. This useful one might also say peaceful, concept has been so widely adopted that it has virtually actualised it self as the keystone in the edifice of American social psychology.

As might be expected of so abstract and serviceable a term, it has come to pin-point many things to numerous writers, with the inevitable output that its meaning is somewhat indefinite and its scientific status called into query. American social psychologist and sociologist have recently produced a voluminous literature concerning what they call ‘ social attitudes’; the term is utilised to cover a multitude of facts of many kinds including almost every variety of opinion and belief and all the abstract qualities of personality such as courage, generosity,humility, and obstinacy as well as units of affective organization which are here called sentiments. It is undeniable that the concept of attitude has become something of a factotum for both psychologist and sociologist which is as well relevant in our todays and in the disposition of scholars. But inspite of all the animadversions of critics , the term is now in nearly global use and plays a pinnaculous role in most of the recent systematic studies in social psychology. It is there a concept which students must examine with unusual care. Perhaps the first ecplicit recognition of attitudes within the domain of laboratory psychology was in connection with a study of reaction time. In 1888 l. lange discovered that a specimen who was conciousely prepared to press a telegraph key immediately upon receiving a signal reacted more quickly than did one whose attension was directed mainly to the incoming stimulis , and whose conciouseness was thereby not conciousely directed primary upon the expected reaction. After lang’s work the task-attitude, or Aufagabe , as it came to be called , was discovered to play to a decisive part in nearly all psychological experiments. Not only in the reaction experiment but in the investigation.

Geographical disposition

Cyprus is known to be the third largest island in the Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia. It lays between latitudes 30.33 and 35.41 and longitudes 32.23 and 34.55. The island has two parts: North–administered by Turks, and South–administered by Greeks since 1974. North Cyprus covers an area of 3,355 square kilometers. The capital of North Cyprus is Nicosia which is actually located in the city of lefkosa. Kyrenia, Famagusta, Guzelyurt, Lefke and Karpaz are the major developed cities which are known to be well existent and there as well exist some other little villages proximal to the above said locations.

In terms of the average atmospheric condition of north cyprus at a particularly given time spand,that is the ;climate. North Cyprus possess the mediteranean type with very acrue hot dry summers and relatively cold winters annually.

As an extension , Most of the rain-fall is between December and January.Spring and autumn are short. From the months of mid-May to mid-September, on an average scale, 11hours of sun light is relinguished daily. Amazingly during this time the temperature can reach as far as 40 degree celsius. The skies are cloudless with low humidity. The low humidity makes the high temperature bearable. Cyprus is green during winter. So, Cyprus is promoted as ideal for summer and winter holidays and it has a great potential in tourist attractions, therefore, medical tourism blends well with its environment and as well serves as an active point of benefit both for the state and residents of north Cyprus.

Hussain et al (2012) found out that As an the tourism department has been one of the main sectors for North Cyprus’ economic development. Despite its comparative advantage of rich geographical and natural resources, the Turkish republic of North Cyprus has faced some limitations in their capacity of fully harnessing that potential in order to enhance its competitiveness owing to the embargoes, restrictions in transportation (direct ferries/ships and direct flights) and competition with other countries. Since the second half of the 1980s, the tourism industry in North Cyprus has grown steadily, resulting in new travel agencies and the construction of new hotels, restaurants, bars, cafes and pubs and increasing competition between them.

It is unarguemented that tourism is widely sensitive to political instability and political environment, which has a great impact on the tourism industry in any region, so does Cyprus. It is known that from the year 1963 tourism industry in the Turkish republic of northern Cyprus has been drastically been influenced by political instability of north cyprus.

In contrast to the South, which is a well-developed tourist destination, North Cyprus is still developing and its economy is handicapped by the international political and economic isolation of the country, as well as by the insufficient intervention of both private and governmental investment. The department of tourism has its relative contribution to society but has not yet reached its optimal value given the political demerits of North Cyprus being an internationally unrecognized nation and the imposition of political embargoes .As Altinay et al. (2002) mention, ‘in spite of its significant contribution to the North Cyprus’ economy, the tourism industry is lagging behind its competitive strength when compared with its main rivals’. While South Cyprus has turned into a well-established nation. Cumulatively , the Turkish republic of North Cyprus is on a milestone to achieve acquire economic growth and to evict from its known political and economic dependence on Turkey (Yasarata et al ,2010).

Health department North Cyprus

The Health sector of the Turkish republic of North Cyprus was appalling traditionally, due to some ailing factors like insufficient medical awareness, low penetration of medical insurance, and the insufficient distribution of doctor- patient ratio as per population. However, it has come a long way and has reasonably witnessed a robust advancement in recent times and with a few years with the dynamic support of progressing healthcare campaigns that have been erected and established. To elucidate, the Turkish republic of north Cyprus has witnessed advantageous increase in medical insurance coverage, rising income levels and a rise in medical tourism. As if this is not enough North Cyprus still slugs behind in some health related infrastructure in the primary health care sector as compared to some other developing nations in Europe , Asia, Africa, and the latino regions. Ongoing, the healthcare department is witnessing some changes in patient demographic profile accompanied with several lifestyle diseases hitherto unknown. According to Health and Planning Office (2017), there exist a total of 6 public hospitals and 11 private hospitals in Northern Turkish republic of Cyprus, which are shown in the diagram below alongside their respective locations.

Records of the Health and Planning Office (2016) envisaged that, there is an aggregate of 873 medical doctors who are specialised in diverse medical disciplines, serving these hospitals. In 2016, the doctors have provided general, surgery cure,treatment to approximately 95,966 patients and dental care-treatment to 42,912 patients. These hospitals are known to be equipped with some advanced modern technological operating medical devices with a 2,582 bed capacity and 2,732 employees including administrative staff, nurses and other workers. Currently a few private hospitals in the Turkish republic of North Cyprus are aiming to intergrate with the developed economies to so as to offer them some distinguished healthcare services with an applaudable special and attractive packages like some cosmetic and dental services. As an extension a successful example of medical tourism in North Cyprus is the cosmetic tourism offered by BFN Cosmetic Tourism which is actually a local private company based in Kyrenia, working with a private hospital in Nicosia-lefkosa. This organisation has designed its distinguished and transformative packages to anastomose with the European tourist market since 2007.

