Heat illnesses are an array of health conditions that arise because of heat exposure. Either intense exercise or environmental temperature can cause such exposure. The diseases range from trivial heat cramps to fatal exertional heatstroke. I have learned that it is possible to prevent heatstroke through proper hydration, dressing in tight-fitting clothing, practicing in the shade, minimizing warm-up time, eating a balanced diet, and getting sufficient sleep (Korey Stringer Institute par.2). Other means of prevention include increasing work out time through slow progress, working with athletic trainers to adhere to acclimatization guidelines, provision of the necessary medical coverage with Extortion Heat Illness (EHI) policies, and educating athletes, coaches, team doctors, and even parents about EHI and its prevention.
Athletic trainers have a role to play in the management of treat heatstroke. For instance, immediate recognition of symptoms is crucial. Some of the indications include diarrhea, muscle cramps, altered consciousness, headache, dizziness, nausea, confusion, collapse, profuse sweating, weakness, dehydration, irritability, irrational behavior, emotional instability, and rectal temperatures that go beyond 40 degrees. These signs are most likely to occur in hot and humid weather conditions (OTL: Heat Stroke). They may also occur if the athlete is in poor physical shape, or if it is his or her first day in training equipment. Some factors, which predispose athletes to heatstroke, include obesity, history of EHI, lack of sleep, fever, inadequate hydration, inadequate heat acclimatization, and pre-pubescence. Other risk factors include insufficient rest, ignorance about EHI, training gear, delay in symptom recognition, and exposure to high temperatures.
When symptoms are recognized, the athlete should remove all excess clothing and be immersed in ice water for about 30 minutes. If such facilities are not available, the athlete should move to a shade, take a cold shower, and cover the maximum body area with cold and wet towels (Korey Stringer Institute par.5). Proper breathing and air circulation should be maintained. Emergency services should also be called immediately. Athletic trainers should be well educated on EHI. Therefore, they should ensure that their practice areas have cooling facilities and water supply in line with EHI policies. They should also program their workout hours to guarantee minimum temperature. Trainers have an obligation to ensure that athletes are fully aware of the risks of EHI. They should ensure that athletes follow all safety guidelines.
Lightning Policies
Lightning disasters account for the highest numbers of storm-related fatalities. They occur mostly in months when there are many athletic activities. Lightning strikes can be prevented by going indoors during storms, suspending outdoor activities when storms are suspected to occur, heading to lightning safe facilities, establishing lightning policy within the emergency plan of the facility, and giving education to athletes, coaches, referees, and parents regarding lightning strikes. Other prevention measures include establishing methods of alerting the spectators and athletes of an oncoming storm within the facility. Such practices include a public address system. From the first sign of lightning or a thunderclap, all outdoor activities should be suspended until the weather clears. Outdoor activities should not resume until 30 minutes after the last thunderclap or lightning flash.
Emergency services should be provided to a victim of the lightning strike. The strikes range from minor to severe. Small attacks can be indicated by possible blindness, tympanic rapture, amnesia, deafness, muscle pain, paresthesia, and headache. A moderate one can be detected by comatose, momentary cardiopulmonary standstill, blunt abdominal trauma, 1st, and 2nd-degree burns, and temporary paralysis. Severe symptoms include brain damage, hypoxia, intracranial injuries, and direct trauma fractures. No electric charge is stored in a lightning strike victim. Therefore, it is safe to offer treatment. Treatment should first be provided to the most severe patient to maximize his or her chances of survival. Before victims return to play, they should be checked for neurological damage. They should only return to play if they have fully recovered.
Lightning safety policies are regularly ignored. Many victims of fatal strikes have the option of moving to safety. However, they ignore such a step. Athletic trainers should offer education to athletes about lightning safety. They should ensure that their training facilities have lightning safe zones. They should also ensure that they have the right equipment to offer protection and emergency treatment to victims of lightning strikes to avoid fatalities.
Korey Stringer
Korey Stringer was a football player who suffered a heat stroke on the field. He died because of the stroke (Korey Stringer Institute par.5). Coaches were not fast enough to recognize the problem. Therefore, emergency treatment was not offered fast enough. The NFL was sued for his death. The compensation money was used to build a foundation that educates parents, athletes, and coaches about athletes’ safety. Apart from Stringer, young football player Tyler also succumbed to the severe effects of heatstroke because adequate emergency treatment was not offered. Tyler was still exposed to the sun’s heat as he waited for emergency services to take him to the hospital. The delay aggravated his condition. The similarity between Tyler and Stringer’s situations was the ignorance of the athletic trainers, which hindered proper emergency care. The case invokes anger in athletes’ families when they lose their members due to ignorance on the side of athletic trainers. There is a need for athletic trainers to be well equipped. They should have proper knowledge of handling cases of EHI, whether mild or extreme. This strategy, in turn, will reduce fatalities among athletes.
Works Cited
Korey Stringer Institute. Heat Illnesses, 2015. Web.
OTL: Heat Stroke. Ex. Prod. Andrew Prowse. Bendigo, Vic.: Video Education Australasia. 2013. DVD.
The traditional work settings for athletic trainers has been training facilities such professional sports organizations, sports clubs, military installations, rehabilitation clinics, hospitals, schools(colleges and universities), community facilities, gyms and physician offices. In the recent past, the health care professionals have also found work in both commercial and government workplaces (Hunt 25).
The work environment which I would prefer to work most is the occupational health setting. This is partly because of my passion in ergonomics and the opportunity that occupational health setting presents in identifying the ergonomic stressors, analyzing the work station for potential health risk and assisting in implementation of both the engineering ergonomic solutions and administrative controls. Along with implementing these solutions, occupational health setting is a perfect place to provide specific workplace ergonomic training and education (Malcolm 54).
Working in the occupational health setting also places one on a leadership role in helping the organization in achieving its health, safety and profitability goals (Jordan 33).
Athletic trainers working in an occupational health setting are often tasked with the responsibility of developing and managing programs designed to ensure safety and health of employees, while reducing healthcare and insurance costs. Occupational health setting is therefore rewarding, not only in terms of wages but also in terms of skills development and career advancement.
The major disadvantage of working in occupational health setting is that the working hours can be long and unpredictable (Carl 89). Typically, the position is a Monday to Friday job but in an industry with teams working around the clock, the athletic trainer is more likely to work regular hours and possibly at night and during the weekends.
But even with the possibility of working long hours, the structured nature of work and the fact that the athletic trainer will be dealing mostly with little discomforts and prevention of injuries is something that I would look forward to in occupational setting.
One area that I would like to see more athletic trainers working is in the lab in the field of research. True, over the years, athletic trainers have been involved in concussion research programs and have been in the forefront in transforming the way we evaluate and treat injuries. However, there are many programs such as research in injury prevention and ergonomics that still require more involvement of professional athletic trainers (Albert 60).
