Category: Attachment Theory

The early stage of infancy is greatly characterized by rapid and significant brain growth. This growth facilitates the development of crucial neurodevelopmental capacities underlying advanced psychological and emotional well-being (Dobbing & Sands, 1973). Some accounts of early brain development argue that this growth majorly occurs within a biological context. However, others have contended that interpersonal context where structural and functional networks are shaped by the nature and quality of early caregiver-infant interactions (Newman et al., 2015) is just as important for typical early brain development. This caregiver-infant relationship has been highlighted for its role in early child development, it has also been the basis for the attachment theory, proposed by John Bowlby (1958). The attachment theory posits an integrative framework of human development, where development transpires in the context of our early relationships (Newman et al., 2015). This attachment system is viewed as an innate, homeostatic system that provides the regulation of proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behaviours in infancy (Bowlby, 1969. cited in Newman et al., 2015). Any disruptions to this early caregiver-infant relationship can result in alterations to neurological and social aspects of early development. Much of the early work of John Bowlby borrows from the ideas of Sigmund Freud and has been further expanded by Mary Ainsworth. The purpose of this essay is to explore the connection between attachment and early neurological development.

In the theory of attachment, Bowlby emphasized the importance of a secure base for a healthy infant-caregiver relationship and ongoing development. This secure base is the primary caregiver who acts as a secure position from which the infant can explore the world (Bowlby, 1969. cited in Newman et al., 2015). The nature of this secure early relationship influences the development of inner working models, or representations, of the self, other, and relationships. The ideas proposed by John Bowlby were later corroborated by the work of Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999) with the Strange Situation procedure – a laboratory paradigm investigating infant-parent attachment. Ainsworth went on to define patterns of secure and insecure attachment and related these to patterns of emotional interaction that could be identified in the relations between the infant and the carer (Newman et al., 2015). For a secure attachment, the infant uses the caregiver as a secure base for exploration. They would experience distress as a result of separation from the caregiver but are able to be comforted upon the caregiver’s return (Newman et al., 2015). There are several kinds of literature that suggest that the formation of a healthy infant-caregiver bond can encourage typical brain development, in particular, the right brain. The right brain is involved in processing social-emotional information, facilitating attachment functions, regulating bodily and affective states (Schore, 1994;1998. cited in Malekpour, 2007), and controlling vital functions that allow organisms to cope with stress (Wittling & Schweiger, 1993). According to Allan Schore, the maturation of the right brain regulatory capacities is dependent on the experience embedded in the attachment relationship between the infant and primary caregiver (Schore, 2000, 2015). However, this experience can positively or negatively influence the development of brain structure. Other researchers have expressed that when a caregiver is interacting with their infant (e.g., hugging, holding), brain networks are activated and strengthened, and firing spreads to associated networks. Also, when the infant is sung to, other networks that allow for sound to be received and interpreted are strengthened (Epstein, 2001). Thus, the evidence implies that early social environments directly impact the early maturation of the brain.

Contrarily, an insecure attachment where the healthy and secure bond has been contaminated by fear and neglect creates anxious or avoidant children. It also results in alterations to particular brain regions, especially those implicated in emotional regulation (De Bellis & Kuchibhatla, 2006; Strathearn, 2018). This ‘experience-dependent’ nature of the infant brain has been demonstrated in various studies of groups of children who were exposed to early unusual caregiving environments. McCrory et al (2012) revealed that structural and functional abnormalities in cortical and subcortical regions may contribute to subsequent deficits in affect regulation in not only children but also adults who have been exposed to early relational trauma or maltreatment from abusive or neglectful caregiving (McCrory et al., 2012). Another study utilizing the PET imaging technique investigated brain activation in post-institutionalised Romanian children and found relatively lower metabolism in a network of areas associated with stress regulation, including the orbitofrontal cortex (Chugani et al., 2001) which is involved in the cognitive process of decision-making. This study received further support from event-related potential studies that found cortical hypoactivation in maltreated children when viewing emotional facial expressions of familiar and unfamiliar individuals (e.g., Pollak & Sinha, 2002). Furthermore, hypoactivation of specific regions such as the right-hemisphere frontal, medial temporal, and limbic structures associated with emotion regulation can hinder the integration and connectivity between these areas in children who have suffered attachment-related trauma (Schore, 2009).