To add, a progressive example of medical tourism in North Cyprus is the aspect of dental tourism relinquished by the Near East Travel and Tourism Enterprises since 2009, a local private organisation situated in lefkosa- Nicosia, which has erected some dental care programs welcomed to foreign tourist since 2008 dissipating all sorts of dental care therapeutic interventions.

Motivation is a topic that has a lot of research. Still, today, cause they are other forms of motivation that are still found, yet they are different and are always evolving. In society, you need goals (goal-setting theory), which could be linked to motivation. This helps to achieve your job/tasks. In school, there’s always a goal set, to motivate students to work. The positive consequence of work would be able to have a wider decision on the sector. This would start from a young, such as acquiring a skill, like reading. How can we find motivation?

Firstly, we need to define motivation, then observe the different factors of motivation.

Motivation can be found anywhere, in all different topics. Not only in the work industry, but also in sports, school, goals, and many other places. We can define it by the conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality, and directions of ongoing behavior (Vinacke 1962). Therefore, it’s a sort of response to wanting something done. It’s something that drives us to want to work. Anyhow, there are different ways of defining motivation.

In the 90s, jobs were something that’s characterized to put food on the table and have a roof over their heads. We could observe an evolution of the work today, due to employees are more likely to choose a job that they like. At the present time, more and more people get to have the opportunity to have a third level education and as result, they have a job that they are passionate about. Therefore, the factors of motivation today were not the same as before. It keeps evaluating.

Work motivation is defined by a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual to initiate work-related behavior and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration ( Pinder, 2008).

One of the factors affecting motivation at work is wanting to have success. Usually, all workplaces want to have success in their company or organization. Success is a big factor in motivation, and the consequence of this motivation is a bonus or a raise. Is an enormous motivator for the employees. Raises or bonus helps to motivate because it means economic security, for there debts or they could live more comfortably (we can observe that with the equity theory).

We can also observe, the factor of success with David McClelland’s theory, acquired needs theory, which proposed that motivation is set by the needs of the person. Everyone has different needs, it is represented in three points. In the first place, there is a need for achievement. This need is characterized by the must to win, to be on top, and receive the credit for the work. The negative of the need is the fear to fail and not have responsibilities, such as not delegating the work properly and having an overload of work, or fear to fail. Then the need for power (wanting to influence others and make an impact). Lastly, the need for affiliation, (which is to want to have friendships, to feel accepted, and to engage with others) (Dr. Joan Tiernan, 2019). In this theory, an individual is supposed to have an influential need, which motivates more than the two other needs. This factor leads to money, being another important factor that affects motivation.

This brings us to the Theory of Hierarchy of Needs from Maslow, in 1943. In his theory, he explains in a pyramid, the way of understanding how actions are motivated. It starts with the physiological needs, these are like the basic needs to survive for an individual (breathing, food, water, shelter, clothing, sleep). Then there are the safety and security needs, which represent the needs of being protected physically (property) and morally (health, family, social stability, employment). In addition, there is a need for love and belonging. It’s represented by the need to be a part of a group, such as social or relational. This can be firstly indicated by families, then friendship, intimacy, and then a sense of connection. Fourthly, it’s the self-esteem need that corresponds to the need for consideration, reputation, and recognition of glory, which is represented by others or belonging groups. It’s also the need for self-respect and self-confidence. Lastly, the last need is self-actualization, it corresponds to the need to exploit its personal potential in all areas of our lives. It depends on the individual. For some, it will be the need to study, to learn more, to develop one’s skills and personal knowledge, for others it will be the need to create, to invent, to do.

Secondly, stress is another factor in motivation, some studies show that under pressure, there’s this motivation that quicks in, in consequence of stress. In the report from the European Foundation for the Improvement of living and working conditions, (Eurofound, 2019), they state that the main stress work-related factors are the long working hours, heavy workload, lack of control and autonomy at work, poor support at work and poor relationship with colleagues.

Since one of the factors of work-related stress is a poor relationship with colleagues, therefore the environment in the workplace keeps changing to improve this problem. The environment in the workplace is one of the factors that affect motivation at work. In the 1960s, the cubicles began in the market. This design, it’s to have personnel space in an open space. This design was dominated in the 1970s. However, the design of the workplace gradually evolved, it went from personnel cubicles to open areas. These open areas are supposed to have more communications between employers, break the walls between the categories of the different jobs in the company and have a more relaxed environment at work. Though, today there has been an article addressed open space office can trigger stress, more sick leaves, promote anxiety and depression (Tank, 2019).

Work, Attitudes, and the link between personality and performance are factors that influence motivation. When having a job, you need to try and balance out with life. Some organizations, try to improve their employee’s balance between social life and work, by adding more social events, questionnaires and have a more changeable schedule. The attitude will show the job satisfaction and if their engagement to do their jobs/tasks (tell them how motivated the staff is). Lastly, there is the performance and personality, which they could use the knowledge to manipulate.

We could observe that four main factors of motivation at work are a success, money, stress, and the environment. Anyhow, motivation is not always positive or good for the employees. There are some problems that come with it. The consequence is monotony and boredom, which can be created by the absence of a variety of work, lack of skills or independence for the job, and the speed of work.

The ability to change another person’s attitude towards a topic, object or other individual is very important in society and has been. It’s a key tool in marketing, law, parenting, the media and even the health sector. It can be used to encourage people to do positive things, such as care for their health, and follow the law. However, it is a double-edged sword, as a key technique in war time is the production of mass amounts of propaganda and media that perpetrate false stereotypes about the enemy. A team of researchers at Yale University investigated the different factors that affect attitude change and persuasion, and the different conditions that it occurs under. These included features of the source, the message, and the audience that received it; this was collectively called the Yale Attitude Change Approach (Hovland et al. 1953).

This essay will be focussing on the features of the message factor: fear arousal and complexity. Based on previous research, we can predict that message factors such as fear and complexity are effective at promoting attitude change, however, they are mediated by other factors such as individual differences in participants and features of the source.

