Imagine if this world ended because of natural disasters, and your family became one of the victims. There will be much sadness experienced by the people who lose their loved ones. ‘Global warming is not a prediction; it is happening,’ according to James Hensen. Global warming is the process of the increasing average temperatures in the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. It happens because of bad habits from society like doing illegal logging, spending excessive fossil fuel vehicles, and using excessive CFC gas. Global warming causes many natural disasters to occur, which causes many victims. It cannot be ignored and considered trivial. Hence, society should look the best way to reduce the impact of global warmings, such as reducing the use of fossil fuel vehicles and doing reforestation.
Firstly, reducing the use of fossil fuel vehicles is the best way to reduce global warming. The Earth’s temperature increases every year due to the uncontrolled emission of carbon dioxide and other exhaust gases damaging the atmosphere on the planet. As noted in a TV broadcast, the trend of global warming is the most visible impact in the North Pole or Arctic region, which during the last decade, is reported to lose a considerable volume of ice each year. The rate of shrinkage of the ice sheets in the oceans around the poles has an impact on increasing global sea levels, making it dangerous for living creatures to life at the poles. Fossil fuel vehicles, such as cars or motorbikes, are the most significant contributors to carbon dioxide in cities. With so much use of private conveyance, it will lead to the wasteful use of fossil fuels that produce carbon dioxide emissions. If the community can reduce the use of transport, then at least they have reduced carbon dioxide emissions released by the vehicle. Using public transportation can be an alternative way to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the environment. Furthermore, we can use alternative energy to minimize substances that can cause global warming—for example, replacing the use of fossil fuel vehicles with natural powers such as, sunlight, the geothermal, wind, natural gas, and hydropower. Other than that, electric cars and electric motorcycles are using alternative energy which is solar energy, and they can be a future vehicle energy-efficient and environmentally friendly. Therefore, limitations on fossil fuels can reduce the impact of climate change and carbon dioxide gas emissions. The evidence that we feel now is many factories closed and vehicles parked in the garage, it makes air pollution subsided in several cities in the world, and the view of the sky is much brighter.
Secondly, doing reforestation can minimize extreme climate change. Climate change is increasingly apparent to see from the Amazon forest fires, Brazil to the melting of the Okjokull mountain glister, Iceland. The Amazon forest is a home for many ecosystems from various species of animals and plants. Extreme climate change has resulted in the worst fires ever. Living beings of multiple species die and cannot do the regeneration of their species. National Geographic states that the Amazon forest is known as the largest rainforest in the world, with essential carbon deposits that can slow global warming. Therefore, doing reforestation is a step to balance carbon dioxide gas levels in the atmosphere. The trees will absorb carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis; it also releases oxygen and refreshes the air in the atmosphere. The result, now the ozone layer continues to recover. This recovery occurs due to a decrease in forest burning and encouragement doing reforestation. Moreover, reducing illegal logging also plays a role in preserving heavily damaged forests. The survival of living creatures in the woods can be better if the community pays more attention to the surrounding environment. Indonesia has launched a ‘one-man one tree’ program to respond to the impacts of global warming and climate change. So, we need awareness of each person if one tree that we plant will have a significant effect on the survival of our children and grandchildren in the future.
In conclusion, global warming is very dangerous for the survival of ecosystems on Earth. Global warming impacts the melting of ice at the north pole and burning of the Amazon forest, Brazil to the fusion of the Okjokull mountain glister, Iceland. As a result, the Earth’s temperature is rising every year, and extreme climate changes are happening in all parts of the world. The community can decrease the use of fossil fuel conveyance which contributes a lot of carbon dioxide emissions and other exhaust gases. Likewise, reforestation and avoiding illegal logging is the effort in balancing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas levels in the atmosphere. Public awareness of the dangers of global warming must be increased even more. Let’s begin to save our Earth for our children and grandchildren in the future. If not us then who, think about it?
Atmospheric pressure can be described as the weight exerted by air at a certain level. Barometers usually measure the force applied by atmosphere per unit area. Thus, the units used include millibars, inches of mercury and most commonly here in America; pounds per square inch which is expressed as Ib/in2.
Pressure changes under the influence of some parameters, they include altitude or height above sea level and temperature. As we climb up, the force exerted by the atmosphere reduces. At lower altitudes, for every change of one inch of a mercury barometer, there is a change of one thousand feet in altitude. On higher altitudes, the rate of pressure reduction decreases. Like any other matter, air expands upon heating and contracts on cooling. This means that density of air changes as we move from one region to another. From that, it can be concluded that, pressure is not usually the same at a constant altitude.
The altimeter is an onboard aircraft instrument, which is essentially an aneroid barometer, used to measure the plane’s altitude. The altimeter’s scale has been changed to indicate height rather than pressure. In a way, it makes sense since pressure changes with height. On the other hand, temperature changes the air pressure; therefore, altimeters mostly indicate an altitude different from the true altitude. Ideally, the higher we go, the lesser the air pressure; thus, altimeters will indicate high altitudes if they detect a drop in pressure.
Warm air has a lower density than cold air. The thicker the air, the more pressure will be gained as we move upwards. Thus at the same altitude, barometers in cold air will indicate higher pressure than the ones in hot air. As we fly an aircraft from a warm area to a cold area maintaining the same altitude, the atmospheric pressure will drop. This drop in pressure will be interpreted by an altimeter as a rise in altitude. The indicated altitude will be different from the true altitude. On a flat landscape, if the indicated altitude is lower than the true altitude, there is no much problem. On the other hand if a pilot flies in a mountainous region on a cold weather, he should consider flying higher since the altimeter will give a higher altitude reading than the true altitude.
The altimeter can be adjusted to indicate true altitude at various altitudes. Taking off and landing of the planes are the most crucial periods in a flight. Thus, the altitude of an airport is the most meaningful altitude to a pilot. It is advisable for the pilot to make sure that his altimeter reading is at per with other plane nearby. The pilot should regularly set the altimeter in accordance with the nearest tower.
It is not possible, with the current technology, for a pilot to determine the average temperature of the column of air below him. If the technology was available, it could have been the perfect way of determining true altitudes. However, plane computers are able to measure temperatures of air near the plane and estimated the true altitude. The altitude might not be correct but it is usually near the true altitude. By considering this calculated altitude and the one of the control tower, the pilot can calculate altitudes virtually close to true altitude.
Because of forces that are beyond human control, the earth’s atmosphere has been undergoing gradual changes, a process called evolution. It is evident based on historical facts as laid by archeologists and geologists that all the constituents of the earth have changed with time. This change can be realised upon considering the various geological ages that include the Cenozoic period, the Mesozoic period, the Paleozoic period, and the Precambrian period (Gradstein, Ogg & Smith 2004, p. 589), which are addressed later in the paper.
A primitive person would wonder how the change is possible until an expert presents a detailed analysis of the situation of the earth’s atmosphere as recorded within a span of 2 million years, for instance. Since this is a mystery for many, the paper presents this analysis by giving a clear picture of how the earth’s atmosphere has evolved over time besides showing how the atmosphere has led to the origin, development, and survival of different living things.
How the earth’s atmosphere has evolved over time
The earth’s atmosphere has evolved over a long period. This evolution has brought about many changes in the shape and composition of the earth in terms of both living and non-living matter. It is believed that the different geological evolutions of the earth and the atmosphere have come up with very new species of animals following a transformation of the then existing animals, as well as extinction of some species of the living and non-living organisms.