Moreover, a stressful and unideal early environment can also contribute to physiological dysregulation of an individual’s stress regulation systems, especially the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA axis) (Kinlein et al., 2015; Strathearn, 2018). The dysregulation of the HPA axis results in impaired stress regulation in maltreated populations as feedback loops regulating glucocorticoid hormones are disturbed by non-typical or adverse early attachment interactions (Burke et al., 2005), thus, resulting in individuals becoming highly sensitive to stress (Kaufman & Charney, 2001) which further increases vulnerability to later psychiatric conditions in later childhood and adulthood (e.g., mood and anxiety disorders) (Kinlein et al., 2015; Penza et al., 2003).

In summation, the previously proposed neurobiological findings imply that impaired early caregiving and trauma, during infancy, a crucial stage of brain development, can have long-term consequences on neurological development, and social functioning and increase the risk of psychopathology in later childhood and adult life. Thus, the formation of a healthy and interactive bond with the infant is crucial.

The early stage of infancy is greatly characterized by rapid and significant brain growth. This growth facilitates the development of crucial neurodevelopmental capacities underlying advanced psychological and emotional well-being (Dobbing & Sands, 1973). Some accounts of early brain development argue that this growth majorly occurs within a biological context. However, others have contended that interpersonal context where structural and functional networks are shaped by the nature and quality of early caregiver-infant interactions (Newman et al., 2015) is just as important for typical early brain development. This caregiver-infant relationship has been highlighted for its role in early child development, it has also been the basis for the attachment theory, proposed by John Bowlby (1958). The attachment theory posits an integrative framework of human development, where development transpires in the context of our early relationships (Newman et al., 2015). This attachment system is viewed as an innate, homeostatic system that provides the regulation of proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behaviours in infancy (Bowlby, 1969. cited in Newman et al., 2015). Any disruptions to this early caregiver-infant relationship can result in alterations to neurological and social aspects of early development. Much of the early work of John Bowlby borrows from the ideas of Sigmund Freud and has been further expanded by Mary Ainsworth. The purpose of this essay is to explore the connection between attachment and early neurological development.

In the theory of attachment, Bowlby emphasized the importance of a secure base for a healthy infant-caregiver relationship and ongoing development. This secure base is the primary caregiver who acts as a secure position from which the infant can explore the world (Bowlby, 1969. cited in Newman et al., 2015). The nature of this secure early relationship influences the development of inner working models, or representations, of the self, other, and relationships. The ideas proposed by John Bowlby were later corroborated by the work of Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999) with the Strange Situation procedure – a laboratory paradigm investigating infant-parent attachment. Ainsworth went on to define patterns of secure and insecure attachment and related these to patterns of emotional interaction that could be identified in the relations between the infant and the carer (Newman et al., 2015). For a secure attachment, the infant uses the caregiver as a secure base for exploration. They would experience distress as a result of separation from the caregiver but are able to be comforted upon the caregiver’s return (Newman et al., 2015). There are several kinds of literature that suggest that the formation of a healthy infant-caregiver bond can encourage typical brain development, in particular, the right brain. The right brain is involved in processing social-emotional information, facilitating attachment functions, regulating bodily and affective states (Schore, 1994;1998. cited in Malekpour, 2007), and controlling vital functions that allow organisms to cope with stress (Wittling & Schweiger, 1993). According to Allan Schore, the maturation of the right brain regulatory capacities is dependent on the experience embedded in the attachment relationship between the infant and primary caregiver (Schore, 2000, 2015). However, this experience can positively or negatively influence the development of brain structure. Other researchers have expressed that when a caregiver is interacting with their infant (e.g., hugging, holding), brain networks are activated and strengthened, and firing spreads to associated networks. Also, when the infant is sung to, other networks that allow for sound to be received and interpreted are strengthened (Epstein, 2001). Thus, the evidence implies that early social environments directly impact the early maturation of the brain.