Hovland and his team at Yale investigated multiple “motivating appeals” (Hovland, Janis, and Kelley, 1953), which are features of a stimulus that are designed to persuade an individual to agree with it. In particular, they looked at “emotional appeals”, a category of stimuli that intended to produce obedience through emotion, rather than presenting logic or facts. One of the most commonly researched emotions involved in attitude change has been fear. The use of fear as a persuasion technique is a practice that has been long present in our society, from using it to instil obedience in children to enforcing the law. However, the levels of fear needed for attitude change had not been considered in much detail.

The fear arousal factor of a message refers to how numerous messages, such as those present in the media and marketing industry, use frightening images or statements in order to induce compliance. This is most often seen in health warnings; for example, threats of lung disease and images of damaged lungs are used to discourage the audience from smoking. Research by Janis and Feshbach (1953) investigated how three different levels of fear-arousing material in a presentation about dental hygiene affect attitude change.

The participants in the study were 200 students from a high school (M = 15 years) in Connecticut, USA. These students were separated into 4 groups using a randomisation technique. Every group was well balanced in terms of gender, IQ and educational attainment.

Three of the groups would experience different amounts of fear-arousing material in a presentation about dental hygiene. The presentation had three forms: Form 1 had a strong fear appeal, emphasizing severe negative consequences of neglecting dental hygiene, such as tooth decay and diseased gums, in a manner that was personalised and directed towards the audience, i.e. “This can happen to you”. Form 2 was presented less strongly, contained mild material and the tone was more factual. The third form was the mildest, as most of the fear-arousing material was substituted with factual information about the functions and growth of teeth. The fourth group acted as a control, and viewed a similar presentation but on a different topic (the human eye). All students filled out a questionnaire a week before the presentation, as well as one immediately after, and one a week after that. The first questionnaire asked about general dental hygiene and habits. The second one aimed to measure how the presentation was perceived, i.e., how much information was acquired, and the emotional (affective) reactions to it.

There was a significant difference found between the levels of fear felt in the Form 1 group and the Form 3 group, at p > 0.05. The results from the Form 2 group were intermediate and did not differ significantly from the other 2 groups. These findings suggest that the Form 1 group that experienced a presentation with high fear appeal, later experienced more worry and fear about the condition of their own teeth, in contrast to the minimal appeal group.

Background information

William Edwards Deming was an American and an international consultant. His ideas helped revolutionize the Industries of Japan after World War II, giving a boost to the countries’ economy. To honor his name, both Japan and America have an annual Deming prize for production, quality and dependency.

Intended Audience

The Book Out Of Crisis by Edward Deming is a treasure store for anyone looking to venture to the unknown dimensions of ethical and moral work, as managers and employees. Students and research enthusiasts who just want to take in new information and a different perspective of looking critically into procedures of effective management of a business.

Plot summary

There is a decline in industries, and a logical solute must be found to mitigate this. The idea behind the book is to help the reader understand the necessary requirement to be effective manger within the company and individually. Attitude of the managerial department and employee is categorized as a key component for bonding between the companies fraternity (Deming, 2000).

The author includes the 14 points of effective management without which a company my crumble if not implemented. The points are not limited to multinational companies only, they favor small enterprise companies as well.

The points include

• Consistency
• Supply chain
• Employee training
• Work environment equality.

Theme

In the book Out of crisis by Edward Deming, the theme of developing a good attitude comes to mind. Not only is developing the character a critical issue. But it is the main point in building a cohesive working environment for better productivity. Deming take the reader to a world of new character development opening up an avenue for critical thinking for managers and employees alike.

a) Attitude Toward Quality

Quality comes when those in power improve the organization’s infrastructure. This included improving their machines and types of equipment (Deming, 1982). With the advancement of technology, in the world, the national leader’s mentality should be to improve the technology. Automation daily lives have already arrived. Money is being moved swiftly and efficiently through technology. The advent of mobile money transfer is one wonder of technology. Managers should that their customers and consumers always get the best. Delays or server hangs provide a bad reputation for the company.

b) Attitude Towards Equality

Chapter two takes the reader to the world of equality, managers, and workers ought to have a system to share out their problems. This provides for worker employers communication reducing the barrier of interaction. This can be achieved through outdoor activities where the management and the employs get to meet and interact. Well-integrated teams are built like this. It will also ensure loyalty

c) Attitude Towards Security

Companies are built on the backbone of people’s trust. Organization management should ensure that customer data and information is protected. In the banking industry, this is important as money is a key element in the daily functioning of the economy. As such protecting people’s investment should be a priority. Face book data breach caused the brand financial loses. Implementation of security measures is key to happy clients (Deming, 1982).

Impact of the theme

Attitude is a moral compass that guides a human being toward attaining the best for himself and his neighborour fr the benefit of the society. The backbone of managing should not be left for managers and departmental heads alone. Deming bring this to reality by emphasizing no positive character development. He states in the preface that transformation requires t be up be implemented from ground-up. Meaning transformation should start from within the individuals working in a company to promote mutual coexistence.

Reference

1. Deming, W, E. (1982). Out of the crisis. Massachusetts Institute of technology.

The outbreak of the Great War in 1914 ensued a feeling of euphoria in Britain. Many Britain’s felt it was their moral duty to participate in the war because of ‘its pledge to Belgium and its duty to destroy Prussianism in a war to end war’. The declaration of the war was greeted with enthusiasm and jingoism. Streets filled with celebration and national pride, many with the belief of ‘it’ll be all over by Christmas’. The reason for excitement and support of the Great War is that at the time Britain had the strongest navy in the world, it was a time when Britain ‘ruled the waves’. Both Rudyard Kipling and Siegfried Sassoon initially were in support of the Great War. Rudyard Kipling was a popular writer and poet, in the peak of his fame he used his name and influence to get his son enlisted in the war despite being rejected for his bad eyesight. In 1914, endorsing the Great War Kipling wrote a poem called ‘All That We Have And Are’ ending with “What stands if Freedom fall? /Who dies if England live?”. Siegfried Sassoon shared this same eagerness, on the day of declaration he had already enlisted to fight in the war motivated by patriotism and national pride. Many young men including Rudyard’s Kipling’s son and Siegfried Sassoon thought of the war as an adventure, they saw it as their responsibility and duty to go out and fight for their country. This feeling of national pride and responsibility was echoed across Britain, especially among middle class young men.