This is all attributed to the changes in the habitation that the organisms had been adapted to by making the habitation friendly or making it harsh for the survival of the different species. At the same time, it is also believed to have forced some species to change some of their physiological features for better survival (Grotzinger, Bowing, Saylor & Kaufman 1995, p. 599). Scientists believe that the earth came into existence some 4.5 billion years ago.
Then, it was formed from gases emanating from volcanic emissions, which were the dominant activities then. It is believed that the atmosphere then was mostly made up of carbon dioxide gas with little or no oxygen at all. With time, the earth cooled down due to the subsiding of volcanic activities. The vapour that had so much filled the air also cooled down and condensed to form water, which collected itself to form the different water bodies that exist up to date.
It is believed that the carbon dioxide gas that filled the air for a long time was then trapped in sedimentary rocks, absorbed by vegetation, as well as the large water bodies that came into existence after wards. Photosynthetic organisms arose naturally leading to so much reduction in the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as organisms such as the blue-green algae fed off the carbon dioxide in exchange of oxygen (Cesar 2009, p.16).
All these processes happened over a long period in periods of several hundreds of millions years. Scientifically, the atmosphere is divided into four stages of evolution namely the origin, the chemical or pre-biological era, the microbial era, and the biological era. Each era is characterised by a major activity that happened during that time to define it. The reduction in carbon dioxide and the increase in nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere define the origin era.
This led to the creation of the ozone, which encouraged the development of other living organisms. The ozone came about when sunrays in the stratosphere acted upon oxygen to form a buffer-like layer in the atmosphere that is thought to protect the earth from the damaging sunrays. This is said to have happened over two billion years ago. There are four main eras of the present-day atmosphere evolution: the origin, the chemical or pre-biological era, the microbial era and the biological era.
A major activity that was dominant among other activities then defines each of these eras. The origin, which people believe to have occurred over two billion years ago, is majorly marked by the reduction in the amount of carbon dioxide and the increase of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. It stands out as the precursor to life: the stage that prepared the earth for habitation by living organisms.
Today, the earth is in an era defined as the Cambrian where living things dominate the earth surface more than before. The amount of oxygen is now at around 20% of the atmosphere. This is just enough to create a sustainable balance between all living things and other reactions. Scientists believe that, in case of an increase in the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere, almost everything will become combustible.
A lower level of the same, on the other hand, will drastically affect combustion abilities of the normally combustible elements. The present day atmosphere has evolved to the extent that, once more, there is a high level of carbon dioxide being emitted into the atmosphere. It is now becoming a threat to the survival of all the living things that have so far survived the different ages of atmospheric revolution.
Presently, there is a threat to the ozone layer with the belief that it is wearing off due to the alarming increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere besides a corresponding increase of other gases that are supposed to be in minute proportions. Consequently, this is a big danger to the existence and perfect functioning of the ozone layer.
How the atmosphere has helped life originate, survive, and develop?
The atmosphere has helped life to originate, survive, and develop in many different ways. When the earth came into formation several billion years ago, there were no living organisms of any kind. This was due to the high temperatures that were always at play then. As explained above, the reduction of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere followed by a corresponding increase of oxygen into the atmosphere enabled living things to develop from minute primitive organisms to fully-fledged mammoth creatures.
The oxygen in the air is the most important element for the survival of any living thing because living organisms use oxygen, as air, for the purpose of metabolism, which leads to cell division. The atmosphere also provides atmospheric pressure, which balances everything on the earth surface by putting them into place. The atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air exerted on the surface of the earth. It helps, for example, the human body to balance the pressure produced by the body.
Without the atmospheric pressure, most living things would burst from their own internal pressure like blood pressure in human beings. The atmosphere balances the amounts of different types of air found on the earth surface. As Furin states, “more than the required amount of any gas might be detrimental to the survival of any living organisms” (2006, p.1110). Therefore, the atmosphere distributes these gases according to the natural needs of each organism.
The ozone layer acts as a protective blanket against the sun’s ultraviolet rays towards the living organisms found on the earth’s surface, which can easily be exterminated when exposed to these rays (Kent & Olsen 2008, p. 69). Therefore, in this way, the atmosphere has provided a safe haven for living things to live and develop according to their adaptative needs. Life, on the other hand, has changed the atmosphere in so many ways.
Plants, on one hand, have shaped the structure of the atmosphere for a long time by pumping the much-needed oxygen into the atmosphere. Through photosynthesis, which is a process the plants use to make their own food, plants take in carbon dioxide mostly through their leaves and mix it with chlorophyll, which is the green matter found in the leaves, to produce oxygen as a by-product (Giordano & Beardall 2009, p. 78).
Through this process, the atmosphere is ridden off carbon dioxide and is replenished with oxygen. This control of carbon dioxide protects the ozone layer from damage through carbon dioxide emissions (Byatt 2004, p. 19). Living things have become the biggest producers of carbon dioxide. With the availability of a good environment to reproduce, living things have reproduced massively in that, when they die, they decay with part of that decay process producing lots of carbon into the atmosphere.
Human beings have also contributed to the destruction of the atmosphere, as well as its protection in almost equal measures. Due to the development of the human society, the need to produce enough food and other items for human beings convenience has increased. Man uses fertilisers to boost soil fertility to achieve high crop yields.
This leads to pollution of the atmosphere because the chemical fertilisers react with the soil and plants later escaping in gaseous forms that end up into the atmosphere (Darko & Isakov 2000, p. 91). Human beings have also come up with industries that emit carbon emissions in large quantities thus leading to a very fast degradation of not just the ozone layer, but also general pollution of the atmosphere (Donald & Kenneth 2000, p. 17).
Humans have also been at the forefront in protecting the atmosphere through legislation of pollution policies, as well as coming up with technology that will protect the environment. In most countries, legislation has been passed to control the acceptable amount of carbon emissions that any given industry can be allowed to release into the atmosphere. These measures have been put in place to protect the fragile ecosystem that is so dependent on the atmosphere (Shafiqur & Luai 2012, p.19).
Some companies have also come up with the carbon credit scheme as a way to compensate on pollution. In this scheme, individuals are paid for their efforts to reduce carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Most industries are now encouraged to pursue the use of green energy or renewable energy as a departure from fossil energy.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the earth’s atmosphere is a very important integral part of the earth and all the living and non-living things. Although the evolution of the atmosphere and the earth is a matter of debate, it is undisputed that the atmosphere holds the key to life on this planet earth.
Matters to do with the existence of the ozone are still debatable because, so far, the ozone issue remains hypothetical and only understandable by scientists in that field. Though the existence of the atmosphere is true, its origin remains a big point for debate depending on what side of the divide between religion and science one stands on.
References
Byatt, L 2004, ‘The depletion of the ozone layer’, The Journal of the International ozone association, vol. 2 no. 2, pp. 18-23.
Cesar, C 2009, ‘Growth, Photosynthesis and Leaf Potential’, Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 21 no. 3, pp.15-16.
Darko, K & Isakov, V 2000, ‘The “tracer potential” method of evaluating atmospheric models: main algorithms’, Journal on Environment and Pollution, vol. 14 no. 1, pp. 89-97.
Donald, W & Kenneth, P 2001, ‘The air quality model documentation system of the European Countries’, International Journal on environment and pollution, vol. 14 no. 1, pp. 16-18.