Contrarily, an insecure attachment where the healthy and secure bond has been contaminated by fear and neglect creates anxious or avoidant children. It also results in alterations to particular brain regions, especially those implicated in emotional regulation (De Bellis & Kuchibhatla, 2006; Strathearn, 2018). This ‘experience-dependent’ nature of the infant brain has been demonstrated in various studies of groups of children who were exposed to early unusual caregiving environments. McCrory et al (2012) revealed that structural and functional abnormalities in cortical and subcortical regions may contribute to subsequent deficits in affect regulation in not only children but also adults who have been exposed to early relational trauma or maltreatment from abusive or neglectful caregiving (McCrory et al., 2012). Another study utilizing the PET imaging technique investigated brain activation in post-institutionalised Romanian children and found relatively lower metabolism in a network of areas associated with stress regulation, including the orbitofrontal cortex (Chugani et al., 2001) which is involved in the cognitive process of decision-making. This study received further support from event-related potential studies that found cortical hypoactivation in maltreated children when viewing emotional facial expressions of familiar and unfamiliar individuals (e.g., Pollak & Sinha, 2002). Furthermore, hypoactivation of specific regions such as the right-hemisphere frontal, medial temporal, and limbic structures associated with emotion regulation can hinder the integration and connectivity between these areas in children who have suffered attachment-related trauma (Schore, 2009).

Moreover, a stressful and unideal early environment can also contribute to physiological dysregulation of an individual’s stress regulation systems, especially the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA axis) (Kinlein et al., 2015; Strathearn, 2018). The dysregulation of the HPA axis results in impaired stress regulation in maltreated populations as feedback loops regulating glucocorticoid hormones are disturbed by non-typical or adverse early attachment interactions (Burke et al., 2005), thus, resulting in individuals becoming highly sensitive to stress (Kaufman & Charney, 2001) which further increases vulnerability to later psychiatric conditions in later childhood and adulthood (e.g., mood and anxiety disorders) (Kinlein et al., 2015; Penza et al., 2003).

In summation, the previously proposed neurobiological findings imply that impaired early caregiving and trauma, during infancy, a crucial stage of brain development, can have long-term consequences on neurological development, and social functioning and increase the risk of psychopathology in later childhood and adult life. Thus, the formation of a healthy and interactive bond with the infant is crucial.

During a long period of time psychologists were actively engaged in developing theories that can be now addressed as attachment theory; however, Bowlby became the one who was able to state it in a profound way. The theory assumes that there exist strong emotional bonds among people (addressed as attachments) which may cause particular standards of behavior. This theory has a row of application spheres with their creators and purposes that may be in general characterized as child care, children’s clinical psychology, and adult clinical psychology.

The main postulate of attachment theory is that there exists “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” which may be defined as attachments (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). Such attachments may affect people from their childhood till their adulthood. Bowlby argues that “the propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals [is] a basic component of human nature” (1988, 3). The assumptions of this theory may be successfully applied in practice in a row of spheres including child care, children’s clinical psychology, and adult clinical psychology.

Speaking about the theory application in child care, it is important to state that it emphasizes the importance of close and warm relationships between children and their parents especially in the earliest period of a child’s life for his or her strong mental health (Bretherton 1992). Numerous researches indicate that in the initial stage of forming the psychological nature of any child it is very important to provide all the possible grounds for a close connection between children and their parents (McLeod 2009). This strategy has been proven as the main success factor for the person’s future integration into society as a decent member.