Patriotism and Support for joining up

In David Haig’s ‘my boy jack’, Kipling is very much in support of the war and having his son Jack participate even though jack himself is hesitant.

Carrie: Do you think its fair to encourage him?

Rudyard: I would think it very unfair if I didn’t. Within a year, by the end of 1914, we shall be fighting for civilization itself, one wouldn’t want him to miss an opportunity to be part of that. (Act 1, page 9)

Kipling is determined to have his son fight in the war, he believes it will be an important historical moment for Britain, therefore wanting his son to be a part of British history. From the exchange Kipling is having with his wife, it is almost as if Kipling himself wants to be the one fighting for his country. However, unable to do so due to his age he wants to live this historical moment through his son. Similarly, Siegfried Sassoon volunteered to go fight in the war for Britain. Sassoon wrote many poems before, during and after the war, although Absolution was his first complete war poem.

War is our scourge; yet war has made us wise

And, fighting for our freedom, we are free. (Absolution, Siegfried Sassoon)

In this poem Sassoon is romanticizing war, this is demonstrating the sense of idealistic views of war held by many people at the time. Sassoon believed that war was a positive because fighting is what gave him freedom. These views held by Sassoon before he himself got to experience the war himself exposes his naivety of what war would be like. This sense of naivety and patriotism is echoed by Kipling in the play. ‘…a people whose soul is as strong and old as a British Oak’. The over-confidence demonstrated by both Kipling and Sassoon stems from the global dominance of the British Empire, from a modern outlook these views held by people at the time can be seen as arrogant as well as ignorant especially when they both don’t have any experience of the reality of a war. Sassoon’s friend and poet, Robert Graves confirmed that Sassoon was unware of the reality of war ‘without the remotest idea of what lay ahead’.

Attitudes towards death

Burial ceremonies were closely linked to Christian doctrines and the concept of a ‘good death’ during the Victorian era. Christianity gave families a model of acceptance of death and bereavement as the will of God. Haig presents Kipling’s belief that it is an honor to die defending your country, even if it means sacrificing the life of a family member. Preserving the British Empire and making sure Britain wins was the number one priority.

‘There is a price we have to pay. There is a risk we all have to take. Jack knows that… Therefore, we must continue to pass our children through the fire, until somehow we win and destroy her’. (Act 1, scene 5)

Kipling believes that his son dying in the war is a risk worth taking. Although Jack never explicitly expresses his own desire to fight in the war, Kipling assumes he shares the same belief as him. Sassoon responds to the death of anonymous soldiers in a similar way; he does not know them, and remarks that their deaths are glorious and meaningful:

“And they are fortunate…” (“France”)

And “When…you died…I speed you on your way” (“To His Dead Body”)

However, when both Sassoon’s brother (November 1915) and then his best friend David Thomas (May 1916) are killed, he eventually comes to the conclusion that death is not glorious, he develops the view that men are dying needlessly, as no military purpose is gained. He believes that the generals see the troops as expendable:

“He’s a cheery old card, grunted Harry to Jack…

But he did for them both by his plan of attack”. (“The General”)

Although Kipling still holds the belief that his son’s death was a meaningful sacrifice he becomes less and less convincing of the fact.

RUDYARD: NO sacrifice…is too great…no sacrifice…however painful, is too great…if we win the day…” (MBJ Act 2 Sc 1 p.52)

Haig’s use of ellipsis here implies hesitancy and a lack of belief. Kipling’s repetition of the word ‘sacrifice’ emits a feeling as if he is trying to convince himself that is it a necessary ‘sacrifice’.. Yet Kipling never wavers from his position that John’s sacrifice is a meaningful and spiritual act, approved of by God.

Both Kipling and Sassoon start of believing that death during the war was noble and a cause to be celebrated. However, Sassoon realizes the realities of war from his firsthand experience fighting whereas Kipling is experiencing the war through his son does not realize the effects war is having on the men serving therefore he is still hanging onto the belief that a death at war is noble.

Images of Trench Life and Battle

Sassoon initially held the belief that the first World War was necessary and a sense of duty to be a part of Britain’s participation, however after experiencing the realities of the war first hand this view was altered. Rudyard Kipling never fought in the war himself however he also was in support of the war, hence the reason why he encouraged his son to join in the first place. Haig is able to present the hideous and terrifying aspects of war through an eye witness account given by one soldier of many that Kipling questions about his son John’s disappearance:

BOWE: “I see the gas creepin’ toward me, like somethin’ livin’…there’s a body…” (MBJ Act 2 Sc 3 p.70)

Haig uses ellipsis frequently to give an anxious and highly emotional tone to Bowe’s personal account of the day John Kipling dies. From the description of the events it is clear that the soldiers are traumatized from the events on the day, which suggests that if John survived, he would have definitely been emotionally traumatized too. Sassoon’s poem Attack is different to most poems, poems usually glamorized war and made fighting seem like a heroic achievement that all young men should desire. Sassoon puts a different spin on war by describing its harsh reality.

At dawn the ridge emerges massed and dun

In the wild purple of the glow ‘ring sun, (“Attack”)

Although initially Sassoon describes the beautiful scenery of the mountains emerging in the early morning sun. Imagery is used here to describe a very peaceful and calming scenery. Sassoon does not continue this calm tone for long.

Lines of grey, muttering faces, masked with fear,

They leave their trenches, going over the top, (“Attack”)

Sassoon describes the actual soldiers who are fighting in war. He describes their faces as grey, muttering and masked in fear. The colour grey is an imagery of death or lacking life. The soldiers are so scared and fearful that they are muttering without realizing it. This line truly creates a sense of horror, Sassoon has created a intense image of what it felt like on the battlefield.

Use of Language and Tone

Both Kipling and Sassoon wind up having conflicting attitudes towards the First World War. Rudyard Kipling’s language in Act 1 Scene 5 is one of devotion, optimism and idealism. He is blinded by his romanized belief that Britain is the greatest nation in the World, his optimism for the prospects of the war is detached from reality.