Furin, S 2006, ‘Triassic timescale’, Geology, vol. 34 no. 1, pp. 1009-1012.
Giordano, M & Beardall, J 2009, Impact of environmental conditions on photosynthesis, growth and carbon allocation strategies of hyper saline species of dunaliella, Global Nest Journal, vol.11 no. 1, pp. 70-85.
Gradstein, F, Ogg, J, & Smith, A 2004, A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press, England.
Grotzinger, J, Bowring, S, Saylor, B, & Kaufman, A 1995, ‘Biostratigraphic and geochronologic constraints on early animal evolution’, Science, vol. 270 no. 1, pp.598-604.
Kent, D & Olsen, P 2008, ‘Early Jurassic Magnetostratigraphy’, Journal of Baronomical Research, vol. 113 no. 2, pp. 68-72.
Shafiqur, R & Luai, M 2012, ‘Extreme temperature variability over high Topography’, Journal of air Pollution, vol.1 no. 1, pp. 19-21.
An afterglow is a broad, high arch occasionally seen in the sky. It is a white light appearing during the darker half of thetwilight. It is caused by fine particles of dust suspended in the upper atmosphere.
Occurrence of an afterglow
Gamma-rays bursts,which are flashes of the gamma rays, are associated with explosions which are highly energetic. Thebursts occur initially and are followed by an afterglow emitted at longer wavelengths. Models that explain the origin of gamma rays have shown that the initial burst is gradually followed by fading emissions.The emissions occur due to collisions between the interstellar gases and the burst eject.
The fading emission is called the afterglow. It is difficult to observe the position of a burst and therefore early searches for afterglows were unsuccessful. A satellite in 1997 was able to detect a gamma ray burst and a fading x-ray emission was observed, when a camera was pointed towards the origin of the burst. Once the gamma ray burstsfaded, deep imaging could “identify a faint, distant host galaxy at the location of the burst as pinpointed by the optical afterglow” (Vedrenne, 2001).
There are long term effects after exposure to gamma ray bursts in the earth’s atmosphere. The gamma ray energy causes “chemical reactions involving oxygen and nitrogen which form nitrogen dioxide gas”. The gas causes a photochemical smog which covers the sky making dark. It further prevents sunlight from reaching the earth’s surface, therefore causing a cosmic winter event.Further,it depletes the ozone layer and consequently the earth becomes vulnerable to any sorts of radiation.
Airglow
An airglow is a faint photochemical glow in the higher parts of the atmosphere. It is caused by collision of x-rays and charged particles from the sun, with molecules and atoms. It occurs especially in low altitudes. The airglow hasa green oxygen line,which makes up the major subject of study to understand the appearance and occurrence of airglows.
Cause and occurrence of an airglow
The oxygen line appearing in an airglow has been studied by scientists and spectroscopists for decades. They have come up with two distinct ways of approaching the phenomenon;the electron excitation hypothesis and the photochemical excitation theory (Bates and Chamberlain, 1996).
According to photochemical excitation, radiation in the airglow is basically, the photochemical release of oxygen dissociation energy stored in the lower regions of the thermosphere. It is an established fact that the transition of oxygen from molecular to atomic states occurs at the same level (Khomic,2010).
When energy is deposited in the air, the molecules become excited and as a result, gases like oxygen and nitrogen react to form molecules. The molecules react with other molecules forming ozone. Presence of air vapor, which is characterized emission of hydrogen makes the plasma react with other chemicals in the air. As a result, their collision with x-rays leads to occurrence of an airglow.
Alpenglow
An alpenglow is easily observed when the sun is just below the horizon. Light from the sun lacks a direct path to reach the earth’s surface, so it instead reflects water, snow or ice particles. In this scenario, a normal sunrise or sunset is separated from the alpenglow. In the case where there are no mountains, the aerosols of the sky are illuminated instead.
To define an alpenglow, the scientists agree that it is a diffused and indirect illumination, which occurs through refraction as a result of moisture and pollutants in the atmosphere. It often occurs before sunrise or just after sunset. It makes the sky look redand it eventually glows. It only lasts for a short period in the lowlands therefore not often observed.
Occurrence
The red light waves are usually the longest in the visible spectrum of the electromagnetic energy and they are also the slowest in motion. As light travels through the atmosphere, the blue color is absorbed. The slower red color is not highly absorbed and it therefore appears in the electromagnetic spectrum. As the sun sets or rises, a gradation of color rise in the eastern sky is observed which is orange-red or purple.
The color transition is actually the horizontal view of the line between day and night. The orange-red light is the sunset light that goes on rising in the sky as the sun sets. The purple light is the earth’s shadow rising to the sky. Mountains obtain the red light since they are higher and can also light the clouds after sunset (Dickson,1988).
Blue flash
Blue flashes form in a similar way as green flashes and are more difficult to see because they blend into the surrounding sky, which is also blue. It results from spectral emission of excited molecules in the air especially with oxygen and nitrogen. The molecules fall back to unionized states and consequently produce a blue light. The light is often associated with Cherenkov radiation, due to its similarity in color. It is usually followed by a heat wave which is a physical effect due to heating by the energy emitted during the event.
Cause and occurrence of a blue flash
“Air is a refractive medium therefore it bends light. The bending progressively becomes stronger as it light approaches the surface of the earth and as air density increases. At sunset, the sun’s image is elevated to about half a degree above its normal height. Moreover, air, which is dispersive, bends light of different frequencies and amounts” (Vedrenne, 2001).
By viewing thesunsetusing a telescope, a blue disk is observed to be higher than the red disk. Since the resolution of a naked eye is only 50cm at a distance of 1km, this explains why the blue fringe is not observed at the highest part of the sun.
At sunrise and sunset, the sun’s rays go much longer distance through the atmosphere. The light which reaches the earthalready has a big portion of the blue color removed, making the sun appear red.Due to the scarcity of blue light, there is a shift of stimulus towards yellow that makes the yellow color appear more than the blue one.
As it is known that when eyes see a small patch of light, the smaller patch is perceived to shift in color, in the direction of the color complementary to that of the larger patch (Vedrenne, 2001).Therefore, with the large sky expanded in a greenish yellow patch, it appears more biased to be blue green and eventually it is observed as green. A blue flash appears in case the atmosphere is absolutely clear, and so the “scattering does not deplete much of the blue component” (Vedrenne, 2001).
The green flash is more elusive because its index of refraction get higher without any interruption when coming to the earth’s surface. “The gradient of the index of refraction should be higher in order to accelerate dispersion of colors”(Vedrenne, 2001). Due to turbulences in the atmosphere, like anomalies in temperature, abnormal refraction is caused that can usually produce a confused gradient of colors.
Earthquake lights
An earthquake light is an abnormal luminous phenomenon that appears in the sky or close to regions of tectonic stress, seismic activity and or volcanicity.It happens right before or during an earthquake. “Like many light appearances in the sky, earthquake lights are a mystery”. No one can distinctively tell why or how they come about. The lights appear multicoloredand are usually brighter during the incident than they before or after.
The lights exist for quite sometime unlike in other phenomenawhere there is a possibility of mistaken identity. Research accounts that the lights were absent until 1930, where at the time an earthquake occurred in Japan (Freund, 2004) .It has been suggested that the lights appear due to gases released during the earthquakes or due to its forces.