Further, attachment theory can be applied in children’s clinical psychology as the main scientific approach to socioemotional development (McLeod 2009). However, there exist certain difficulties with its application in this area as when Bowlby was developing this theory he did not consider this theory to have a broad implementation in clinical practice (Bowlby 1969).

There is also an application of this theory in adult clinical psychology and family clinical practice which can be described as the explanation of the reasons for a particular approach to treating patients with certain psychological disorders (Bretherton 1992). The theory explains the nature of disorders in particular individuals’ behavior and gives practical recommendations concerning relevant therapy in such cases (McLeod 2009).

Attachment theories are also applied in numerous cultures; namely, statements similar to attachment theory exist in numerous ancient cultures which emphasize the importance of strong bonds between parent and their children necessary for their mental health and offer successful physiological therapy strategies of overcoming the consequences of psychological traumas by means of help from the bottom of the person who can be named as the source of attachment in any particular case (McLeod 2009).

Concluding on the information related above, it should be stated that attachment theory has a row of application spheres including child care, children’s clinical psychology, and adult and family clinical psychology. Namely, the theory emphasizes the importance of close and warm relationships between children and their parents. In addition, attachment theory can be applied in children’s clinical psychology as the main scientific approach to socioemotional development. Finally, the findings of this theory can be successfully applied into practice in psychological therapy for adults and families.

References

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books.

Bretherton, I. (1992). The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28, 759-775.

McLeod, S. (2009). Attachment Theory.

Introduction

Bowlby’s four stages of attachment is a framework that holds that newborns undergo four phases of associations with their primary caregiver namely the pre-attachment, clearly defined attachment, attachment-in-the-making, and reciprocal connections. During the pre-attachment period (first six weeks after birth) is more inclined to explore than form relationships with others (Wilson-Ali et al., 2019). The attachment in the making phase (six weeks and seven months) signifies the onset of a bond. Therefore, the baby begins to express a preference for caregivers. However, these connections are typically weaker compared to those formed in later years. Contrarily, the clear-cut attachment stage (seven months to two years) is characterized by the infant’s connection to the caregiver getting stronger (Zeifman, 2019). At the age of two, the child develops ties with other people through child-directed communication, marking the onset of the stage of the reciprocal relationship. An analysis of these four stages and the shortcomings of Bowlby’s theory forms the basis of this paper.

Discussion

During the pre-attachment stage, the infant will seek closer proximity when they are together with the caregiver. Caregivers can therefore help them by offering their baby ample emotional and physical affection. When a baby is in the attachment-in-the-making stage, they cry more often, especially when left alone. Parents’ support during this stage can entail exposing the baby to simple schedules (Zeifman, 2019). The baby will begin exploring its environment during the phase of reciprocal relationships. Hence, caregivers can provide them with profound physical assistance and emotional affection. Lastly, a child starts developing deeper connections with a wider range of persons throughout the multiple attachments period. To encourage social growth, caregivers can continuously give these children opportunities to fully discover their surroundings.

Conclusion

The most common weakness of Bowlby’s theory is that it is founded on a Western nuclear family paradigm making it impertinent in other societal settings. According to the theory, the mother-child bond is what creates all connections whereas the father only plays a supportive role. However, in contexts where the father is significantly involved in parenthood, this might not be the case. Secondly, it fails to adequately account for how various attachment trajectories emerge (Georganda, 2019). According to the model, there are three main types of bonding: stable, anxious-ambivalent, and nondirective. However, the conjecture does not explain why certain children form supportive relationships whereas others acquire anxious-ambivalent or nondirective traits.

References

Georganda, E. T. (2019). Attachment and affect regulation theories and the existential/developmental model. Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 30(2).

Wilson-Ali, N., Barratt-Pugh, C., & Knaus, M. (2019). Multiple perspectives on attachment theory: Investigating educators’ knowledge and understanding. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 44(3), 215-229.