Rudyard: “That’s why our empire is uniquely successful. We have managed to combine benevolence and commerce. NO one has done it before…the world is a better place, a safer place, a more comfortable place than it was a hundred years ago.” (Act 1 Scene 5)

Rudyard truly believes that Britain is imperishable, and it highlights his naivety. The repetition of place in term of it being ‘safer’, ‘better’, ‘more comfortable’ reinforces the Rudyard’s certainty that this war is a positive thing. Haig does this to show the irony in this belief system many people like Kipling had before the war. This is contrasted by Sassoon’s poem ‘The General’. Sassoon’s poem the ‘The General’ became on the most famous anti-war poem written. He used many of his poems to express his disgust with that wasteful conflict itself. In the poem the unwary soldiers’ praise of their General’s cheery enthusiasm – ‘He’s a cheery old card,’ grunted Harry to Jack. This contrasted starkly with the results of his ineffectiveness, just as his speech is juxtaposed with the soldiers’ cheerful slang. The use of generic names – ‘Jack’ and ‘Harry’ – which both personalizes and depersonalizes them, and the General’s breezily repeated greeting ‘good morning, good morning’ This phrase is ironic for various reasons. First, the greeting is so conventional; it is often simply a thing to say, not an expression of genuine emotion. Furthermore, mornings were especially bad times for troops fighting the kind of trench warfare common in World War I. It was often in the mornings that troops were sent “over the top” of the trenches frequently these attacks involved mass slaughter of soldiers running into “walls of blistering machine gunfire”. The general, is trying to be as cheerful and encouraging as possible even though he himself wouldn’t be the one going ‘over the top’.

Introduction

A positive attitude is often touted as a key factor in achieving success. While some may argue that skill, talent, and hard work are the primary drivers of success, the evidence overwhelmingly supports the notion that a positive attitude is necessary for success. In this persuasive essay, we will explore the impact of a positive attitude on various aspects of life, including personal growth, relationships, and professional achievements. By understanding the benefits of maintaining a positive mindset, we can appreciate its essential role in achieving success.

I. Personal Growth

A positive attitude is fundamental to personal growth and development. When faced with challenges and setbacks, a positive mindset enables individuals to embrace them as opportunities for growth. Instead of succumbing to self-doubt or negativity, a positive attitude allows individuals to maintain resilience and find solutions to problems. It encourages self-reflection, self-improvement, and a willingness to learn from experiences. By fostering a positive mindset, individuals can overcome obstacles, expand their skills, and ultimately achieve personal growth.

II. Relationships

Positive attitudes are contagious and have a profound impact on relationships. People naturally gravitate toward individuals who exude positivity and optimism. Maintaining a positive attitude enhances communication, fosters trust, and strengthens interpersonal connections. It allows individuals to approach conflicts with empathy, find common ground, and seek mutually beneficial solutions. Positive attitudes contribute to healthier and more fulfilling relationships, both in personal and professional spheres, leading to greater success in collaboration and teamwork.

III. Mental and Emotional Well-being

A positive attitude plays a vital role in mental and emotional well-being, which, in turn, influences success. When individuals maintain a positive mindset, they experience reduced stress levels, increased motivation, and improved overall mental health. Positive thinking enhances problem-solving abilities, creativity, and decision-making skills. By focusing on possibilities and opportunities rather than dwelling on negativity, individuals are better equipped to navigate challenges and achieve their goals.

IV. Resilience

Success is often accompanied by setbacks, failures, and disappointments. It is during these challenging times that a positive attitude becomes particularly crucial. A positive mindset enables individuals to bounce back from setbacks, view failures as temporary obstacles, and maintain the determination to persevere. Instead of being discouraged by failures, individuals with a positive attitude see them as stepping stones to eventual success. The ability to bounce back and maintain optimism in the face of adversity is a defining characteristic of successful individuals.

V. Professional Success

In the professional realm, a positive attitude is directly linked to success. Employers and colleagues are drawn to individuals who radiate positivity, enthusiasm, and a can-do attitude. Positive attitudes contribute to better work performance, improved productivity, and higher job satisfaction. Individuals with a positive mindset are more likely to seek opportunities for growth, take on challenges, and demonstrate resilience in the face of setbacks. They build strong professional networks and inspire others through their optimism, paving the way for career advancement and overall professional success.

Conclusion

In conclusion, a positive attitude is undeniably necessary for success. Its impact on personal growth, relationships, mental and emotional well-being, resilience, and professional success is evident. A positive attitude fuels motivation, enhances problem-solving abilities, and fosters an optimistic outlook even in the face of adversity. By embracing positivity, individuals can unlock their full potential, attract positive opportunities, and overcome obstacles on the path to success. So, let us recognize and cultivate the power of positivity in our lives, as it is an essential ingredient for achieving success and living a fulfilling life.

Transgender means a term denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal identity and gender doesn’t correspond with their birth sex.

The term transgender was coined by psychiatrist John.F.Ollven in the year 1965, in his work sexual hygiene and pathology. In 1984 transgender community concept was developed in which transgender was used as an umbrella term. In 1985 Richard Elkins established the transgender archive at university of Ulster. In mid-2000 primary term transgender were used to denote men who transitioned from female to male and vice versa, later these terms were suppressed by terms trans men and trans women.

Transgender are the people who are excluded from the main stream of the community and once were deprived of basic civic rights. Families of these people will also degrade them and shoo them off from their homes as a part of prestige issue. So these people form their own community and stay together in a mutual understanding.

Most of the Transgenders have a very low status in society and they have very few employment opportunities, so they indulge themselves in begging to earn their livelihood. They also indulge themselves in prostituting to earn money. Especially in country like India these people have religious title like hijjras jogappas and so on. People insult them by lightly using these terms and try to bully them.