Occurrence of earthquake lights
Proposed mechanismsexplaining occurrence of earthquake lights include piezoelectricity, solo luminescence, and heat due to friction, exoelectron emissions and electro kinetics. Piezoelectric activity is caused by stress within the fault zone, ionization from radon, triboluminesccence from rocks, which rub against each other and the release of methane gas.
Methane gas explains the occurrence of light both before and even during an earthquake. Portions of trapped gas would be expected to seep from the ground and possibly ignite due to friction in the moving rock. However, big portions of methane gas are not distributed widely enough in all the regions that earthquake lights are reported to occur. Radon ionization takes a vital and crucial role in pre-seismic and paranormal activities too but it is not viewed as a model.
This is because there are no sufficient random clouds produced, to provide enough ionization for visible glows. Earthquake lights may be considered as physical phenomenon or of a spiritual nature according to the varied descriptions of light occurrence. Taking an example of a country like Japan, where the lights are experienced frequently; there are entities,which associate the lights occurrence to ghosts.(Ahrens&Donald, 2009).
Auroral lights
These are natural displays of light which appear in the skies especially at high attitudes. They are mainly caused by collisions of energetically ionized molecules, with atoms in the higher altitudes of the atmosphere. They have a curtain like shape at their lower edges. The lights occur in the ring-shaped regions around the southern and northern poles. Alaska provides a nice view for these lights especially in the Fairbanks.
Occurrence- Aurora borealis and australis
The aurora borealis are lights occurring in the northern latitudes and are therefore named after the goddess of dawn, while the australis are lights seen in the southern pole. Both of lights are caused by very swift moving electrons within atoms in the earth’s upper atmospheres, especially oxygen and nitrogen. As this occurs, the atoms are ionized and as they return to normality, they produce excess energy which is in the form of visible electrons. The fast moving electrons originate from the sun.
Charged particles are constantly striking the earth and are therefore “deflected by the earth’s magnetic field” (Ahrens&Donald, 2009). They movealong the field lines, and some of them ending up interacting with the magnetic field lines. As they cut across the field, they produce a current which allows production of a large amount of power.
This current makes a fairly unstable condition in the magnetosphere. With time, some of this current is discharged causing electrons in the magnetosphere move down towards the poles and through the earth’s upper atmosphere. As it reaches the atmosphere, it bombards basically with oxygen and nitrogen. While this occurs, the atoms jump to high energy orbitals.
This state is fairly unstable for these atoms and this makes them return faster to their normal orbitals. Consequently, they must release the excess energy they had stored up from this collision,inform of a photon.As a good number of these atoms go from the higher orbital energetic state to the lower orbital energetic state, they produce enough light which is viewable even to the naked eye by peoplestanding in strategic locations on the earth.
Conclusion
The meteorological studies affect all beings on the planet. The various phenomena are significant in prediction of weather patterns and storms; this is in turn useful in determining issues and or factors like the ozone layer deterioration and our depleting water supply. They orient us on how to work in harmony with the surrounding and make us informed on the mechanisms behind occurrence of natural phenomena.
References
Ahrens, C. &Donald, G (2009). Meteorology today. Belmont: Brooks Publishers.
Bates, A. & Chamberlain, H. (1996). Magnetic changes associated with crustal activity, New York:Sons Ltd.
Chapman, A. A. (2001). Astronomy.New York: Walters’s Ltd.
Dickson, T. (1988).Exploring the sky by day: The Equinox Guide to weather and atmosphere. Toronto: Firefly Books Ltd.
Freund, F.(2004).Charges in the electrical conductivity of igneous rocks, the generation of ground currents.New York: Penguin Publishers Ltd.
Khomic, V. (2010).Airglow as an indicator of upper atmospheric structure and dynamics. Moscow. Springer Publishers Ltd.
Vedrenne, A. (2001).The blue flash. Toronto: New books production.
The model of climate on Earth is similar to that of a greenhouse. Therefore, the tremendous variety of fossil fuels produced and released by humanity on a daily basis is called greenhouse gases. All the chemical evaporations, carbon dioxide, and other substances adversely impact the planet and its ecology. The following paper will suggest some methods that are intended to control their presence in the atmosphere.
Driving Ecologically
The first method that will reduce the amount of burned fossil fuels and other toxic evaporations in the air is making the process of driving less polluting. To begin with, it would be proper not to drive at all if it is possible. Some people do not need their own transport. Instead, they can use public buses, planes, or other means to travel to different cities or abroad (Qiao, Li, & Yu, 2017). However, if the use of a car is imminent, it would be smart to drive it ecologically, which implies the avoidance of enormous fuel wastes.
Some drivers who own small or low-powered automobiles have to use them only when it becomes urgent. In turn, individuals with trucks, SUVs, buses, and other large means of transport must consider changing them for something more economical and ecological (Qiao et al., 2017). It appears that many citizens of developed countries buy new electric cars and scooters. The impact they make on ecology is not dependant on their sizes. Therefore, this is the best decision for people living in the 21st century when they need to purchase an automobile.
Implementing the Three “R” Method
The three “R” method (reduce, reuse, and recycle) is known by every child in the modern world. Whenever people buy their products for daily consumption, they must choose from the ones that have less packaging. The garbage that consists predominately of plastic materials is burned or thrown out in the ocean nowadays. Hence another dose of carbon dioxide is released into the air and water (Tan, 2014).
To prevent this waste, it is necessary to buy only ecological products that can be utilized, reused, or recycled in the future. Not only this will help to control greenhouse gases, but it also will be beneficial for families that want to make the world less polluted. It is estimated that by following the given suggestion, one person can avoid producing approximately 2,400 pounds of carbon dioxide every year (Tan, 2014). Although this number does not seem to be significant, it has a tremendous weight regarding ecology when it comes to every Earth inhabitant.
Reducing the Use of Energy
Avoiding the overuse of electricity by a single person can prevent the release of 500 pounds of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere at its minimum (Tan, 2014). When people use sources of energy, they pollute their environment as it has to be produced by factories. Indeed, many developed countries use natural sources of energy. Nevertheless, there are many other regions that do not have enough finances or possibilities to install such ecological devices. Therefore, they need to save hot water and turn off their lights as much as possible to control greenhouse gases (Tan, 2014).
Conclusion
There many different ways to control greenhouse gases. However, driving ecologically is the most efficient among the three considerations offered in the paper. Not only this method reduces the release of carbon dioxide into the air, but it also stops the work of fuel companies and other firms that pollute the planet.
References
Tan, Z. (2014). Air pollution and greenhouse gases: From basic concepts to engineering applications for air emission control. Singapore, SG: Springer.
Qiao, F., Li, Q., & Yu, L. (2017). Status and research topics in developing ecological transportation system within connected vehicle age with knowledge discovery database techniques. Environment Pollution and Climate Change, 01(02), 1-3. Web.
The seminar addressed various issues concerning the new frontiers in regards to atmosphere and climate changes. Among the issues that were discussed is how vegetation impacts the atmosphere. According to the speaker, vegetation affects the atmosphere through a number of ways including limiting the amount of sun’s radiation, controlling the amount of carbon dioxide in the air, changing the color of reefs, and wind conditions within the earth’s surface among other factors. The speaker also addressed the issue of how changing the amount of vegetation cover can influence atmosphere and climate dynamics through a wide range of changes. The issue of vegetation cover in the world was addressed through three major regional segments; the tropics, the temperate regions, and the moorlands. The seminar covered how vegetation cover affects water security and energy conservation budgets across the world.