Injury prevention and treatment is very important for solving emerging health problems and in helping saving lives. Indeed, there are many Government institutions (such as NASA), companies and universities which are looking for experienced athletic trainers in research programs into various issues such as rehabilitation, injury prevention strategies and design of protective equipment.
The athletic training profession is evolving and continues to be recognized as one of the most essential fields in health care (Richie 87). Most practices that involve some form of physical activity often require the services of a professional athletic trainer along with the medical personnel. The entertainment industry (particularly television reality shows) is one of the emerging practices attracting many athletic trainers.
Shows like The Biggest Loser, WWE, The Ultimate Challenge, among others offer lucrative packages for top experienced trainers to keep the contestants healthy as they participate in physically demanding activities. The profession continues to expand into nearly every area where people are active, which calls for more highly qualified and motivated athletic trainers to offer the best quality of health care.
Works Cited
Albert, Wilson. Evolution of Athletic Training Education. Washington: Wilson press Publishers, 2013. Print.
Carl, Kristine. The Future of Athletic Training. New York: McGraw-Hill Press Publishers, 2014. Print.
Hunt, Valerie. Athletic Trainers: Professionals in Health Care. Chicago: Foundation Press Publishers, 2012. Print.
Jordan, Swartz. Athletic Training, Injury Prevention and Treatment. London: University Publishers, 2013. Print.
Malcolm, Hernandez. The Work of Athletic Trainers Redefined. Oxford: University Press Publishers, 2011. Print.
Richie, Wilber. Risk Management and Injury Prevention. New York: McGraw-Hill Press Publishers, 2015. Print.
The emergency action plan for the situation when an athlete begins to complain of chest pain and falls to the ground includes the steps needed to provide him first aid and transport to the hospital.
The team physician will come to the man to evaluate his condition (“Emergency Action Plan” 4). Seeing that he is conscious and still breathing, he will call for the person of the emergency command to come to the scene (athletic trainer, for example) (“Emergency Action Plan” 1).
While waiting for one, he will ask the athlete to stay calm and move less. The team physician will stay with the man to monitor his state. He will administer the first aid, which is needed with the help of the athletic trainer (“Emergency Action Plan: Department of Athletics” 3).
At this time, the team physician will also designate an individual to call 911(any person from the chain command, head coach, for example).
The head coach will tell the representative of the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) to come to the tailgating site because an “injured student-athlete in need of emergency medical treatment” (Andersen, Courson and Kleiner 102). He will tell in what condition the man is and what kind of first aid treatment he received. The head coach will provide the name and telephone number, tell where they are and explain how to rich the destination. Then he will call the campus police for them to know what has happened (“Emergency Action Plans” 45).
The emergency equipment brought by the team physician and athletic trainer will be retrieved.
Appropriate gates will be opened for the EMS team to reach the destination without any delays. The campus police will get sure that the way is not blocked.
As I will be close to the Dale Mabry Highway, I will go to the entrance to meet the EMS team for them to find the way faster (“Parking Map”).
During this time, the team physician will order several people to move bystanders away so that only professionals will be near the athlete.
When the EMS personnel come, the team physician is to tell them what has happened to the athlete. He can rely on the worlds of other people but notice this fact.
The team physician or another member of the sports medicine staff will accompany the man to the hospital.
The representatives of the chain of command will contact the athlete’s parents to inform them about the accident. They will get a medical history and provide the EMS team with this information as well as those related to the insurance.
The sports medicine staff will make reports regarding this situation.
Of course, this plan cannot be utilized at home. I have thought what I would do in an emergency that take place in my apartment that is why I have a prepared first aid kit. It is available for my parents and consists of the basic things, such as bandages, thermometer, pain relievers, laxative, antacids, etc. I think that in a case of emergency I will be able to help a person. I will check one’s condition and try to help if I know what is to be done. I will surely call 911 and tell what has happened to a person. Then I will try to make sure that one is in a stable condition. If it is possible, I will ask someone to help me.
Works Cited
Andersen, J.C., Ronald Courson and Douglas Kleiner. “National Athletic Trainers’ Association Position Statement: Emergency Planning in Athletics.” Journal of Athletic Training 37.1 (2002): 99-104. Print.
The NCAA football and basketball tournaments have long become well-recognized and popular events. They regularly grasp the attention of millions of viewers. Such popularity can not come unrewarded. And, indeed, the reward is there – the NCAA reports substantial revenues from TV advertisement costs and merchandise. This amount of money rarely reflects on the wealth of athletes, however counter-intuitive that may sound. The heated debate goes on to this day, but the very fundamental assumption of an obligatory reward resulting from a successful business model seems to be hardly applicable in this case.
The NCAA gives college students a great opportunity to try themselves in a sport on a large scale. This opportunity is backed by the huge amount of work the association puts into promoting itself and garnering public attention. Students who decide to participate instantly find the possibilities that only can be rivaled by the field of professional sport. However, the NCAA’s funding seems to exceed the amount just enough to cover the expenses, with reports of nearly billion-dollar revenues (“NCAA Revenues” par. 2). This, naturally, leads to the assumption that the effort of student-athletes, who are largely involved in making this amount of money, should be rewarded. Besides this basic assumption, proponents of such a scheme point to the fact that students engage in sports that may result in trauma that will restrict them from studying (“Should NCAA Athletes Be Paid?”). However, several controversial points should be noted that complicate the matter.
First, and this is frequently pointed out by opponents of payment – there are too many factors the financial outcome will depend on (McCauley par. 4). For example, the sufficient bulk of the money the NCAA makes comes from the publicity(“NCAA Revenues”). More popular sports gain more payoff from the advertisement prices. The logical conclusion is that athletes that participate in more popular sports should be paid more. But the important question here is if their effort is less valuable if the sport they go in for is less popular on TV.
This also brings up intricate gender issues. Statistics show that men’s basketball championship garnered the attention of nine times as many viewers as its women’s counterpart. Should it be deemed as proof that women put less effort into the game? And will it result in them being paid less? Second, but arguably more important, is the fundamental goal of students who enter a college. While the magnitude of opportunities offered by the NCAA overshadows it, the fact is it offers additional possibilities, not a primary career. Students who instead decide to devote their time and effort to sports have an opportunity to do so by signing a contract. NCAA greatly enhances their chances of finding a good offer, with NCAA athletes stably making it to the news with signed million-dollar contracts.
That is not to say students participating in sports should not be rewarded. A good way of doing this becomes evident if one takes a closer look at the second point of the argument. As studying is a fundamental goal of college students, the ideal way of rewarding a student is the athletic scholarship. This will essentially ensure that sports do not interfere with the education or even provide such opportunities to students who otherwise do not have means of paying college fees.