The times have been changed now and the government of India is coming up with new laws and policies for upliftment of this community. Some of the laws are section 377 act which ensures their safety by protecting them from physical and sexual abuse. So these communities are coming to main stream and achieving in different areas of the society like:

• India’s first trans lawyer – Satthyashree Sharmila
• India’s first trans police – prithika Yashini
• India’s first trans principal – Manabi Bhandopadyaya
• India’s first trans person to contest in election – Mumtaz
• India’s first trans MLA – Shabnam Mausi
• India’s first trans soldier – Shabi

In spite of policies and facilities reserved for this minority group not much is happening when it comes to the implementation. People even today ill-treat them and also harass them inhumanly. According 2011 census survey, statistics say that 4, 87,803 lakhs are classified as Transgenders and they are illiterates. This shows that these people are deprived of basic civic rights. Their occupation is begging or prostitution. They are deprived of healthcare facilities, economic stability and social status. They also lack respect and dignity in the society. Even today majority of the people are either afraid of them or they are ignorant about them. So it is vital to study the different attitude of people towards transgender community. Attitude is favorable or unfavorable opinion towards an issue event or a person. Attitudes are strongly related to behavior. Hence the project work focuses on development of psychometric tool to determine the attitude towards a transgender.

The basic structure of this psychometric tool is based on Bogardus social distance scale. This is a type of scale developed by Emory.S.Bogardus to empirically measure “people’s willingness to participate in social contacts of varying degrees of closeness with members of diverse social groups, such as racial and ethnic groups.” The degree of closeness is measured in terms of:

• As close relatives by marriage
• As my close personal friends
• As neighbors on the same street
• As co-workers in the same occupation.

This psychometric tool also has question based on this same pattern. This tool tries to understand the attitude of a common man towards transgender in all these areas. This type of items is formed in order to get a clear picture about how different people accept these people into mainstream of the society.

INTRODUCTION

Human attitudes are unique to each person. Attitudes are a group of thoughts, feelings, or actions that evaluates objects in either a positive or negative manner (Schwarz, 2015). For example, our opinions on climate change, beliefs on the side effect of vaccination in children, or as simple as the credibility of politicians (Branscombe & Baron, 2017). Among researchers, there are questions on to what extend do attitudes differ in their strength (Branscombe & Baron, 2017). Attitudes can be categorized into strong or weak attitudes, in which both of them are different in many ways (Bohner & Dickel, 2011a). Therefore, attitudes were assumed to be related to some sort of evaluation (Bohner & Dickel, 2011b). Plus, different types of measurement methods will give out different types of responses (Schwarz, 2015). To further understand attitudes evaluation, the researcher measures them using two ways which were explicit or implicit form.

ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT METHOD

Explicit (Direct) Measurement

Explicit or direct means of attitude measurement require the respondents to openly states their evaluation or beliefs. This method is a very classic approach to measure one’s attitude. The researchers rely on the answer to direct questions such as “Do you support or do not support the current education syllabus?” (Schwarz, 2015). However, there is a risk of a biased answer, depending on each of the respondent’s interests or constrictions that may apply to them (Traczyk & Zaleskiewicz, 2016). For example, the advertisement for Nike’s portrays the brands’ model which has fit body type and is usually handsome or beautiful. This kind of images will attract people who wish they are fit and handsome or beautiful. If a survey is conducted and respondent were asked to picked their favourite sports brand, it is most likely that Nike scored higher as they have already had the respondent’s interest since before (Branscombe & Baron, 2017).

Usually, explicit measurement implements the use Likert-scaling incorporated into the questionnaires or surveys. The measurement was first introduced by Rensis Likert, where the method is being used to replace the conventional methods that usually are very time consuming while collecting the self-reported data (Krabbe, 2017;Tullis & Albert, 2013). Likert scale presents a gradient of options in either positive or negative options, where respondents are to grade their opinion accordingly (Tullis & Albert, 2013). For instance, in a question of “Do you agree or disagree on interracial marriage?” the respondent are given a scale of one (1) to five (5), where they grade their opinion with one to be strongly disagree, five to be strongly agree and 3 to be neither agree or disagree. The implementation of Likert scale can be used in determining user’s gaming experience, determining the influence of customer satisfaction in consumer buying decision and many more (Sanders, 2016;Yang, Cheng, & Tong, 2015). Thus, this scale is totally centred to the subject where its main objective is to scale the respondents’ opinion, and not the item or object (Krabbe, 2017).

Another popular method in explicit measurement is Semantic Differential scale. Unlike Likert scale that gave choices of either agree or disagree to each questions, semantic differential scale uses a group of words that is polar opposite from each other for the particular topic (Tullis & Albert, 2013). For example, in a survey on a particular politic party on the Election Day, a series of words are presented to study the people’s attitudes in relating those words with the political party. In other word, semantic differential is a tool to measure the association of people attitudes towards the given object (Stoklasa, Talášek, & Stoklasová, 2019). There is also study that applies the use of semantic differential scale in the study of multiple aspects in mind perception, where emotions and intelligence are corresponded to experience and agency (Takahashi, Ban, & Asada, 2016).

However, there are pros and cons between the two methods in measuring attitudes. There is no guarantee that the respondent have some degree of understanding regarding the topic and they might also have tendency to answer based on an acceptable social biases (DePoy & Gitlin, 2016). In a report by Krabbe, (2017) the items of that particular topic presented through Likert scaling might have difference in importance, where one item might be more important than the other. On the other hand, there are reports that Semantic differential scale limits the range of responses (DePoy & Gitlin, 2016). Thus, Krabbe, (2017) states that the use of direct measurement method increases the susceptibility of the data to be bias. Regardless of that, the use of semantic differential scale is a better option in the explicit measurement as it reduces the tendency for social biases (Stoklasa et al., 2019).

Implicit (Indirect) Measurement

Human thoughts and actions are usually developed by external factors or processes that took place in an automatic manner (Branscombe & Baron, 2017). Since there is a concern on the disadvantages of explicit measurement, psychologist has developed an unobstructed, implicit measurement (Mitchell & Tetlock, 2015). Implicit measurement helps the researcher to understand the relation of attitudes to behaviour (Goodall, 2011). They hoped to be able to link and shorten the gap between self-reported method and behaviours (Meissner et.al, 2019). This is because, implicit measurement have a better prediction of validity when assessing a more sensitive topic for the people (Sargent & Newman, 2020). The implicit measurement mainly done based on the respondent’s speed and accuracy in responding to the stimuli (Kurdi et al., 2019). The example of implicit measurement method is the Implicit Association Test (IAT), Evaluative Priming (EP), Affect Misattribution Paradigm (AMP), as well as physiological measures that include Event Related Potentials (ERP) and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI).

