Category: Athletes

Though retired after an illustrious 20-year career, the five-time NBA champion’s stats off the court just keep on growing. Kobe Bryant’s kids and wife make the nuclear Bryant family a tribe of six. With such a household, the Los Angeles Lakers legend is almost qualified to have his very own basketball team!

Since his retirement, Kobe Bryant’s kids and wife have continued to garner attention even more than his celebrated athletic career. The former NBA star’s tribe has always been his inspiration. Hence, Kobe is now better focused on his family and better committed to doing his job as a father. Here’s all you should know about the five-time NBA champion’s growing family.

Who Are His Parents & Family Members?

The older generation would perhaps be familiar with details about Kobe Bryant’s parents and siblings. The Los Angeles Lakers legend who has deep roots in the game is the only son of three children born to Joe and Pam Bryant. Kobe’s 6’9′ father was probably born for the sport. Though Joe was not as famous as his son, he was also a basketball star and a good parent. He helped steer Kobe towards his career path and even after retiring from professional play, Joe continued to impact knowledge and invest in young talents as a coach.

On the other hand, Kobe’s mom is the sister of famous NBA star Chubby Cox. His two older sisters are Sharia Bryant-Washington (who is also an athlete) and Shaya Bryant-Tabb. Though Kobe was apparently the baby of the house while growing up, he had a strained relationship with his parents and sisters at the earlier part of his adult life.

Who Are Kobe Bryant’s Kids and Wife?

Kobe Bryant’s kids are the product of his longtime marriage with Vanessa Laine. Originally known as Vanessa Cornejo Urbieta, Kobe’s wife is a Latin-American model with Mexican roots. The celebrity couple’s love goes way back to their young adult days. Bryant met his wife while she was still a teenager and a high school student.

Though the lovebirds have been married since 2001, their love journey has had its own share of tough times. For instance, one of the reasons Bryant has a troubled relationship with his mom is because she did not initially approve of his Latin wife, Vanessa. Pam considered the brunette beauty too young and non-African-American. Despite that and other public controversies, Kobe and Vanessa have remained inseparable for nearly two decades and have since been expanding their family line.

It takes just one look at Kobe Bryant’s kids for anyone to understand why the basketball legend is considered successful both professionally and personally. Kobe and Vanessa Bryant became parents for the first time in January 2003 when their first daughter Natalia Diamante (whose second name means “diamond”) was born.

Natalia enjoyed the privileges of an only child for about four years before her younger sister Gianna Maria-Onore came along. Bryant’s second princess who was born on May 1, 2007, seems to be the child who inherited the five-time NBA champion’s athletic genes and talent. Going by her Bryant’s social media posts, Gianna whose retired father now coaches her school’s basketball team may be the offspring to carry on Bryant’s career legacy.

The retired NBA star became a father of three in December 2016 when his third daughter Bianka Bella joined the family. Interestingly, unlike her older sisters, Bianka who arrived just the year before her father’s retirement may have enjoyed some certain privileges. This is because her dad now has more time to spend with the family while she grows up.

Bryant’s latest family member Capri Kobe arrived in June 2019. The five-time NBA champion’s fourth princess whose name uniquely pays tribute to her famous father is fondly called Koko. Capri’s arrival means that Kobe remains the only man in the Bryant household, at least for now. Though one daughter short of an all-female starting five, it wouldn’t be out of place if Bryant decides to start his own basketball team.

Even with four kids, the Los Angeles Lakers legend has hinted that he and his wife may still have another child. Though the celebrity is comfortable having only girls and doesn’t mind being outnumbered, he claims Vanessa wants a boy more than he does. While he hopes to deliver on that, Kobe says the decision for another child is Vanessa’s to make. Contrary to the popular opinion that it takes a real man to make a boy, Kobe Bryant believes it takes a king to make a princess.

Since retiring in April 2016, the five-time NBA champion’s life hasn’t slowed down much but he is more on family and work. Following his retirement, Kobe has been busy with family vacations, business ventures, and coaching. Though no longer active in the NBA, Bryant who enjoys coaching his daughter Gianna’s youth basketball team is still obsessed with winning.

While trying to reconnect with his family, Bryant is also hard at work establishing roots as an author and businessman. In addition to his own media production studio and investments in BodyArmor, the retired NBA star won an Oscar in 2018 for his animated short film, Dear Basketball. As an author, he’s penned at least two books, The Wizenard Series: Training Camp, as well as The Legacy and The Queen, which was inspired by tennis champion Serena Williams.