In essence, the financial success of NCAA should not serve a sole or even a primary argument in the debate on whether the athletes should be paid. Instead, it should be perceived as an additional opportunity. Meanwhile, the question of compensating the students accordingly should be addressed, which will benefit booth athletic and educational sides of the question.
Works Cited
McCauley, Kieran. College Athletes Shouldn’t be Paid. 2015. Web.
It is imperative to mention that the story of “Moneyball” is truly fascinating and has had an enormous impact on baseball as a whole. Team managers have recognized that it is possible to generate tremendous amounts of funds. Statistics have been utilized in sports for many years to increase the level of efficiency of operations. However, some of the formulas that were used were quite basic and lacked depth. Moreover, the introduction of this approach has been revolutionary and has changed the game of baseball.
Discussion
One of the primary issues that players had to deal with is that particular aspects were valued much more than others, and it was nearly impossible to get into a professional team if required attributes were average. Scouts were looking at such factors as speed and strength (Forbes 85). Hitting for average was also considered to be a vital factor when making decisions. Moreover, individuals that did not show high numbers in these areas were overlooked.
Sabermetrics is quite an intriguing term, and many new statistics were introduced. The analytic unit that has been developed by Beane has helped to analyze the data much more efficiently, and many aspects that were not taken into account were identified (Foster, O’Reilly, and Davila 147). On-base percentage is frequently undervalued, but it is quite an important indicator that shows how productive a player would be when it comes to offense on the field. It is necessary to understand that this measure is crucial, and it can be combined with a slugging average to determine the capabilities of a particular player (Albert 5).
Hakes and Sauer utilize a linear regression to support the suggested hypothesis. The primary goal is to establish a direct connection of on-base percentage with wins of the team. The approach is compared to the idea that the slugging percentage is much more important. However, the results that have been received are intriguing. They indicate that coefficients for slugging are two times lower. Moreover, the authors of the study state that any changes to the on-base percentage have a much bigger impact (Hakes and Sauer 175). It is necessary to mention that there have been many instances when approaches that are outdated are replaced with innovative techniques that are much cheaper (Slack and Parent 23).
For example, new technologies to record games have been introduced. Moreover, it has become much easier to analyze them. All the events may be put into spreadsheets and stored. Also, it is possible to keep track of many factors that may impact the game. Some individuals have tried to apply weather forecasts and other real-time statistics to determine the outcome of the match, and it is evident that it changes the landscape of every sport.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is quite evident that this approach has played a vital role, and has led to the development of innovative techniques that are used to this day (Thaler and Sunstein 30). The tools of data analysis have become incredibly advanced, and it is possible to take numerous factors into account when selecting players that are needed. It is understandable that one may argue that such aspects as team spirit and motivation are not considered. However, this strategy has proven to be efficient over the years and has led to numerous victories. Overall, it has been adopted by many teams, and it may have to be modified depending on the situation.
Works Cited
Albert, Jim. “Sabermetrics: The Past, the Present, and the Future” Mathematics and Sports. Ed. Joseph A. Gallian. Washington, DC: The Mathematical Association of America, 2010. 3-14. Print.
Forbes, William. Behavioral Finance. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Print.
Foster, George, Norman O’Reilly, and Antonio Davila. Sports Business Management: Decision Making Around the Globe. New York, NY: Routledge, 2016. Print.
Hakes, Jahn K., and Raymond D. Sauer. “An Economic Evaluation of the Moneyball Hypothesis.” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 20.3 (2006): 173-185. Print.
Slack, Trevor, and Milena M. Parent. Understanding Sport Organizations: The Application of Organization Theory. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2006. Print.
Thaler, Richard H., and Cass R. Sunstein. “Who’s on First?” New Republic. 2003: 27-30. Print.
St Louis wrote that “the arguments for naturalized racial athletic aptitudes might be summarized as based upon an observable and measurable physical and physiological genetic advantage among black athletes” (78). In other words, scientific explanation refers to the differences in athletic performance purely based on racial factors. Black athletes are believed to be more successful in sports compared to their white counterparts. However, St Louis suggests that this explanation is not right because there are other factors, including social, which affect the performance of an athlete in addition to or despite race.
Undoubtedly, there are specific physical differences among black and white athletes. In particular, the skeletal structure and musculature (physical factors), muscles, and cell structures (physiological factors) differ among white and black athletes. Nevertheless, there is no established link between race and success in sports. These differences emerge from a genetic basis. In other words, these differences are encoded in the genes. It does not mean, though, the all-black people are inherently born to be more successful in sports than whites. The argument of St Louis is based on the statement that phenotypical characteristics which are derived from the articulation of genotype and environment are the foundation for sporting advantage while racial differences play a minor role.
From standpoint of physiology, genotypes are responsible for generating specific physiological characteristics that may facilitate or slow down the specific physical capabilities. For example, sporting practices oriented towards speed or endurance can depends on physiological factors. However, St Louis argues that the success of black athletes should be understood with the consideration of an “atmosphere charged with direct racism and ‘unconscious’ racist attitudes” (79). Thus, St Louis adds social arguments into the explanation of the phenomenon of blacks’ extraordinary performance in sports.
It is hardly possible to deny the importance or influence of race on the lives of people. Throughout American history, African Americans had to deal with social oppression and prejudices. While the current government and social norms do protect the equality of all citizens despite their physical characteristics, including race and ethnicity, race-based judgments are not fully eliminated. The mere fact that scientists are looking for an explanation of the success of blacks in sports concerning race reveals that even scientists and researchers are not blind to racial differences. Race, therefore, cannot be denied.
The scientific explanation of athletic success in terms of racial characteristics is not valuable because “the problematic reduction of sporting ability and performance to racial genotype is transparent in its presentation of definitive outcomes from generalized observations and theorization” (St Louis 80). It means that racial attributes are referred to in scientific research on sports due to generalization and excessive theorization. Thus, St Louis argues that science on race and sports is not viable as it limits the explanation to physiological factors ignoring the importance of social and economic variables.
Special attention should be paid to the scientific research on the sporting performance of men and women. St Louis suggests that the initial social factors of gendered roles blocking women’s participation in organized sports are of primary importance to understanding why women are underrepresented and are, consequently, less successful than men. Interestingly, St Louis notes that “the symbolic positioning of men as sporting role models – and black men as racial representatives – restricted the opportunities for black women” (81). Furthermore, women are expected to fulfill their ‘feminine’ domestic and social roles as mothers, wives, etc.