The tropics are mainly consistent of two types of vegetations: tropical rainforests and tropical grasslands. Tropical rainforests consists of deep-rooted trees that consequently attract a significant amount of cloud cover. On the other hand, grasslands are characterized by sparse trees and weak ground cover. Snow distribution is a major factor in areas that feature these two types of vegetation cover. The various types of vegetation can have differing levels of influence on energy budgets. Grasslands are only able to sustain a comparatively small number of atmospheric processes and they have little effect on climate dynamics. The speaker concluded that increasing forest cover would in turn have a better stabilizing factor on climatic changes. In addition, increasing forest cover will also reduce energy budgets around the world. The seminar also featured a series of experiments to determine the impact of different levels of vegetation on the climate. The speaker also clarified that the area of land under agriculture experiences the same environmental effects as areas that are covered by grasslands. Solar radiation is also a major factor in the debate on vegetation cover whereas its effects are more severe on grasslands than they are on areas with trees.
Most of the experiments that were presented throughout the seminar were aimed at proving that vegetation cover can have drastic effects. One experiment indicated that cloud cover reduces the amount of sun radiation significantly thereby curtailing the effects of harsh climatic conditions. Furthermore, leafy trees led to the creation of significantly thicker cloud covers when they were compared to other types of thin-leafed trees. The experiments also focused on the water levels that were on the earth’s surface and atmosphere in respect to the amounts of vegetation cover. In one experiment, high temperatures and thick vegetation covers were directly linked to high levels of humidity in the atmosphere. The speaker implied that changing grasslands into forest covers has the potential to contribute to a wide range of positive impacts on the environment. Temperatures in the tropics are often lower in areas that feature tree covers as opposed to grasslands.
Experiments were also conducted on moorlands, where it turned out that increasing vegetation absorbed more energy from the atmosphere. However, increasing vegetation cover also led to a slight change in the temperatures of high-latitude areas under moorlands. The speaker concluded by noting that adding more vegetation cover on various regions across does not necessarily lead to similar results. The speaker noted that adding vegetation cover in the tropics has the most significant benefits to the climate as opposed to increasing tree cover in the moorlands and other temperate areas.
Key features of ocean & atmosphere general circulation
Oceanic and atmospheric circulation is the means by which heat (thermal energy) is distributed on the surface of the Earth by large scale circulation of air. Atmospheric circulation, on one hand, occurs as a result of convection.
Parts of the Earth surface near the equator receive more heat energy than any other regions near to the poles. Thus, heated low density air at the equator rises and spreads at the top of the troposphere toward the poles. The rotation of Earth, however, creates Coriolis Effect which complicates this circulation pattern of cold and warm air and hence influences atmosphere general circulation.
Latitudinal circulation features are thus influenced by the relative rotation of Earth and motion winds over the surface. High pressure winds in the northern hemisphere are deflected in a clockwise direction under the influence of Coriolis Effect. In the southern hemisphere, however, winds are deflected in a counter- clockwise direction.
Again, it is due to Coriolis Effect that the pattern of oceanic and atmospheric circulation is disintegrated into various belts referred to as Polar, Ferrel or Hardeley cells.
Longitudinal circulation features, on the other hand, are caused by disparities in temperature, which is in turn influenced by the differences in specific heat capacities of water and land. Thus, the extent of oceanic and atmospheric circulation are determined by the distribution of land and water masses
Necessary ingredients for circulation
Ocean and atmosphere general circulation are influenced by three principle forces: gravity, pressure effect and Corriolis. The effect of rotation of Earth also generates another important frictional force. Frictional force exerts an additional horizontal effect on the atmosphere near the surface of Earth.
The presence of ocean water, on the other hand, is also critical to atmosphere general circulation. Convection heat transfer also plays a significant role in atmospheric circulation process. Solar thermal energy is absorbed by liquid water in the oceans turning water into warm moist air in the atmosphere which redistributes this heat around the planet.
Importance for the climate
The atmosphere and oceans are two most crucial and indispensable water reservoirs in the hydrological cycle. The two systems work hand in hand to regulate temperature, circulation of water and influence weather and the climate.
Ocean and atmosphere circulation, the distribution of water and land masses as well as the topography of land moderates the worlds’ climate. Without all these features, the most significant climatic zones would only occur in belts parallel to the equator.
How flow in the atmospheres are consistent with relative rotation rates
The balance between pressure gradient force and gravity determines the vertical distribution of mass in the atmosphere. Gravity, however, only operates in horizontal direction and does not exert any horizontal force. The horizontal balance is created by the action of both the pressure-gradient force and Coriolis Effect, leading to a steady geostrophic flow.
As a result, steady geostrophic flow mainly occurs in the horizontal direction and is what is commonly known as general atmospheric circulation. Due to friction with the surface, rotation of the planets modifies the horizontal flow of the atmosphere below 1 kilometer altitude. This, therefore, explains how flow in the atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Jupiter are consistent with their relative rotation rates and is attested by practical fluid experiments.
Nearly every element of within the periodic table has found its way into the atmosphere. As an ease when studying the element and there species composition of compounds in the atmosphere, Seinsfield and Pandis (21) suggest categorizing of the atmospheric compounds as containing halogens, sulfur, carbon or nitrogen.
Probably, this classification rides on the fact that emissions into the atmosphere breakdown from original compounds into component species before exiting the atmosphere in a cyclic phenomenon. Actually, the cyclic process of substances is contained in the biogeochemical cycle of elements.
The scope of understanding the cyclic processes comprises atmospheric movement across Oceania, land terrains, biospheres, inter alia; chemical transitions (quantity and quality) of the substances and rates of circulation and transfer (Seinsfield and Pandis 21).
The geographical paradigm gives this subject the spatial and temporal references, since the transportation aspect is a vector quantity that can be justified through a scalar quantity of time and direction.
Mehta (124) explains that in 1852, Robert Angus Smith made-up the term acid rain. It was not until 1972, when the concept of acid rain became familiar in the western industrial world. The term referred to atmospheric acidity levels (at pH above 5.6) that surpass normal levels for rain, fog and smog.
The precipitation (deposition) of these acidic concentrates impacted on ecosystems, antiquities and human health. Acid rain was traced back into the gradual Geo-biological processes within nature and accelerated volcanic emissions (Mehta 124).
The problematic scope of acid deposition gained wider magnitude when it was realized that it evolved into a trans-boundary affair. It was revealed that there was mobility of precursor elements emitted from the industrial heartlands in Europe and North America.
Emissions containing precursors- sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen (referred to as NOX species) form the major bulk of acid rain. In order to effect solutions towards acid rain, a critical loads framework on emission cuts and ecosystem recovery was developed. Already, Europe has generated maps depicting critical loads.
Driscoll, Lambert and Chen (28) note that in the US three forms of acid deposition have occurred. These are wet, dry and cloud or fog depositions. Through research, more than 200 sites have been monitored as experiencing wet deposition consisting of rain, snow, sleet and hail.
Dry deposition consists of vapor, particles and gases. Some coastal areas and high altitudes have been exposed to dry and cloud deposition. Driscoll, Lambert and Chen (28) explain that the pattern of dry and cloud deposition widely varies spatially and temporally; thus, making it intricate to give consistent characteristics.