Introduction

In 2009, The retired Jamaican sprinter, Usain Bolt broke the world record for the fastest 100 meters sprint at the World Athletic Championships in Berlin. He is the only person to ever sprint a recorded 100 meters under 9.6 seconds. The reason this is fascinating to me is because, I have been running track and field, on a team for 2 years and during Physical education for over 5 years, and am always very amazed to see someone running the 100-meter sprint in less than 11 seconds. I have seen many people beat their personal records and have also personally done so but never saw anyone close to Usain Bolt. This raised my interest a while back and I have also researched the science behind a human being able to run so fast. I have also come across videos, articles, and forums with the theory that it is not possible for a human to run much faster than Usain Bolts World record time. There have been reasonings behind this theory, of which one is that his height is one of the crucial reasons he was able to set the World record and if he were to be a few centimeters shorter he would not be the world record holder. Thus, I believe that this is the perfect topic for me to look into for my Internal Assessment as, it interests me a lot as well as others.

There are many factors that can affect a sprinters time such as: Starting block (A device used by sprinters to position their feet in order to avoid slipping) strategy, Stride length, weight, height, muscle composition, flexibility, etc. For my Internal assessment I am going to be investigating how the height factor relates to a Sprinters time.

Investigation

I will be using the data from the Top 10 fastest male sprinters and their respective heights and analyze how they are related. The times of each sprinter were recorded with professional devices, thus making them as accurate as possible for the current technological capabilities.

Using the entry chart above with the data found from the website alltime-athletics.com, I was able to create a scatter plot chart.

It can be seen that the points of data are decreasing in height but increasing in time. This means that the line of best fit would be negative or at a decline. This can mean that a correlation between the height and time of a sprinter can be seen.

Afterwards, I calculated the exact correlation for the data above. I did so by using “Pearson´s correlation coefficient”. Pearson´s correlation coefficient is a method used to measure the strength of a relationship between 2 variables (in this case the relationship between the height and sprint time of 10 sprinters). This correlation can range from -1 to +1, and is denoted by “r”. A correlation of -1 shows that there is a total negative linear correlation while, a correlation of +1 shows that there is a total positive linear correlation. Correlations of 0 indicate that there is no linear correlation between 2 variables. I then created a table with all the needed values in order to calculate the correlation.

The steps I took to calculate the correlation between the Sprinters Height and their 100-meters sprint were as following:

• First, I calculated the mean time and heights of the 10 sprinters. I did so by using the following formula:
• Secondly, I subtracted the means of the Heights and Times from all individual data´s to get “a” and “b”
• Thirdly, I multiplied “a” and “b” together to get “a*b”
• Next, I squared both “a” and “b” to get “a2” and “b2”
• Finally, I divided the sum of “a*b” by the square root of [(sum of “a2”) *(sum of “b2”)]. As a formula it looks like this: = = -0.72149

With a correlation coefficient of -0.72149, it can be said that a correlation between a sprinter’s height and 100m Sprint time is present. In this case as the height of the sprinter increases the time decreases, or as the time decreases the height of the sprinter increases.

Next, I will be finding the optimum height for a sprinter assuming all other factors involved are the same between all. Other factors involved in a sprinters 100m time will be assumed to be the average of each factor in all sprinters. For example, one factor involved in a sprint is “stride length”. I will be assuming that the stride length of each male sprinter is 30 inches, as that is the average stride length of a man.

In order to find the optimum height for a male sprinter, I will be using calculus and derivatives. I began by removing Usain Bolts data from Graph 1 as his data was an outlier. I then proceeded to create a new graph excluding Usain Bolt´s data and added a trendline on the graph with the highest suitable value and, also added the graphs equation. I also switched the axes on the graph in order to be able to find the minimum time and for convenience. The result was following:

Conclusion

In conclusion, I was able to find the relation between the height and sprint time of a sprinter successfully. Firstly, I used the correlation coefficient method to first of all find out if there even is a correlation between the two. The results showed that there is and the shorter you are the less likely you are to get a faster sprint time. Furthermore, I was also able to find the optimum height for a sprinter assuming they are the average male. The result showed that a height of 181cm is optimal for the best sprint time.

These results were however not very surprising to me as, I had speculated for this correlation to be present from personal experience. Knowing this however, it could be beneficial to predict the winner for a race. But, it would not always work because, the data was from professionals and not the general public.