The black supremacy in sports has resulted in a situation when pharmaceutical sporting laboratories are working on improving the performances of their sportsmen. Opportunity and the synthetic intervention of drug use are social factors that influence sporting performance. The reliance on performance-enhancing substances is often abused by athletes. Even if the substance is proven to be non-harmful to the physical health of an athlete, it should be banned by governing athletic institutions because it creates unfair advantages for athletes. The world of sports is based on the natural abilities and skills of athletes as well as training and desire to become successful. Drugs and pharmaceutical substances undermine the efforts of honest athletes.
“The correlation between race and athletic ability is not observed by a value-free scientific eye, but that preexisting ideas about racial physical and moral capacities frame the very question and investigation of innate athleticism and athletic propensity” (St Louis 84). In this statement, St Louis refers to morality. It is important to note that the morality of scientific research on race and athletic performance is subject to moral consideration. The legal and moral law does not support any distinction based on racial or other physical characteristics. However, the “value-free scientific eye” does not see any distinction between race and athletic ability. In other words, scientists exploring the connection between race and performance in sports maintain outdated stereotypes.
The final argument of St Louis is based on the assumption that over-representation of certain racial groups within sports is a result of socially constructed tradition according to which individuals gravitate towards certain sports and athletic events because of an innate desire to emulate role models within their ethnic groups. St Louis titled this approach “biocultural” as it combines biological (physiological) as well as cultural factors. The scientific explanation for blacks’ superiority in sports is an exaggeration of biological factors and minimization of contributory cultural ones.
Lastly, St Louis writes that “Arguments for the racial basis of athletic propensity are presented as examples of scientific truth that are misunderstood and distorted by ideological dogmas of politically correct notions of social justice. However, an attempt is made to reconcile this conflict between the scientifically true and the socially good” (89). St Louis does not condemn the scientific approach to explaining the importance of race in athletic performance; however, he argues in favor of balance between scientific truth and social morality.
Describe in detail how the nature and perception of women’s participation in sport has changed over the 20th century. How, as has been argued, are black female athletes represented differently than non-black athletes? What is your position regarding women competing in men’s athletic competitions?
Sport is a traditional area of society that oppresses women by limiting their opportunity to participate. In other word, women have fewer chances to participate in sport and even fewer chances to become successful. Sport is not free of gender-based discrimination. Nevertheless, over the last century, the nature and perception of women’s participation in sports has significantly changed. Today women’s rights are equally protected by law as well as moral values. Leaving aside the arguments about equality of women is Muslim countries; developed societies ensure equality in all social and professional spheres including sports.
Victoria Carty summarized the progress achieved in women’s participation in sport as follows, “Since the implementation of Title IX in 1971, women and girls’ participation has increased dramatically in sports and fitness, accompanied by broadening public support” (132). Women’s participation in team and individual sports has increased. Even the purely male sports started to include female athletes. Moreover, women broke out of the stereotyped female sports (tennis, gymnastics) and started playing football, wrestle and box on professional level.
In addition to equality, female athletes have managed to achieve material benefits of opportunities and rewards. Increasing participation has resulted in the change of ideology of gender difference. Nevertheless, mass media (print ads and television commercial) tend to focus more on sexual appeal of female athletes and their feminine qualities rather than achievements in sports. Thus, the increased participation, equality of opportunities and rewards did not fully eliminate the socially-imposed gender stereotypes.
“As number of women participating in sports grows; the media coverage of their events has increased, generating considerable visibility and respect for female athletes” (Carty 135). Today female athletes sign contacts to establish professional leagues with the salaries equivalent to their male counterparts. However, it is important to add that women are granted an opportunity to sign professional contracts only after impressive victories in significant national and international contests. In other words, it is still easier for men to achieve success in sports as society is not absolutely free of gender-based discrimination.
Carty makes an interesting point arguing that there is visible shift in commercial featuring female athletes. While more endorsement contacts are signed with female athletes, the issue of how gender appeals to consumers becomes complex when professional sports and popularity come into play. For example, in culture industry, bodies of even have traditionally served as the most important sites for the accumulation of revenues by cultural institutions. However, the portrayals of femininity have come to represent new strategies to capture the attention of potential customers. Female athletes represent new notions of femininity including fitness, strength and competitiveness which replace the outdated vulnerability and subservience. While women’s bodies attract the attention, their bodies also represent training, performance, and physical fitness rather than sexuality. It is undoubtedly one of the major contributions made by female athletes to shifting the focus from sexual objects to professional athletes.
The special attention should be paid to the representation of black athletes. Carty argues that “black female athletes must prove themselves as athletes first, and sexuality is either marginalized or framed very differently” (14). Furthermore, black women in sports as well as other social spheres have always been stereotyped as more physical than intellectual. Their natural abilities have been praised more than intelligence. Thus, black women have been historically situated outside cultural definition of acceptable, mostly white, femininity. Black femininity is viewed very differently by modern society as well. Moreover, black female athletes are perceived as more athletic than white women and their femininity is seen as irrelevant.
Women’s participation is sport “may serve as a harbinger of challenges to patriarchal hegemony” (Carty 143). While the society used to distinguish the physical capabilities of men and women, the current achievements of women in professional sport has almost erased physical differences. Both men and women can compete with the same requirements and expectations. It is absolutely normal for women to compete with men in athletic competitions. There is limited research to show that women are weaker than men (just another gender-based stereotype). It would be wrong to state that men and women have equal physical characteristics; however, when the argument is related to sport, gender should not be the factor of importance.
Welch Suggs commented on Title IX stating that “mandating that women athletes be treated the same as men, the law encouraged women’s sports to develop in the hypercompetitive, highly commercialized model that evolved in men’s sports over the past century and a half” (3). In other words, Title IX did not fulfill its primary objective to ensure equal opportunities for men and women in sports. Moreover, Title XI created the environment in which women had to deal intense competition; women are put under additional pressure to achieve success in male-dominated sphere of sports. Thus, Title XI had two-sided effect on women’s participation in sports. From one side, it opened new opportunities. From the other side, it made it even harder for women to compete with men.
In conclusion, significant progress has been achieved by women in the world of sports. Today women have their rights protected as government ensures equal distribution of participative opportunities in sport. However, it should not be ignored that mass media which reflects on culture is still focused on feminine qualities of female athletes rather than their achievement. Finally, the racial differences shape the perception of black and white female athletes.
References
St Louis, Brett. Sport, Genetics and the Natural Athlete: The Resurgence of Racial Science. Body & Society, vol. 9 (2): 75-95
Intercollegiate athletics is the foundation on which the country’s national sports, both amateur and professional, are built. Athletes constitute the main reserve of the national teams that participate in international professional competitions. While many students have a hard time finding the money to pay for their education, hundreds of U.S. universities offer scholarships and free accommodation, and meals for applicants who have athletic talent and participate in intercollegiate sports. However, the emphasis has been displaced from physical fitness to commerce, and the perception of educational institutions has changed.