Zeifman, D. M. (2019). Attachment theory grows up: A developmental approach to pair bonds. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 139-143.

Outón, C. B. (2001). A wife’s story and A pair of tickets: Intercultural experience in Bharati Mukherjee and Amy Tan. Re-interpretations of English: Essays on Literature, Culture and Film (pp. 51-64).

Attachment theory has become one of the most important conceptual schemes for understanding the early socio-emotional development of children. It has also become one of the most powerful models guiding parent-infant relationships in key areas such as daycare, child welfare, head start programs, hospitals, schools, and parenting programs. Attachment theory is a joint work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991). Bowlby revolutionized our thinking about an infant’s tie to the mother and its disruption through separation, deprivation and bereavement. Later, Ainsworth made it possible to test some of the Bowlby hypothesis and expanded the theory. She also expounded the concept of the attachment figure as a secure base from which the child can explore the world. In addition, she invented the concept of maternal sensitivity to child signals and its role in development of child-mother attachment patterns. Bowlby proposed that a two month-old attachment is made up of a number of component instinctual responses that have the function of binding the infant to the mother and the mother to the infant. These component responses such as sucking, clinging and crying mature independently during the first year of life and become increasing integrated and focused on a mother figure during the second 6 months (Bell & Ainsworth, 1972). He suggested that clinging was more important for attachment than sucking and crying.

Significance of Attachment theory

Attachment theory is believed to play a key role in child development and it has therefore been incorporated into programs dealing with parent-child relationships. The role of attachment theory in guiding programs for parents is evident in the many references (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). Although there are a number of cultural differences in parenting that could be explored, there are three core patterns that are identifiable which have a bearing on attachment theory. First, parenting that is very involved and intensive in meeting infant needs also called hypersensitive parenting. Second, parenting that is less intensive in meeting infant’s (shared parenting) and thirdly, the involvement of multiple caregivers in a significant role in caring for the infant or shared parenting. One of the cornerstones of attachment theory is the emphasis on the mother’s ability to be sensitive to her infant’s signals or cues and responsive to the infants needs. Attachment of parent-child begins in infancy and lasts throughout a lifetime. When a baby is born it immediately needs a person to take care of him. The person who takes this responsibility maybe the parents, nanny or sibling and a special bond is formed between them. According to Bowlby and Ainsworth, the primary caregiver is the most probable person who shapes the character and personality of the child. In most cases the immediate care giver is the mother and strong bonds usually crops after birth. It is recommended that the two should have time together after birth for the bond to be established naturally. However the presence of too many individuals immediately after birth can affect the relationship of the parent and infant. Although the mother and the children have had a relationship for nine months, early contact is highly recommended in forming lifetime bonds. It has also been suggested that children whose mothers offer five hours extra time have higher IQ than their counterparts. On the other hand, fathers need to establish bond to their children after birth. It has been established that, fathers ought to attend child delivery and assist in holding the baby incase the mother cannot hold. As a result, such fathers have significantly stronger bond attachment. The father-child and mother-child relationship is quite different. Mothers are soothing, affectionate and nurturing whereas father’s interaction is more of a play. The parent-child attachment is crucial in the child’s personality. Usually, babies are programmed in birth to adapt in social life around them. Since they learn a lot through their caregivers, it is expected that the caregivers will definitely influence their personality.

Criticisms of attachment theory Nature and nurture assumptions J. Harris is one of the main critics of Bowlby’s attachment theory. According to his finding, Harris believes that the parents do not shape their children’s personality or character. The child personality is shaped by peers (Harris, 1998). Parents pass their genes (nature) to children and nurture is how the child is brought up. For instance, two brothers brought up in the same house may have totally different personality. It has been observed that, no matter how much the parents may try to raise their children; they will still have different behaviors. Most children personality comes from the gene and not their parents nurturing. Identical twins if separated during birth are likely to have same habits, hobbies and styles after ten years than twins living in the same home. Attachment theory is limited by the concept of its scope. It only deals with the primary attachment figure that involves the mother. In reality, children have other forms of attachment to other persons rather than their parents though they do not show these attachments. The attachment theory only describes obvious behavior and ignores the physiological changes that occur during the life of a child.