Because dry and cloud deposition can accompany the other two deposition forms then researchers have resorted to bulk deposition measuring using open collector.
Literature Review
Tracking Acid Rain: The Case study of The Rust Belt, US
Case Background
The industrial heartlands of the US are located in the Rust Belt (Midwestern American). The Rust Belt extends into Canada within the Canadian Heartlands. EIR/LaRouche Youth Movement Economics Team (2006) describes the Rust Belt as covering Pennsylvania and New York (Western) this extends into Missouri.
A quarter of the US populace resides within the industrial heartland. Mair et al. (361) indicate that heartland is at the center of a major transplant corridor for automobile manufacturers from the Asian and European world.
These industrial plants were strategically located to give them a competitive advantage in production capacity and market supply. The interest of the Asian investors to set up automobile plants in the US was driven by the protectionist belief of cutting down their exports into America (Mair et al. 355).
Mair et al (354) explains that the conceptual approach of the automobile plants was “Just-in-Time” to imply that the target was mass production to meet the demand within an area and the adjacent environs of America. Not only did the heartlands host automobile plants but also other electrical utilities and metal plants.
While the metal plants are in the east; the automobile plants are in the west of the heartland. Heartlands greatly symbolize the economic capacity and industrial advancements achieved.
Figure 1: Map of Heartland of North America
Source: “The Industrial Heartland of North America”
Lind (148) explains that long term rainfall data in the heartland area gave indications of acid rain. This has translated to heavy environmental damage. The extent of damage has contributed to a reduction in industrial development. This has translated into economic losses. In the far Northeast and outside the industrial heartland, the problem of acid rain continues to persist. Actually, about 33 percent of emissions causing acid rain in the down wind area (that is, far Northeast) traces back from the automobile sites in the Midwest (the source area). Lind (149) notes that economic factors have motivated the use of coal conversion and the combustion of sulfur containing coal. From an economic geography perspective, heartlands are tailored to receive raw inputs to facilitate industrial activities. Nevertheless, strategizing for the heartland location the risk regime and environmental impacts should be factored in. Lind (150) observes that effort to reach at a negotiated equitable solution between the source areas and the downwind areas have failed.
Factors Contributing to Acid Rain Formation
Acid rain has a set of preconditions that facilitate the formation process (Wang and Wang 2297). The concentration of the emitted precursor elements, compounds in rainfall, aerosols and their capacity to buffer and weather conditions are some of the contributory factors leading to acid formation.
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework to Acid Rain Formation
Figure 3: Acid Rain Cycle
Source: Downing, Ramankutty and Shah (14)
Airborne pollution due to release of Sulfur dioxide and NOX species is the primary source of precursor elements leading to acid rain. Once in the atmosphere, these pollutants undergo a chemical interaction with atmospheric water and oxygen (Downing, Ramankutty and Shah 13).
In the presence of other atmospheric chemicals, sulfur dioxide and NOX species end up forming sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Emissions can remain within the atmosphere longer and a drift to far places prior to deposition on the surface. Prevailing winds play an important role in drifting the pollutants.
Deposition of acid rain takes many forms such as dew, snow, fog, so on (Downing, Ramankutty and Shah 13). Use of fossil fuel, sulfur containing coal and biomass combustion is the common sources of acid rain precursor elements.
Adverse effects of acid deposition include loss of forest cover through complex interactions, destruction of aquatic life and their ecosystems, loss of aesthetic value for monuments and cultural resources and human respiratory health risks Downing, Ramankutty and Shah 14).
Emissions are released from large point sources like combustion plants were thought to have a localized impact. Increased concerns based on this premise led to the building of new facilities that have longer smokestacks, tailored to disperse the emission over a wider area. Large scale dispersion and distribution of acidification may be a regional concern.
Acid Rain and Emission Cuts Milestone
In the United States, the proportional release by factory processes, electric utilities and combustions are two-thirds, 15 percent and 9 percent, respectively (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 27). Moreover, automobiles account for over half of human related sources of nitrogen oxides.
Electric utilities and combustion processes account for 22 percent and 14 percent of NOX emissions, respectively. In 2002, more than 50 percent of precursor elements release occurred in seven states within the Ohio River Valley (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 29).
Five of these states dominate in the release of nitrogen oxides. The decline of air quality forms an indicator of adverse impacts of release of precursor elements. In 1973, the level of emission in the United States had highs of over 29 million metric tons, yearly.
Within a period of twenty years since 1950 there has been a decline of over a half of sulfur dioxide due to the Amendments of the Clean Air Act (CAAA). In 2002, the emission levels were 13.9 million metric tons.
In 1990, NOX species emissions had the highest toll at 22.7 million metric tons. In the following decade, emissions declined by 12 percent. NOX emission targets were set to decrease by almost 2 million tons within the specifics of the 1990 CAAA (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 27).
Moreover, there are state initiatives meant to augment emission cuts locally (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 230). There have been international efforts towards emission cuts. The first treaty meant for emissions cut came into place in 1985.
The treaty was knowns as the Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions. The emission cuts were set at 30 percent by 1993 vis-a-vis the 1980 levels (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 30). Further treaties set the cuts at 80 percent with reference to 1980 levels.
Further treaties on emission cuts in the decade beginning in 1990; have led to declines of sulfur dioxide and NOX species at two-thirds and a third, respectively (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 30). The LRTAP Protocol of 1999 introduced the concept of critical loads that led to the development of critical load maps within the European context.
Analysis
Figure 4: 1.0 Trends in Emission of Acid Rain
Source: National Science and Technology Council (18)
Figure 5: Trends in the Deposition of Acid Rain
Source: Likens (19)
Hubbard Brook Experimental Station
The United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service established the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest as a long-term research station on ecological studies. The research site is found in the White Mountains in New Hampshire.
Research interests in the station were composition and profile of the forest, disturbance reflex and aquatic ecosystems. Hubbard Brook gained prominence across North America as the first to experience acidic deposition.
Effects of acid deposition at Hubbard Brook reflect a forest ecosystem sensitive to acid inputs (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 32). Over time, experimental activities and measurements regarding acid deposition and the aftermath on the ecosystem have been the dominant focal at the Hubbard Brook.
The lowering of sulfate concentration in rainfall has correlated with the rise in pH. Hubbard Brook has a long term inventory on precipitation chemistry. Over time precipitation records include bulk deposition date back to mid-1960s and wet deposition at the latter years of the 1970s (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 32).
Conclusion made from the findings showed greater association between pollutant release levels of the precursor and the sulfur based acid deposition at the Hubbard Brook. It is thought that emission cuts at the source area would reflect linearly declines in sulfate deposition.
The eastern United States has provided a clear indication of the association between emission of precursor elements and the wet deposition. Over time in the period between 1984 -1986 to 2002-2004 high sulfate depositions has declined significantly in the eastern United States (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 33).
The scenario of acid deposition reduction experience reflects the emission cuts targets entrenched in the 1990 CAAA.
Levels of nitrate or ammonium deposition have varied marginally at the forest station since 1963. Bulk deposition at down wind areas at Hubbard Brook has shown a direct association with the source area’s nitrogen oxide emission (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 34).
Nevertheless, the association is feeble compared to sulfate. Inventories of nitrate emissions and the bulk deposition at the Hubbard Brook have had minimal change since experiments began in 1963.