Evaluation

There were some limitations involved in my Internal assessment one of which being that I only used the data from Professional athletes and this might not be perfectly generalizable to the public. However, it does still show proof for the fact that shorter people might have higher times in a sprint but, this is not always the case. Another limitation involved is that the optimum height was found assuming all involved factors in the sprinters are the same except height. This makes it less generalizable as not everyone is the same exact average in all factors, however due to the fact that I assumed for them to be the perfectly average human being it is still generalizable to the vast majority.

Bibliography

1. Larsson, Peter. “All-Time Men’s Best 100m.” Men’s 100m, 28 Sept. 2019, https://www.alltime-athletics.com/m_100ok.htm.

LeBron James, often thought to be the greatest basketball player of all time, can be recognized by the majority of the people around the globe. However, when Elena Delle Donne is mentioned most ponder with a confused look wondering: Who is she? What does she do? This is a common occurrence in society as sports and non-sports fans can quickly identify popular male athletes but have difficulty naming just one female athlete. This supports the fact that many media sources cover more male than female athletes leading female athletes to be hidden away in the shadows of male athletes. Even though both female and male athletes play the same sports, the media portrays them differently through their attire and language. Which affects how female athletes are viewed by society in contrast to male athletes.

Females make up 40% of athletes but only receive 2-4% of media coverage (1). Male athletes on the other hand show a dominance over the media as they are displayed in many public advertisements. When females receive media coverage, the main focus is to sexualize them, as they have more skin exposure. This is more common in the sport magazines of ESPN and Sports Illustrated. As seen in the image of LeBron James, in the Sports Illustrated magazine cover, he can be quickly identified as a basketball player. He is wearing the Cleveland, Ohio jersey and a sweat headband with a grey background. He looks focused, thinking of the game and the moves he can do. The photographers portray him as a wise focused basketball player that thinks of the many play moves he has practiced during his career. The women on the other hand, come across as just another model. The ESPN cover images of women can quickly show how they are sexualized. The cover of the Issue Hot x Cool portrays a woman in a studio setting. The woman cannot be identified with a certain sport as she is shown in a skin tight low V-neck jumpsuit. Her hair is flowing back revealing her chest more. However, when one looks closely there is a small bit of helmet showing. This shows how the photographers did not bother to show her helmet as they were more focused on showing off her body. She is holding a helmet which helps identify that she may be a NASCAR racer. This race car driver and many other female athletes are not represented as athletes but as “hot” women. In contrast, to how women are portrayed through their attire, women are viewed as objects with nice bodies. Many feminists viewing these magazines, may question why female athletes put up with this. Only to find out that with the lack of media coverage forces female athletes to make a decision of getting some media coverage or none at all. However, male athletes have many options from magazines to commercials. There is a great difference between both genders.

In addition, to the attire, the language used to describe women by commentators portray them as inferior to male athletes. The language used by commentators during the Olympics shows how they do not believe sports to be for women as they would suggest the idea that men were behind the success of female olympists. While, the language used to describe male athletes is solely on the sport that they play and their skills.As can be shown, when a commentator implied that, Hungarian swimmer Katinka Hosszu, depended on her husband after winning the gold medal with a new record(2). However, when a counterpart wins gold, the commentators congratulate them and state that their skills and love for the game helped them succeed. There is a difference between the language used to describe female and male athletes. Female athletes are associated with the words “married”, “pregnant”, and “older”. At the same time, men are associated with the words “strongest”, “fastest”, and “greatest”. Commentators during games /championships often depict female sports as a second class of sport compared to male sports. Even when identifying female athletes playing a sport society not just the commentators say “women’s soccer”,and “women’s basketball”, etc.

Even though there has been progress in portraying females as real athletes that participate in professional teams, society continues to treat them as second class athletes. Due to the lack of media coverage over female athletes and their respective sports, viewers might find it boring and slower than male sports(3). Media sources have caused women’s sports to be frowned upon and an alternative when there are no male sports going on. In contrast, male sports are aired in various networks, and a show commenting on the game. Male sports are advertised to the max as everyone knows when the FIFA World Cup, and Super Bowl are. Games are shown in more than 3 channels at a time. However, no one knew that the FIFA Women’s World Cup was this past summer. Also that the women’s US team had two consecutive wins. With the increase in media coverage on women’s sports, society may change their views about female athletes and may come to enjoy the games. Media coverage may change the inequalities women’s sports face.