Implicit association test focuses on people’s silent thoughts, the thoughts where they might not want to or unable to report to the researcher (Branscombe & Baron, 2017), that is usually influenced by the social group beliefs and stereotypes (Kurdi et al., 2019). IAT lays the outline of the fact that people always associates or evaluates social objects in a positive or negative manner (Branscombe & Baron, 2017). Schimmack, (2019) classifies IAT as a simultaneous classification task. The respondent are required to classify a pair of different object into a particular category that is mutually exclusive (Schimmack, 2019). With this, the researcher evaluates the respondent’s automatic association of classifying both of the objects (Chevance et al., 2017). The test means of measurement is by measuring the time of responses when the respondent are evaluating or categorizing each object to their respective category (Schimmack, 2019). This evaluative conditioning helps the researcher to drive the respondents’ implicit belief when the topic’s specific trait is not present (Chevance et al., 2017).

Evaluative priming has been introduced way before the Implicit Association test, with the purpose of investigating automatic activation of attitudes (Koppehele-Gossel et al., 2020). Although the mechanism of evaluative priming is similar to IAT, evaluative priming resolves the instrumental concern that often being associated with IAT (Koppehele-Gossel et al., 2020). For example, a study done by (Lehnert et al., 2018) on the topic of language, where the respondent is given either positive or negative adjective after being given a prime stimulus. Based on the respondent’s response, the researcher are able to study the spontaneous and implicit object evaluation that is based on prior representation of the respondents’ memory (Lehnert et al., 2018).

Another example of implicit measurement is using the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP). This method has been reported as a very powerful technique to assess preferences or attitudes that people wish to conceal (Hazlett & Berinsky, 2018). It uses similar mechanism as other implicit measurement method, which respondent are presented with prime stimulus before being presented with a non-familiar target (Ross et al., 2020). The result of this method has shown that the affective and semantic judgement of the target are influenced by the prime stimulus (Ross et al., 2020). This method also have high magnitude of priming effect as well as high statistical reliability (Hazlett & Berinsky, 2018).

The physiological measures of implicit measurement include Event Related Potentials (ERP) and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). These method of measuring attitudes are increasing in use, along with the advancement in the medical technology (Helfrich & Knight, 2019). The ERP is a method where voltage fluctuation is recorded through scalp when a time-locked event is induced to the respondent (Thigpen & Keil, 2016). As such, the event is usually presented before sensory-related operation, cognitive control operation, affective operation or memory-related operations is being introduced to the participants (Kropotov, 2016). Thus, ERP has the potential in precisely recording human perception and behaviour in non-traditional approaches (Helfrich & Knight, 2019). Whereas fMRI portrays brain structures that responded differently in a given situation or stimulus, which in turns provide a precise proof when measuring someone’s attitude or behaviour (Thigpen & Keil, 2016).

ISSUES IN ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

There are two issues which are relevant in attitude measurement which is the reliability and validity of the measurement. Attitude measurement is designed to provide a valid, or accurate measure of an individual’s social attitude. There are a few reasons as to why adressing the issue of attitude measurement is importance. According to Alwin (1973), it is important to study the issue in attitude measurement because attitude concept presence everywhere in modern social sciences, extensive presence of attitude measures in explicit and implicit measures and the challenges measuring a construct known as latent variable. First of all, study of attitudes concept is presence everywhere in modern social science. Various attitude measurement method is used in social science research to achieve the objective of the study. In addition, social science often deals in concepts which are constructs, known as latent variable rather than the directly measurable variables. A latent variable is variable that cannot be observed so it is difficult to be measured. The measures used to study the attitude in a study should be consistent and accurate so that the results of the study are believable. Therefore, it is important to address the issue in attitude measurement in order to make sure that the measurement of attitude is reliable and valid.

Reliability of Attitude Measurement

Reliability refers to the degree to which, each time it is performed, a measure generates the same number or score (Hays & Revicki, 2005). There are two types of reliability involve in attitude measurement; internal consistency and test – retest reliability. A reliable measures should have internal consistency. Internal consistency reflects the extent to which items within an instrument measure various aspects of the same characteristic or construct. It a way to gauge how well a test or survey is actually measuring what we want to measure. For example, all the items in an explicit measures should reflect the same fundamental construct so that the participant’s scores on the item correlated with each other. High internal consistency means that the measures is measuring the construct well. Low consistency means that the measure is measuring different construct.

A reliable measure should also produce a consistent score across time when measuring a construct. This is called test – retest reliability. In other words, the same test is given to the same participant at different time to see the consistency of the score. If the association of the scores over time is high, it shows that the measure have good test – retest reliability.

Reliability in Explicit Measures

Reliability in explicit measures shows high reliability in both internal consistency and test – retest. For example, in a study by de Leeuw et. al (2019) titled Development of an International Survey Attitude Scale: Measurement Equivalence, Reliability, and Predictive Validity, the result of the study shows satisfactory reliability. The reliability of the measures which was indicated by McDonald’s Omega and Cronbach’s alpha shows the reading at 0.76 to 0.83. In a study titled, Reliability and Validity of The Sexual Experiences Survey–Short Forms Victimization and Perpetration Johnson (S. M., Murphy, M. J., & Gidycz, C. A., 2017), the reliability of the measures are at proper internal consistency and high percentage of test – retest reliability. The purpose of this study was to provide psychometric data on the updated Sexual Experiences Survey–Short Form Perpetration (SES-SFP) and the Sexual Experiences Survey–Short Form Victimization (SES-SFV). The internal consistency for the item are at 0.92 to 0.98 of Cronbach Alpha’s reading. The participants redo the same survey again after two weeks to see the consistency of the score. After two weeks, 70% to 90% had the exact same score of the initial survey. According to Alwin (2017), the most reliable measurement results are when fewer response categories are used.