Conclusion

Having reviewed the basic ideas of attachment theory, I agree with Harris that parents should not be totally blamed when their children develop aberrant behavior. Children rely on their peers in the shaping of their characters and personality. In addition, attachment theory does not consider attachment that occurs during adolescent, adulthood as well as in later stages of life (Harris, 1998).

References

1. Ainsworth, M. D. S. & Bowlby, J. (1991). An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46, 331-341.
2. Bell, S. M, & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972). Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child Development, 43, 1171-1190.
3. Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture assumption: Why children turn out the way they do. New York: Free Press.

Introduction

This paper reports on the attachment theory and how life experience affects one’s emotional attachment to others. Attachment theory advanced by John Bowlby in the early 1950s, seeks to explain how early life relations affects an individual’s emotional bonding in future Hutchison (89).

The theory gives an understanding of the different personalities as relates to emotional relationships. The theory was first focused on the relationship between children and their parents, but was later expanded to look at the whole lifespan. The theory looks at ones attachment as being influenced by both psychological conditions and the social environment.

The Attachment Theory and Life Experiences

According to the proponents of the attachment theory, children develop a bond with their caregivers, which grow into an emotional bond. Further research on the theory indicates that life experiences in childhood direct the course of one’s personality as well as the social and emotional development throughout his or her life.

Besides the explanation advanced by the theory regarding the connection between a baby and its mother or a care giver, the theory also seeks to explain the attachment between adults Hutchison (43). Among adults, an emotional attachment is felt more especially during bereavement or separation of spouses. Babies are born without the ability to move or feed themselves.

They depend on care givers to for these needs; they however have pre-programmed set of behavior that comes into action due to the environmental stimuli. Environmental stimuli may trigger a sense of fear or distress in the baby making it cry for help from the mother or the care giver. The protection or comfort offered to the baby makes it develop a stronger emotional bond with the mother and others who are closer to it.

Children grow to relate comfort from distress to the people who are close to them during their early stages of development. The nature of the environment a child grows in, together with the “psychological framework builds up a child’s internal working model” Hutchison (52).

The internal working model comprises of the development of expectations that an individual perceives in social interactions. The theory explains the effect of challenging parenting such as; neglect or abuse. Parents and caregivers should endeavor to develop an environment that makes children feel secure and comfortable.

The type of relationship parents establish with their children at their early stages of development determines the type of emotional attachment a child develops with them. A child who grows up in a loving and sensitive environment develops secure relationships in with others.

Such a child grows to recognize others as being caring, loving and reliable. They also develop high self esteem and learn to deal with negative feelings. Research indicates that people who grow up in secure attachment relationships are able to demonstrate good social aptitude throughout their life.

On the contrary, children brought up in unsecure environment develop an avoidant attachment. An unsecure environment to children is often characterized by fear, anxiety and rejection. This type of environment makes a child make children to downplay their emotional feelings.

There is a group of children who grow up with care givers that are not consistent in responding to their emotional needs. Their care givers are sometimes sensitive, and sometimes insensitive to their feelings. Such children develop “an attachment seeking habit as they try to conquer the insensitivity of their caregivers” Hutchison (34).

This sort of behavior by children is referred to as ambivalent attachment, where the children seek to compensate for the inconsistent responsiveness by the caregiver. Such a child tries to manage other people’s attention through behavior sets such as; seduction, bullying rage and necessity.

Works Cited

Hutchison, Elizabeth. Dimensions of human behavior: The changing life course. 4th Ed. Thousand oaks, CA: Sage publications, 2011. Print