The results of measurement generated at the Hubbard brook have reflected results obtained elsewhere in the eastern United States (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 34).
Figure 6: Distribution Pattern for Sulfur Dioxide Emissions (in 1996)
Source: The Adirondack Council (13)
Figure 7: Distribution Pattern for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions (in 1996)
Source: The Adirondack Council (13)
Approaches to Acid Rain Abatement
The Act on Clean Air gave the preference to market approaches towards sulfur dioxide emission cuts. Industrial plants were supposed to adopt and obtain allowances from the emission cuts programs.
The market approach provides plants experiencing high emission scales opportunity to purchase sulfur dioxide credits from their counterparts whose emission costs are marginally lower. This approach has cost savings implications.
In contrast, use of the command-control approach proposed through environmental regulations may not amount to the same. Moreover, there are econometric functions within the market approach intended to measure the performance of sulfur dioxide allowance.
Assessing the level of cost (whether rising or falling) provides the indicator on performance emission cuts. On these bases, those plants that volunteer to use low-sulfur coal as an emissions-cut strategy, then the overhaul of the technology and decline in prices of sulfur containing coal have demonstrated the reduction in the marginal reduction of costs by more than half since 1985.
This forms the main bases for reducing cost other than trading. The strength of allowance approach is the cost savings of up to US$ 800 million annually. The command and control approach relies on public awareness and the establishing of an obligatory flat rate of emissions.
While it is imperative to consider the gains made by the market approach vis-a-vis the command-control; there is need not to lose sight of the overall necessity is not commercializing the whole affair but sustaining the health of the ambient atmosphere.
The doubling of the two approaches to emission cuts may lead more effective results other than taunting of one. Arguably, market approach may be the only acceptable within a particular jurisdictional area.
The fact that emissions and depositions drift from the source areas makes the sense that command control approach is more applicable for trans-boundary settlements on emission cuts.
Conclusion
There are categories provided for atmospheric compounds. Sulfur and nitrogen species are among the four categories. Emissions have led to cyclic atmospheric processes for nitrogen and sulfur pollutants. This has been described in the biogeochemical cycle.
The impact cyclic processes have traversed terrains and water masses. This means acid rain has a spatial and temporal perspective to it. Acid rain was first conceived by an English Chemist, but the concept earned popularity after twenty years.
This implies that the adverse impacts of acid deposition were not immediately perceivable thus the quality of the ambient environment is relative to placement and time. Acid rain has shown the ability to replicate the problem as well as traverse the space.
Nevertheless, this property of the acid rain and its precursors makes it difficult to particulaandr opt for one of the emission cut strategy (market or command-control approaches).
This is evident in the failure to reach at an amicable solution towards emission from the mid-eastern of North America source area and downwind in the Far East of the country. Based on the study argument most of the effort present alternative solutions towards reducing the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted to the air rather than absolute zero emissions.
The market approach considered as a preferable fails to campaign directly for zero emission of precursors but rather lower. Anecdotally, with the increasing establishment of more industrial plants the intensity of release may be low but the number sources increases translate to escalation of emission of precursors.
The role of the Hubbard Brook experimental outcomes is a clear indication that acid rain has a biogeochemical cycle. This puts the source and the downwind as important players towards providing solutions towards the acid rain phenomenon.
Actually, the drifting of acid deposition indicates that a porous solution towards an environmental problem can lead transferred to a second party. Providing longer smokestacks for releasing smoke implies that the environment at the troposphere is constantly mobile and that the atmosphere is constantly circulating and exchanging matter across the space.
In other words, the solutions towards the acid rain may not be transferring the emissions into the outer space but getting robust strategies to avoid the release of precursors at the source points. Solutions to the problem begin with the technologies applied in utilizing raw resources.
In addition, industry players should be prepared to embrace technology transfer for the common good. The market approach demonstrates that players in the same industry can participate in distributing and sharing an environmental problem resulting in significant reduction of emissions.
In the same vain technologies that prove workable towards lowering emissions can be shared as a way of corporate social responsibility, particularly in mitigating problems arising from emission release.
The market approach demonstrates that solutions to most environmental problems are best tackled through integrated approaches than independent players taking individual actions.
It is evident that corporate leaders have dominated in the technology front and have the capacity to institute emissions cuts with ease compared to small scale players. Thus, certain calls for emission cuts may not have an equal impact within the same industry.
Downing, Robert, Ramesh Ramankutty and Jitendra Shah. RAINS-ASIA: An Assessment Model for Acid Deposition in Asia, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1997. Web.
Driscoll, Charles, Kathy Lambert and Limin Chen. “Acidic Deposition: Sources and Ecological Effects.” Acid in the Environment: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects. Ed. G. Visgilio & D. Whitelaw. USA: Springer, 2007. 27-58. Web.
Likens, E. 1994, Human-Accelerated Environmental Change – An Ecologist’s View. Web.
Lind, Douglas 1981. Umbrella Equities: Use of the Federal Common Law of Nuisance to Catch the Fall of Acid Rain. PDF file. Web.
Mair, Andrew, Richardd Florida and Martin Kenney. “The New Geography of Automobiles Production: Japanese Transplants in North America.” Economic Geography. 64.4 (1988): 352-373. JSTOR. Web.
Mehta, Prashant. “Science behind Acid Rain: Analysis of Its Impacts and Advantages on Life and Heritage Structures.” South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage. 3 (2010): 123-132. South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage. Web.
Wang, Wenxing and Tao Wang. “On The Origin And The Trend Of Acid Precipitation In China.” Water, Air and Soil Pollution. 85 (1995): 2295-2300. Springer. Web.
The papers will discuss various effects of pollution on birthrates in California and other parts of the world. The paper will also discuss the amounts carbon which is considered dangerous to fetus and their mothers. Some researches have been done in California and it is shocking to note how air pollutants increase in the atmosphere is so dangerous (Haas, 2007). Also air pollutants affect the pulmonary artery, valve anomalies and aortic artery. The abnormalities caused by excess carbon in the atmosphere also include cleft lip, ozone, and heart defects. The paper will also discuss the professional literature used in various research units.
There were various methods used to come up with the various suggestions of this paper. Statistical methods were used; these methods used estimates by logic regression and a hierarchical regression. There was the use of polymus logistic regression, semi Bayesian estimation whereby a prior variance was set at 0.5.
There were chromosomal defects which were characterized by; isolated cleft lip and cleft palace in males (Diepgen, 2006).In many cases, some of the results which were found were not consistent. Medical response results of a research carried out by (Roohi, Kula & Mehta, 2001) in the second month of carbon monoxide exposure to ventricular septal were as follows:
In the first quartile, odds ratio
Second quartile carbon monoxide,1.62 %
third quartile carbon monoxide, 2.09%,
Fourth quartile carbon monoxide, 2.09%.
It was found out that a clear dose of carbon and ozone had direct effect on response pattern of aortic septum, valve and ventricular septal. (Haas, 2007).
The participants of this study were the populace of the area of study, researchers, California Birth Defects Monitoring Program staff and pregnant ladies who were being examined (Diepgen, 2006).