Reliability of a measure declines with increasing the number category options (Revilla,Saris, and Krosnick 2014). When there are many categories option, especially category option that has middle category introduces ambiguity. The middle category in 3 or 5 category options makes the respondent choose the middle category or neutral response to an item when they are uncertain because it is easier and less effort needed. Fewer category option is easier for respondent to make choices. Random choices introduce random error in the measurement thus decreasing the reliability of the measures. Alwin (2017) also states that unipolar response scales have higher reliabilities than bipolar rating scales. Unipolar scale indicates a respondent to think of the presence or absence of a trait or attitude. Bipolar scale refers to the degree or intensity of attitude toward the item. Unipolar scales are easier for respondent to choose because the scale are more direct, in contrast to bipolar scales in which the respondent have to choose based on the intensity or degree or neutrality of their attitude.

There are other source of random error that effect the reliability of explicit measurement. Non – existant of attitude can introduce random error in survey research (Converse, 1964). Respondent can have little to no knowledge or no opinion and attitude to a certain item in instrument. However, when someone was chosen as respondent for a survey, they are pressured to give their opinion even when they have none. This could lead the respondent to choose any option in the response category and thus increase the random variation in the measures. It is important for the researcher to pick the right respondent for their study so that it will be reliable. According to Bem (1972), some random variation in attitude measures are the result of ambiguity in attitudinal cues. Some have their own firm thought or attitude to the item in an instrument while some others may have conflicting or undeciding response to certain attitude. The response ambiguity will increase the amount of random measurement error because it forces respondent to choose any random choices thus reduces the reliability of the measures. Lastly, the ambiguity of response scale alternatives also introduces random error in attitude measures. The ambiguous meaning of the response scale alternatives make the respondent difficult to map their attitudinal cues. For example, in a research to study how often respondent smokes cigarettes in a day, using response option such as constantly, frequently, sometimes, rarely and never makes it challenging for the respondent to choose their response as the response alternatives are ambiguous. It will be better to for the researcher to ask how many cigarettes do the respondent smoke in a day with response alternative in scale of numbers. This way, the meaning of response alternative is clearer and it is easier for the respondent to direct their attitudinal cues.

Reliability in Implicit Measures

Reliability in implicit measure shows satisfactory internal consistency and weak to moderate test – retest correlations. Chevance et al (2016) and Rebar et al (2015) in their study on physical activity and sedentary behaviour research which uses Implicit Association Test (IAT) as measurement method shows satisfactory internal consistency reliability. These studies show that the internal consistency of both the IAT and SC-IAT, with split-half correlations and Cronbach alphas usually ranging from 0.70 to 0.90. These values are satisfactory according to current standards and are better than those obtained when using other indirect measures (Gawronski & De Houwer, 2012). In a study by Lane, Banaji, Nosek, and Greenwald (2007), 20 studies was reviewed in which IATs was used on the same individual twice across time shows weak to moderate reliability with the Pearson rs reading at 0.25 to 0.69, with a mean of 0.5. According to William and Steele (2016), the test – retest reliability in their study of race attitude in children shows less satisfactory reliability (r = 0.24) that internal consistency (α = 0.7). Children may have felt tired during the second measure, increasing the error variance and thus decreasing the test – tetest reliability.

There are a few challenges that may affect the reliability of implicit measures. IAT uses reaction time to measure the strength of association. The use of reaction time makes IAT at risk of increasing the random variation which thus making it difficult to assess the reliability of the measure (Rezaei, 2011). During IAT, individual can feel pressured to answer the test because of the reaction time. This can lead to random choices which can increase random variation. According to Blanton and Jaccard (2008), a split of a second can have a consequent effect on a person’s score. Therefore, when analyzing Implicit Association Test (IAT) results, researcher need to avoid jumping into conclusion that the test is unreliable. In addition to that, unfamiliarity with IAT can also lead to decreasing reliability of the test. If a respondent not familiar with how IAT works, it could lead to increase reaction time which are used to measure the strength of association. Rezaei (2011) also suggested that researcher include trials for respondent to practice the test before actual study. Therefore, making the respondent familiar with IAT can improve the reliability of the test.

When choosing my placement, I am going to be looking for a place that follows a certain teaching method that is most in line with my beliefs and values. They include allowing children to have a certain amount of independence, involving the parents/ guardians as much as possible, and working as a strong team with my colleagues.

I personally think that children should have the right to a certain amount of freedom and independence during their education in an early years setting as it improves their creativity and allows them to independently learn. According to Aistear play and hands-on experiences ‘help them to manage their feelings, develop as thinkers and language users, develop socially, be creative and imaginative, and lay the foundations for becoming effective communicators and learners’ (Aistear, 2009). The reason I believe that it is so important is because allowing children to explore objects and figure out their purpose improves their gross motor skills. An area of the Montessori theory that I strongly value is that most Montessori classrooms have a designated area for practical life such as a toy kitchen and a dress-up area. Having a toy kitchen often allows children to re-enact what they see at home and improves skills such as putting a lid on and off of a saucepan, this teaches them that certain shapes and sizes belong together, e.g. only one lid will fit each saucepan and it is up to them to figure out which one is it. A dress-up area in a Montessori not only allows children to use their imagination as they take on the role of a particular character, but it also allows them to discover the use of buttons and zips that may appear on the costumes available.

Working closely with families is not only a legal requirement (according to article 42.1 of the Irish Constitution) in Ireland it is also extremely important to involve them as much as possible as it creates a close bond between you as a practitioner and the child’s family. This works out extremely well as it not only prevents confrontation, but if any problems were to occur they would be resolved quicker and much easier. Parents will also feel safer leaving their children in an environment where they not only trust the practitioners but also have a close connection with them. It can be difficult sometimes to involve families because of certain barriers e.g. language barriers, parents may not have enough time, etc However as a practitioner it is extremely important to reach out as much as possible. There are numerous ways of allowing families to be involved such as Grandparents Day, Sibling Day, and Parents Day. This would extremely benefit the child as they would feel a sense of belonging as they watch their school life and their family life come together.

Another thing I value very strongly is teamwork. I enjoy working as a team as it tends to get tasks done faster, it also allows people to feed off each other’s ideas and make an overall successful idea. Working as a team in an early years setting is very important as it allows everyone to be aware of the various activities that are going on. It also gives room for both positive and negative feedback from your colleagues, which can help you to grow as not only a team but as an individual. Also if children see teamwork being demonstrated well they will then reflect this type of behaviour.