Media coverage is an important aspect for both male and female athletes but it should also be fair as almost half of athletes are women. The norms of society and culture the world has created that negatively impact female athletes has to be shifted to equality between both genders as they play the same sports. They both have the same love, respect, skills, determination, and pride for the sports that they play professionally in. The new generation should be exposed to both gender sports as the prejudice and negative comments the present society has towards female athletes may decrease or disappear completely. Young girls should watch female athletes accomplish their goals so that they know/understand that gender does not matter. Anyone with the right set of skills can play any sport even the “manly” ones. The time has come to change this aspect of our society and respect female athletes the way that they deserve.

Many schools have policies on transgender athletes being able and not being able to play. If you were on a high school athletics team with a transgender athlete, what would you do? According to an article by Micheal Lenzi on American University Law Review, committees have developed many policies and rules to make a transgender-athletes eligible to play the sports they love. In Georgia, a student’s gender is determined by what is on their birth certificate (846). In high school athletics, many transgender athletes get judged upon and feel like they are not welcome. We all know that it is very hard being in high school. We know that people are always going to pick and play, but just imagine how transgender athletes feel when children talk about them. Many transgender athletes are judged daily because of their gender, but just because they are different does not mean they can not play the sports they love.

Transgender athletes should get to play sports with non-transgender athletes because America was made for people to live how they want and be who they want to be. Yes, transgender athletes are very different but that should not define what they can and can not do. We all know some high school students will feel very awkward about having transgender athletes on their team. We all get awkward in certain situations but just because one highschool kid is awkward should not mean that the transgender athlete that wants to play just as much as that regular kid can not play. Transgender athletes should be allowed to play sports with non-transgender athletes.

Each state has different laws about including transgender athletes. For example in Maine, “ Students have the chance to choose sports teams based on gender identity alone…”. In Washington State, “All students should have the opportunity to participate in WIAA activities in a manner that is consistent with their gender identity, irrespective of the gender listed on a student’s records” (Washington Interscholastic Activities Association [WIAA], n.d., p. 31). Yet in Georgia, the law states that “A student’s gender is denoted by what is listed on the birth certificate” (Georgia High School Association [GHSA], 2015, § 1.47). So why is there so much controversy? Why do the states not agree on allowing transgender athletes to play with non-transgender athletes?

Transgender athletes are underestimated because many people do not think about them. David Torre states, “No one knows the precise number of transgender people in the U.S., let alone the world. One recent estimate by the UCLA School of Law’s Williams Institute, which studies gender-identity issues, pegs the size of the American population at 700,000; the number of those who are athletes is even more difficult to determine. But Michelle Dumaresq, a transgender professional mountain biker from Vancouver, told Outside magazine that she talks with some 115 closeted trans athletes all over the globe. And since taking over as the NCAA’s director of gender initiatives and student-athlete well-being in 2006, Karen Morrison has received about 40 transgender-related inquiries from universities, prospective trans athletes and those athletes’ attorneys. Several queries were spurred by Godsey’s coming out as a transgender male.” So why are they not recognized for their achievements? While non-transgender athletes are recognized for everything they do.

Many non-transgender athletes feel uncomfortable with transgender athletes on their team. Some even believe it is of the devil. That they do this in rebellious ways because they do not understand why God does what he does.1 Samuel 15:23 says, “For rebellion is as the sin of divination, and presumption is as iniquity and idolatry. Because you have rejected the word of the Lord, he has also rejected you from being king.” People believe that being transgender is wrong not only because it is offensive but also because it changes everything about life and how God created it. Many parents of non-transgender athletes would go out of their way to get a transgender kid kicked off their kid’s team because they felt uncomfortable. Have non-transgender athletes ever thought of the fact that transgender athletes feel uncomfortable too?

Transgender athletes should be allowed to play sports with non-transgender athletes. There will need to be policies, but transgender athletes should be allowed to play the sports they want to play. Transgender athletes may go through some judgemental situations but that should not stop them from playing the sports they love. Transgender athletes go through tough times at school as it is, so why should we take away sports from them. Some transgender kids may play sports to get things off their minds and to feel like they matter in life because that one goal they make matters.

Allowing transgender athletes to play sports with non-transgender athletes would motivate people to be nicer. It would help kids who feel like they do not fit into where they fit in even if it is just a little bit. Transgender athletes being allowed to play sports would allow them to feel like they matter and that every day at school is just another day to get picked on. Transgender athletes and even non-transgender athletes need this because we all matter. Everyone has their problems and differences but we should not let them define us. Transgender athletes should be treated like any other member on their sports team. They matter like everyone else.