Intercollegiate athletics is an important element in the preparation of high-class athletes and provides a permanent and highly qualified reserve to replenish the country’s professional sports teams. American student sports are well organized as studies and sports are inextricably linked together (McArdle, Paskus, and Boker 57). If students make unsatisfactory progress in their studies, they will not be able to train for games or sports. In addition, sports are one of the main marketing tools used to attract students. In order to attract the strongest athletes, schools introduce funded sports programs (Feezell 186). More than a thousand U.S. educational institutions are seeking currently students for their sports teams to bring glory to their university.
Sports events are a huge interest among the U.S. population. The best teams can fill stadiums, the capacity of which exceeds one hundred thousand spectators. They have been designed for intercollegiate games on almost every campus (Jozsa 21). The press, the Internet, and television broadcasts are all at the disposal of athletics. Millions of viewers across the country watch television broadcasts of college basketball, baseball, football, and other games. Student sports in the United States is a business with an annual turnover of more than a billion dollars. Top athletes then become professional athletes and receive good incomes, although in order to become a player in the National Football League (NFL), the athlete should be a member of the university team for three years. As for the National Basketball Association (NBA), the member must be at least 19 years old.
Financing is one the contradictory issues in the sphere. The leading organizations of the NFL, NBA, and NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) try not to compete with each other and hold all of their major competitions in different seasons. The annual profit for all NCAA intercollegiate sports exceeds 10 billion dollars. Of this amount, only 30 percent is directed to scholarships and financial assistance of the players (Nixon 48). Meanwhile, professional athletes receive about half of the profits of their leagues in the form of salary and bonuses.
Sports grants, indirect financial investments, and assets, as well as the tax status, strongly influence the perception of intercollegiate athletics. This ratio includes the flow of the financial support from the institutions of higher education to the sports organizations, which is contrary to the basic concept that sports departments are self-sufficient. Needless to say, there are academic benefits for educational institutions that participate in athletics and have success in this activity (Jozsa 34). Private financial investments along with government subsidies bring additional financial resources to the host institution. Money investments enable schools to maintain good equipment as well as renew their campuses and facilities. Institutions can benefit from an increase in the number of successful athletes as well as raise their profile by selecting the best from the prospective students (Walker 4). Student athletes also realize the economic, social, and academic benefits from their link with athletics. There are cases when students with sports achievements are given priority compared to the students with a high academic profile.
It is worth noting that allocation of big amounts of resources and media coverage turns intercollegiate athletics into a business-entertainment complex. At this point, it is also crucial to note that athletics becomes the most serious threat to the academic principles of educational institutions (Won and Chelladurai 1). Colleges annually admit a significant number of students in whom they see future team players. They are invited by the coaches, who are guided exclusively by the athletic abilities of the students although these talents are not related to the true educational objectives of these institutions. Sometimes it becomes necessary to lower the admissions standards in order to adapt to the relatively low level of academic skills of potential athletes, and this perspective undermines the core meaning of the education. Schools wishing to keep their best players are forced to introduce simplified training and to soften the academic requirements. Apart from the ethical aspect, the active financing in athletics results in underfinancing of other educational departments and leads to lowering the general level of the institution.
It seems that the cons of commercialization of intercollegiate athletics, in general, are much more important than the pros. However, in some individual cases, this ratio may be reversed. In order to find good players for student sports teams, who bring considerable revenue to schools, the executives of admissions committees gradually reduce the requirements for the applicants. Everything is done to reinforce powerful teams and maximize income from athletics. Nevertheless, athletics increases the prestige of the institution and attracts investment that can improve its status as well as the conditions. The scholarships enable talented athletes to simultaneously get an education and enhance their athletic performance.
Works Cited
Feezell, Randolph. “Branding the Role and Value of Intercollegiate Athletics.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 42.2 (2015): 185-207. Print.
Jozsa, Frank P. College Sports Inc.: How Commercialism Influences Intercollegiate Athletics, Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media, 2012. Print.
McArdle, John J., Tomas S. Paskus and Steven M. Boker. “A Multilevel Multivariate Analysis of Academic Performances in College Based on NCAA Student-Athletes.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 48.1 (2013): 57-95. Print.
Nixon, Howard L. The Athletic Trap: How College Sports Corrupted the Academy, Baltimore: JHU Press, 2014. Print.
Walker, Adam G. “Division I Intercollegiate Athletics Success and the Financial Impact on Universities.” Sage Open (2015): 1-13. Print.
Won, Doyeon and Packianathan Chelladurai. “Competitive Advantage in Intercollegiate Athletics: Role of Intangible Resources.” PLOS ONE 11.1 (2016): 1-14. Print.
Women have remained active in advocating for representation in decision-making across the board. In the past, those who advocated for fair representation of women were branded as “feminists.” However, this attitude has changed gradually. The situation today is very different from the era when women could not vote because the society did not deem them fit to make decisions. In fact, women suffrage was only granted in the early 1920s through the 19th amendment to the US Constitution. Nevertheless, equal rights for women were not been achieved in a short span. The experience was painstaking, spanning centuries, right from the time when the founding fathers upheld the notion that women could not be granted the same rights as men. Fast forward, women empowerment has opened up space for women to compete for positions that were previous perceived to the preserve of men. For the first time in history, the US has a female presidential candidate.
Despite the major strides taken to overcome the suppression of women, the trait has continued to manifest itself in certain areas. The athletic field is one area where women representation has remained consistently low throughout the course of history. Fewer women participate in sports relative to men. Even the amount of media airplay and attention granted to male-dominated sports is much higher relative to the one given to women’s sports. Additionally, women reportedly earn less compared to men from sports. This situation bespeaks of the inequality in the sports sector where women athletes are treated less seriously in relation to their male counterparts. This attitude has trickled down to sports administration. Female employees encounter different experiences from those of men with respect to accessing and rising through the sports administration ladder. The differential treatment of women has resulted in the sports field being branded the “generic preserve of men” since many sports bodies remain male-dominated, particularly regarding their management.
The persistence of this trend in the 21st-century is obviously worrying, if not disturbing. Most women are bound to feel that the spirit of democracy has not trickled down to sports administration. Even more disturbing are female sports people who have no choice but to contend with the male coaches, trainers, and other personnel. This research aims to identify the causes of the disparity observed in sports administration regarding female and male representation in the management. The author will first introduce the research question, which is intended to set the scope of the study. The literature review captures the findings and thoughts of other scholars regarding the subject. In the methodology section, the author will discuss in depth, the manner in which the research will be carried out discussing the population and sample, research design, and data collection methods among other pertinent aspects of the research.