Study quality
In the research, there were various cases which tried to justify the negative impact of carbon in the atmosphere to the unborn babies. The study was based on data collected and tests done on pregnant women in various stages of their pregnancy. During the first three to eight weeks of the pregnancy, the levels of air pollutants in the unborn babies were as follows; ozone-2.5%, nitrogen dioxide-2.1%, sulphur dioxide-1.9%, carbon monoxide-3.2% per week. However, in some tests the carbon effect was not significant thus implying that this study was not full proof (Haas, 2007). This study design was highly positive in regards to the research question. This is because the populace was involved and the results were well documented thus justifying the results. Another justification of this study was the use of proper methods of carrying out the study; which were articulate and precise.
According to Haas (2007), “the cases were examined in an appropriate manner which was acceptable to all; this was because the cases were well defined.” The cases were representative because they were done on a precise location which was California; where the level of air population was high.
This study was biased since it only took into account of machines only, which could be defective thus giving a negative result in the end of the study. This study was not credible and more research may be required in order to use it in practice. In addition, the time frame used in this study was not adequate; much time was needed for further studies so as to make it credible (Haas, 2007). Estimates used were based on individual pregnant lady exposure to carbon during a specified gestation period and it depended on air monitoring-station that was close to a maternal-residence during delivery time and this was a possible cause of mis-classification. Hass (2007) argued that “the actual particulate stations were placed far away from the residences which could have probably provided the little accuracy in surrogate measures for individual-exposure”. More misclassification may have occurred if the mothers spent time during their pregnancy outside the area of monitoring. It is of importance to note that the number of cases cited here were not enough; there was need to use more cases in order to make the study more credible. The exposure was measured but not accurately thus, the level of bias was high. In addition there was a difference between out door and in door pollutant levels and thus personal exposures depended on physical activities, time spent at home and residential air exchange rates and therefore leading to another misclassification (Haas, 2007).
Results
The results indicated that active smoking was the most likely cause of air pollution which adversely affected fetal development. The results suggested that fetal heart phenotypes were susceptible to the effects of two pollutants which were ozone and monoxide. The study also revealed that the ozone was a reactive molecule and a strong oxidizing agent that generated superoxides, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals which later contributed to oxidative stress (Roohi, Kula & Mehta, 2001).
The methods used to come up with these results were of significance because they took into consideration all aspects of pollution and engaged them in experimental work. The results of this study came from a vast area of research which represented the population; the people who declined to participate in this noble study were surpassed by those who participated therefore the effect was minimal. It would be an act of futility for the researchers not consider the important variables of the study and that was why it was indeed taken into consideration (Haas, 2007).
Conclusion
With such effects, the study made it impossible not to believe in the results. This was a case study of one region in the world and these results signify that the whole world is facing the same predicament; that is why these results will help every one including people in the local level. The study was just guidance and the results would be used to guide the locals on ways to curb the menace and to treat the affected people (Roohi, Kula & Mehta, 2001). The results were credible because they could fit in any other available evidence.
In this paper various effects of air pollutants in the atmosphere have been discussed and their solutions too. This research has enhanced the epidemiological practice since it has provided more information on this global phenomenon. There is confidence in this paper since it has provided an opportunity to know about the surrounding environment and also it has taken into consideration all the effects of excess carbon in the air by using modern research technology and analysis. It is important to note that without curbing this menace, the world will be extinct. This is so because there will be no young generation since the babies being born will not live to old age due to the effects of air pollution.
Reference list
Diepgen, T. L. (2006). Labeling and filtering of medical information on the Internet. California: Oxford University Press.
Haas, J. D. (2007). Health Grades Quality Study: Patient Safety in American Hospitals. New York: Oxford University Press.
Roohi. F, Kula. R. W. & Mehta, N. (2001). “Twenty-nine years after carbon monoxide intoxication”. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. California: Cambridge Press.103 (2): 92–95.
Particle pollution is a pressing issue in environmental studies, both due to its adverse effects on the environment and negative impact on public health. Specifically, the concentration of particles affects the cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems, with long-term effects traceable in subsequent populations (DEFRA 2017). The goal of reducing the particle concentration in the outdoor atmosphere has been addressed in several ways by organizations across the world.
The most commonly applied methods are the creation of policies and guidelines that regulate the behavior of individuals and corporate bodies and the environmental adjustments that help to achieve the set goals. A good example of the latter is the increased presence of vegetation in urban areas, which acts as a biological filter and reduces the concentration of the fine particles (Janhäll 2015).
Alternatively, artificial means of reducing particulate matter emissions can be implemented, such as the implementation of ionization system (Cambra-López et al. 2009). The policymaking effort can be exemplified by the directive developed by the European Union that codifies the permitted exposure of the population to fine particles (P2.5) on the three-year annual mean (European Commission 2016).
In order to comply with the directive, the Member States assess the air pollution levels and are obliged to devise an air quality plan whenever the metrics exceed the limit. To improve the outcomes of the intervention, the Member States provide the relevant information on the current environmental situation, violations of the limits, and measures that address the issue (European Commission 2016). The World Health Organization also offers a set of guidelines intended for assistance in the reduction of particle pollution.
However, since the guidelines are not enforced, and their utilization is not reported by the stakeholders, its exact impact is unclear, although a model suggested by Burns et al. (2014) predicted long-term improvements. Similarly to European Union’s approach, US EPA set the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) that include the criteria for fine particle emission. The States are required to assess the expected amount of emission, detect the areas where the criteria are exceeded, and collaborate with EPA in developing plans of decreasing the pollution to the accepted threshold (EPA 2017). Currently, such approach has resulted in moderate improvements in all milestones, although it should be noted that the pace of the improvements is only marginally satisfactory (EPA 2012).
In the UK, the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) implements several monitoring networks in order to track the quality of air across the country. According to the latest report, the presence of the networks has an overall positive effect on the compliance of organizations with the developed standards (DEFRA 2015). DEFRA (2013) also established an indirect relationship between the emission of the organic and inorganic precursors, such as ammonia, and the eventual increase in the amount of PM2.5. Therefore, the reduction of precursor could lead to the respective decrease in fine particle emission.
Li (2014) analyzed the U.S., Chinese, and California policies and concluded that stronger authority of environmental organizations, clear definition of standards and outcomes of non-compliance, the establishment of a robust reporting system, and public disclosure of information could improve the efficiency of the regulatory approach. The disclosure of information and transparency is also prioritized by the DEFRA (2017) as an essential component of the particle concentration reduction measures. Therefore, the policies and environmental regulations are most commonly used and can be considered as relatively effective in addressing the issue of outdoor particle pollution issue, while the technological means of concentration reduction are to be considered means of reaching the set objectives.
Reference List
Burns, J, Boogaard, H, Turley, R, Pfadenhauer, L M, van Erp, A M, Rohwer, A C & Rehfuess, E 2014, Interventions to reduce ambient particulate matter air pollution and their effect on health. Web.
Cambra-López, M, Winkel, A, Van Harn, J, Ogink, N W M & Aarnink, A J A 2009, ‘Ionization for reducing particulate matter emissions from poultry houses’, Transactions of the ASAE, vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 1757-1771.
European Commission 2016, Air quality standards. Web.
Janhäll, S 2015, ‘Review on urban vegetation and particle air pollution: deposition and dispersion’, Atmospheric Environment, vol. 105, pp. 130-137.
Li, W 2014, Controlling PM2.5 in Chengdu: analysis and recommendations from the China, U.S. and California experience. Master Thesis, The University of San Francisco. Web.