The above expositions bring up the research question, “What is causing the low representation of women in athletic administration?” This question defines the scope of the research and restricts it to the causes of low representation of women in athletic administration.
Review of Literature
The review of literature dwells on narrating how women have continually suffered from gender role stereotypes, perceived role congruity, and career limitation in intercollegiate sports administration. This suffering happens, despite the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) expressly requiring athletic units to create and delegate the senior role of decision-making to a female administrator (Pent, Grappendorf, & Henderson, 2007). This section will provide documented findings obtained from previous studies regarding the subject of low representation of women in sports administration.
Low Representation of Women
According to Tiell and Dixon (2008), the common argument is that the sports organization reflects the male attitude of dominance. On the other hand, women are perceived as caring, submissive, and domestic-oriented. They are also viewed as non-aggressive and good communicators. In contrast, men ascend to the position of leadership in the sports field because the society perceives them as being natural leaders with capabilities to oversee the overall strategy of an organization (Tiell & Dixon, 2008).
Despite women having held leadership positions in sports for a long time, the attitude of according them positions that are deemed “appropriate” for them is greatly contributed by the male dominance attitude (Tiell & Dixon, 2008). For instance, roles such as “housekeeping” have historically been deemed as the preserve of women. Therefore, in athletic administration, women are given roles that correspond to “housekeeping.” Housekeeping roles are those positions that are not demanding, regarding proficiency and decision-making. Instead, they focus on empathy and care (Tiell & Dixon, 2008).
The impact of socially defined connotations regarding people’s sexual orientation and supposed robustness or non-fitness for particular duties can also clarify women involvement in athletic supervision. As Galloway (2013) reveals, aggressiveness, dominance, and forcefulness are traits that have traditionally been associated with the male sex, or masculinity. Conversely, femininity is associated with being caring, sympathetic, and kind (Galloway, 2013). The latter set of characteristics is not deemed appropriate for the aggressive and competitive sports field (Galloway, 2013). Because men are expected to be aggressive and dominant, they are assumed to be fitting for administrative roles that call for these characteristics. Effectively, these roles require constant decision-making and strategizing.
On the other hand, because women are expected to be kind and empathetic, the roles deemed fit for them are those that involve giving support and nurturing. If an individual takes up roles that are in line with socially constructed characteristics defined by sex, role congruity is achieved (Hoffman, 2010). On the contrary, role incongruity occurs where an individual assumes a role that does not match the socially constructed responsibilities. Following the assumptions discussed above, Lumpkin, Dodd, and McPherson (2014) argue that individuals who occupy the decision-making roles often propose other parties to take up positions that fall vacant based on their perception of what constitutes congruity.
Hancock and Hums (2016) argue that only a few studies have been dedicated to explaining the low representation of women in athletic leadership. In the US, women represent 36% of the leadership in the intercollegiate sports department (Hancock & Hums, 2016). According to Hancock and Hums (2016), despite women forming a considerable percentage of the sports administration personnel throughout the country, the roles they hold are not even.
Hence, certain roles have more women compared to others. These findings are consistent with those of Galloway (2013) and Burton, Grappendorf, and Henderson (2011) who have found that women are not effectively absorbed in the “serious” positions. Only 20% of the women hold the position of sports director in all the three NCAA Divisions (Hancock & Hums, 2016). Division I, which incurs considerably much higher operating expenses relative to the other two divisions [divisions I and II], has the lowest female representation. Only 11% of the female representatives are directors at Division I (Hancock & Hums, 2016).
Within athletics, certain operating units are largely directed by women while others are mostly male-dominated (Corwin, 2015). Corwin (2015) reveals that the representation of either sex depends on the role in question. In other words, one position can show a low percentage of women occupying the position while another shows a higher percentage of women. For example, two areas that are dominated by males are operations and sports information (Corwin, 2015). Operations directors are responsible for coordinating and managing athletic facilities. In all the three divisions of the NCAA, namely, I, II, and III, males dominate these two areas. About 88% of information directors and 87% of operations directors are male (Corwin, 2015).
Corwin (2015) found that about 62% of the academic advisers across the three divisions of NCAA were female dominated. Additionally, females constituted 54% and 72% compliance directors and life skills coordinators respectively across the entire association (Hartzell, 2015). Therefore, dominance in athletics is subject to the role or position in question (Hartzell, 2015). Women dominate certain units of athletic administration, although they are largely absent in others (Hartzell, 2015). While these findings may be true, they do not explain the reason why there are fewer women in athletic administration overall compared to men.
Lumpkin et al. (2014) have established that women hold only a third of the administrative positions, rather than the positions being distributed equitably. This finding is an indication of a ‘glass ceiling’ that limits the intake and ascension of women to administrative positions (Lumpkin et al., 2014). The researchers have found that men dominate the positions of athletic director, assistant athletic executive, and associate directors in NCAA (Lumpkin et al., 2014). In institutions without a football team, the number of female directors may be high, if not higher compared to men (Lumpkin et al., 2014). According to Lumpkin et al. (2014), “glass ceiling” refers to a consistent attitude that bars women from rising to top positions of leadership.
Lumpkin et al. (2014) acknowledge the presence of this attitude within NCAA ranks before blaming it for the disproportionately low percentage of women in management. Burton et al. (2011) invoke the social role theory to explain the low female representation in athletics. This theory suggests that biased hiring occurs because of the disparity between the expectations about male or female roles as leaders in NCAA (Burton et al., 2011).
Pent et al. (2007) identify the experience as a major factor that determines career advancement in athletics administration. This situation holds in financial decision-making and budget handling (Pent et al., 2007). Pent et al. (2007) reveal that women in NCAA do not engage a lot in financial management roles, a situation that limits their career advancement. Pent et al. (2007) reveal a large drop in the percentage of women roles in NCAA between 1972 and 2006, despite the installation of the Senior Woman Administrator (SWA) post within NCAA in 1981. Women’s programs had a 90% representation in 1972. However, the figure fell to only 18.6% in 2006, indicating that the position of SWA, which was put in place in 1972, has not had much impact on improving women representation.
The above literature has shown that the representation of women in athletics administration is low. However, the authors have not conclusively identified the reasons for this trend. This research seeks to identify the distinct cause of the low representation, which has persisted, despite measures being put in place to reverse the trend.
Methodology
The study to establish the causes of low representation in athletic administration will be conducted through an online survey. Online surveys are instrumental when collecting information that is personal or sensitive in nature. The researcher felt that the officials of NCAA could be unwilling to grant an interview on the subject of female representation for fear of reprisal because the question of equality at NCAA has been the subject of varied discussions for a while. Therefore, an online survey will offer anonymity to the participants. By offering anonymity, subjects will be more likely to participate freely, thus providing accurate and reliable data.
The research will target both male and female officials of the NCAA with the intention of obtaining their views regarding the causes of disparity in women representation. The study will be guided by previous studies in terms population and sample selection, research design, and data collection methods. The researcher chose to conduct an online survey because the existing findings have not conclusively addressed the subject matter of this study. As a result, the prevailing information gap can only be filled by an extensive collection of quantitative data. Specific software will be designed to enable participants to respond to the preset questions. The software will help the researcher to measure the significance of the results in the general population. Additionally, the research will be able to observe and measure the change of attitude, opinions, and behavior by the respondents.
Terms and Assumptions
The researcher assumes that the southern states are generally more conservative compared to the northern ones. Further, the researcher assumes that inequality in NCAA administration between men and women would be more pronounced in the conservative south relative to the liberal north.
Population and Sample
The population of this study shall be obtained from a single NCAA station in a south state. The choice of this location is informed by perceived male dominance in NCAA in the “red states” in comparison with the more liberal north states of the country. A sample of 300 women will be used be included in the survey. The study targets women occupying both high-level and low-level positions of administration at NCAA. Anonymity will be assured for participants in a bid to eliminate censoring of information due to fear of reprisal.
Research Design
The researcher will use descriptive research design in this study. The participants will provide responses to predetermined questions. Each question will consist of four multiple choices from which the subjects will be required to pick their response for every question. Quantitative description is meant to help researchers to focus on aspects such as magnitude, size, and other measurable attributes of a phenomenon (Polit & Beck, 2013).
Data
This research will rely on continuous data obtained from the responses of participants. Different variables will be used to classify this data.
Data Collection
Data will be collected by way of survey responses. The NCAA Guide to SWA will be used to inform the variables to be used in the study.
Instruments
Data will be collected through an online survey. Special software will be designed that will contain specific questions and multiple-choice responses. The software will contain 25 questions and ten demographic items. The software to be used is based on the NCAA guide to SWA, designed in 2002. This instrument will be helpful in identifying the role played by female employees in each capacity.
Reliability and Validity of the Instruments
Online surveys are important in collecting sensitive information, especially where the identity of the participants should be kept anonymous. Using questions with multiple choices ensures that the responses of the participants are quantifiable. In this research, the researcher will stand a better chance to measure the extent of a phenomenon.
Reliability and Validity of the Methodology
The methodology of this study is quantitative. It will assist the researcher in determining the extent to which the identified causes influence women representation at NCAA.
Data Analysis
SPPS version 14.0 will be used to analyze data obtained for this study. Descriptive statistics will be calculated by using cross-tabulations to present the percentage disparities between the independent and dependent variables. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) will then be employed to statically analyze frequencies for each category by gender.
Limitations of the Study
This study is limited regarding generalizability. The researcher intends to involve only participants from one station located in the South. However, the attitudes toward women in leadership differ considerably between the north (liberal) and south (conservative) states. Thus, it is the researcher’s belief that this study may not be freely generalizable to all parts of the country.
Conclusion
Despite women having made major strides to match men in all fields, their representation in the athletic administration has remained consistently low. Indeed, Pent et al. (2007) found that the number of women in the management of female sports has drastically reduced from 90% in 1972 to only 18.6% in 2006. The results obtained from this study will be compared with the findings from previous studies to establish consistency.
While previous studies have found a low representation of women in this field, few of them have been dedicated to establishing the cause of this trend. Lumpkin et al. (2014) and Burton et al. (2011) reveal how the perception of role congruity and incongruity plays a key role in determining the gender of officials being hired to take up positions at NCAA. By engaging participants who are officials within NCAA, the researcher hopes to establish the true position regarding this finding. For instance, questioning members of the appointing board on the criteria used to fill positions that fall vacant may help to explain the diminished representation of females.
The researcher will interview SWA officials to establish whether they encounter any opposition from male counterparts while exercising their duties. This information will explain why the number of female NCAA officials has remained either low or diminished over the years. The assumption is that opposition by male counterparts could cause SWA officials to be disappointed, thus relinquishing their positions. Pent et al. (2007) assert that SWA officials do not effectively participate in decision-making, as it would be expected of senior NCAA officials. Because of the assured anonymity, participants may be willing to confide in the researcher regarding sensitive information such as being suppressed by seniors. The questions of the online survey shall be structured in a manner that elicits quantifiable data regarding the extent to which biasness influence appointments and role assignment at NCAA. This information will hopefully establish a strong link or nullify the perception that role congruity is a key cause of bias at NCAA.
In line with Hancock and Hums’ (2016) arguments, career advancement is an important determinant of female representation in any field. Previous research indicates that career advancement is based on the experience and competence of the official. The findings of this study will be used to examine how competence is determined by NCAA. Is there bias in determining who should be promoted to a higher rank? There is the likelihood that women are hardly promoted to higher positions of management. As a result, career stagnation may cause female officials to quit their jobs.
Additionally, career stagnation may discourage other women from seeking an appointment at NCAA in the first place. Either way, the result is a low representation of women. Acosta and Carpenter (2014) reveal how female representation at the higher levels of management is worse in the higher-level positions relative to the lower ranks. Accordingly, the research anticipates frustration because career stagnation is a major cause of low representation of women. The researcher has taken this opinion as a rationale for explaining why the number of women occupying top positions remains low, despite the NCAA allotting senior positions for women Advisors (SWA).
A major limitation of this study is that the sample that the author intends to use will not conclusively represent all the female NCAA administrators. As a result, generalizing the study may result in inconsistencies. Despite the fact that women captured in this study have worked in various regions of the country, they are currently located in one station in a south state.
Professional Implications
The findings of this study are expected to influence future appointments at the NCAA. As a result, the number of females occupying higher-level positions should increase.
Reference List
Burton, L. J., Grappendorf, H., & Henderson, A. (2011). Perceptions of gender in athletic administration: Utilizing role congruity to examine (potential) prejudice against women. Journal of Sport Management, 25(1), 36–45.
Corwin, D. M. (2015). NCAA female athletic directors’ reported barriers, pathways, and mentoring. Blacksburg, Virginia: Virginia Tech.
Galloway, B. J. (2013). The glass ceiling: Examining leadership perceptions within the domain of athletic administration. Ypsilanti, Michigan: Eastern Michigan University.
Hancock, M. G., & Hums, M. A. (2016). A “leaky pipeline”? Factors affecting the career development of senior-level female administrators in NCAA Division I athletic departments. Sport Management Review, 19(2), 198-210.
Hartzell, A. C. (2015). Understanding the career trajectories of mid-career female athletics administrators: A life course approach. Austin, UT: University of Texas.
Hoffman, J. (2010). The dilemma of the Senior Woman Administrator role in intercollegiate athletics. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, 3(1), 53-75.
Lumpkin, A., Dodd, R. K., & McPherson, L. (2014). Does a Glass Ceiling Persist in Intercollegiate Athletics? Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 8(1), 33-46.
Pent, A., Grappendorf, H., & Henderson, A. (2007). Do they want more? An analysis of NCAA Senior Woman Administrators’ participation in financial decision-making. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 1(2), 157-174.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2013). Essentials of nursing research: Appraising evidence for nursing practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Tiell, B., & Dixon, M. (2008). Roles and tasks of the Senior Woman Administrator (SWA) in intercollegiate athletics: A role congruity perspective. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 2(3), 339-361.
Vitamin B12 is of particular importance to athletes as it directly affects the production of red blood cells. What’s more, other potentially beneficial effects of vitamin B12 include the maintenance of proper immune function, improved nerve signaling, and the synthesis of neurotransmitters and creatine. Krzywański et al. (2020) note that athletes and coaches believe that improved red blood cell parameters are desirable for optimal performance, which is why hemoglobin concentration is their favorite biomarker. Thus, since a lack of vitamin B12 can lead to homocysteine accumulation, anemia, loss of balance, limb numbness, fatigue, and memory impairment, it is crucial for athletes to maintain this level in the normal range.
There are various methods of improvement of performance and strength in regards to B12. One of them is the recovery of the level of vitamin B12 by additional intake of this element in the form of a vitamin complex or food supplement for oral administration or intramuscular injections. While Greibe et al. (2018) point out some imperfections of this method, which are associated with the limited capacity of the B12 absorption system, the authors emphasize that this can help to give strength. In this regard, diet is of particular importance in overcoming B12 deficiency. Obeid et al. (2019) assert that the primary food sources of vitamin B12 are poultry, meat, fish, and dairy products. Vitamin B12 deficiency is more common among those who deliberately avoid these foods, including vegans and vegetarians. Therefore, eating a balanced diet is essential to improve performance and strength.
The human body is 70% water, and adequate intake of it is vital for maintaining health. According to Gupta et al. (2016), the importance of this liquid is explained, among other things, by the presence in its composition of trace elements that take an active part in regulating the work of organs and tissues, including B12. With a daily intake of the recommended amount of water, a person receives 25% of the daily requirement of essential vitamins and minerals. However, it is crucial to choose the right type of water, as in some cases, it can lead to a deficiency of vitamins, including B12. Gupta et al. (2016) state that to maintain normal vitamin B12 levels, drinking water treated with reverse osmosis (RO) technology should be avoided. Therefore, since hydration is vital for normalizing B12 levels, it is crucial to be extremely careful with water intake.
References
Krzywański J, Mikulski T, Pokrywka A, et al. Vitamin B12 status and optimal range for hemoglobin formation in elite athletes. Nutrients. 2020;12(4):1038. doi:10.3390/nu12041038.
Greibe E, Nymark O, Fedosov S, Heegaard CW, Nexo E. Dietary intake of vitamin B12 is better for restoring a low B12 status than a daily high-dose vitamin pill: An experimental study in rats. Nutrients. 2018; 10(8):1096. doi:10.3390/nu10081096.
Obeid R, Heil SG, Verhoeven MMA, van den Heuvel EGHM, de Groot LCPGM, Eussen SJPM. Vitamin B12 intake from animal foods, biomarkers, and health aspects. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2019; 6:93. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00093.
Gupta ES, Sheth SP, Ganjiwale JD. Association of vitamin B12 deficiency and use of reverse osmosis processed water for drinking: A cross-sectional study from Western India. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR. 2016;10(5):37-40. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2016/19621.7864.
The case was a class-action suit filed on September 8, 2006, by the College Athletes Coalition (CAC) on behalf of its membership comprising Division I football and basketball players advocating for student-athletes. The court certified the suit as a class action on October 19 and the respondent, the NCAA, responded with a motion to dismiss. Although the plaintiffs filed an opposing memorandum, the court agreed with the NCAA’s first motion to dismiss the case but left room for the amendment of the complaint. The plaintiffs then filed their amended complaint which was countered with a second motion to dismiss by the NCAA.
However, the court denied the second motion to dismiss. Accordingly, the class counsel undertook the requisite preliminary investigations, discovery, and depositions in preparation for the trial. However, the NCAA also engaged their adversaries in negotiations through a series of mediation sessions during this phase that formed the basis of a settlement between the parties. Therefore, having considered all factors, the parties agreed to settle the matter without getting to trial.
Facts
The plaintiff brought suit on the ground that the NCAA engaged in anticompetitive behavior. This claim was premised on the fact that the Association’s grant of full scholarships or Grant-in-Aid (GIA) was conditional on an imposed cap restricting the amount of scholarship a recipient could get. Consequently, the cost of attendance set by educational institutions was usually higher than this limit with the result that student-athletes struggled to survive and were riddled with debt. The court was implored to hold the NCAA accountable for the deficit between the institutional costs of attendance and the GIA and to direct it to desist from implementing its erratic GIA policy (Kniss, 2017). However, the court did not have the opportunity to deliberate on the case as a settlement was reached before trial.
Issue
The primary issue for the court’s determination was whether the NCAA contravened the Sherman Antitrust Act by limiting the amount of aid that a student-athlete could receive a full scholarship. The restrictions meant that student-athletes had to bear the greater burden of the costs of attendance than they would have had to if the limitations were not effective. Hence, the question was whether the GIA cap was uncompetitive behavior.
Case Outcome
Accordingly, the court was being invited to decide on whether the NCAA had engaged in anticompetitive conduct in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The decision would have been important because an adverse finding against the NCAA would have opened the litigation floodgates across the US. However, as noted, the matter never got to trial because the parties came to a court-mediated settlement that averted the trouble and expense of a long trial. Each plaintiff, under the terms of the settlement, got $5000 in addition to the $10 million concession to all student-athletes in the class represented in the suit (Anderson, n.d).
Further, the NCAA paid for attorney’s fees totaling $8.6 million, established a new fund worth $218 million, and established a 5-year scholarships rule (Anderson, n.d). Thus, the case resulted in a policy shift as well as monetary gain for the plaintiffs and their beneficiaries.
Conclusion
This case cannot be considered seminal because its failure to proceed to trial means that the court never got the chance to expound on antitrust law, thus, no legal precedent was established. Therefore, the phrase ‘landmark’ may not necessarily be associated with it. Nonetheless, the case is undoubtedly remarkable because it was able to instigate change even without getting to trial or resulting in the enunciation of a groundbreaking rule of law. The NCAA, by pushing for settlement and changing its troublesome policies, signified the acknowledgment of a pressing problem and a commitment to addressing it.