Introduction

Competitive equity and fairness within athletic competitions is a complex and controversial topic that has always shadowed the world of sports. Transgender atheltes in particular, have been caught in the middle of the debates and have aroused much controversy among competitors worldwide. The folloiwng essay goes into detail about female transgender athletes, and their role in athletic competitions. Due to its complexity, and the role of ethics in the issue, it is difficult to reach a clear consensus of whether or not it is fair to include male to female (MTF) transgender athletes in elite competitions; A definitive answer has not yet been reached by the IOC (International olympics Comittee) or the IAAF (International association of Atheltics Federations).

Even though “Playing fields have long been segregated on the basis of sex,” (Torre, 1) the issue only became serious in 1976 when Renee Richards – a transgender female tennis player- sued The Unites States Tennis Association, alleging discrimination by gender for requiring genetic screening for female players. She played a major role in changing sports for transgender athletes, and became a spokesperson for transgender people in sports at the time.

With the gender spectrum constantly evolving, and the transgender community growing rapidly in modern times, it is now more important than ever to understand the role of trasngender athletes in athletic competitions. Aswell, as many athletes worldwide have lost opportunities to pursue their dreams and careers because of their gender identity, it is essential that this particular topic is studied and understood in order to ensure fairness and promote inclusion and diversity in the modern world.

Currently, certain regulations have been placed in international competitions in an attempt to level the playing field, and to ensure fair participation of competitors. The current IOC policy regarding transgender athletes states that there are no restrictions for those “transitioning from female to male.” However, in regards to transgender females, “the athlete has to declare her gender as female and stay so for at least four years,” as well as show that their testosterone levels are below a certain amount before, and throughout the competition (Chen, 16). The IOC has further lowered their barriers for participating by no longer requiring transgender athlete to undergo sex change surgery in order to compete. Some competitors disagree with the aforementioned regulations, and believe they are not lenient enough, while others believe that they are too inclusive and unfair for other competitors. Therefore, the following question is raised: To what extent are athletic competitions a level playing field with the ever changing gender spectrum?

Many believe that the inclusion of transgender athletes in competetions is unfair, however, the majority of the voices in the debate agree that including them does not make the playing field uneven. After through research, and consideration of both sides, it was concluded that even though the irreversible changes transgender athletes go through during puberty are thought to affect the fairness of athletic competetions, the playing field still remains level due to the fact that hormone treatment controls performance, and all athletes are outliers due to unique advanatges that allowed for their prosperity.

Irreversible changes due to testosterone:

One of the biggest concerns of those who believe transgender athletes should not participate in competetions is the exposure to testosterone. Their argumnet is that athletic competitions are not a level playing field due to the fact that transgender ahtletes have an unfair advantage due to the irriversible changes their bodies go through during puberty. Even though hormone therapy can change the amount of testosterone in one’s body, it is not capable of reversing the effects that testosterone has had on one’s body during puberty. Therefore, if an athlete transitions post puberty, the effects that the testosterone has had on their body are irreversible as well as advantageous, and no injection has the capability to reverse what has already been done.

In his article “Gender identity and sport: is the playing field level?”, Dr. J. C. Reeser agrees with the aforementioned argument when stating that there are most definitely “ some effects of testosterone that cannot be reversed” (Reeser, 698). As a doctor working in the department of physical medicine at Marshfield Clinic, Reeser has thoroughly researched the role of transgender athletes in competitions and is a major, credible voice in the debate. Victoria Chen who majors in Neuroscience and biology at the University of Alabama agrees with Reeser and states that there are studies conducted that announce the “clear competitive advantage created by naturally producing testosterone” (Chen,15) in transitioning males. The reason for these competetive advantages due to testoseterone is further explained by Pablo Torre and David Epstein in their article “The transgender Athlete”. They go into detail about the major effect of testosterone on the postpubertal male body and how it is the “engine powering an array of a man’s competitive advantages: greater height and weight, higher bone density, increased muscle mass and greater proportion of oxygen-carrying red cells in the blood” (Torre, 4). This claim however is limited due to the fact that research has shown that with society becomeing more inlcusive and accepting towards transgender athletes, “ it’s more likly that more [people] will come out at an earlier age” (Torre, 5). This would allow for more teenagers to transition before puberty, and therefore not be affected by the effects of testosterone as much as those who have post pubertal transitions.

As a credible voice in the debate, Reeser also explores the implications of his claim that “testosterone induced attributes could influence performance capacity” (Reeser, 698) in athletes who transitioned after puberty. The objection to this statement is that success in many sports is not only due to physical advantages, and there is evidence collected from studies to prove it. As an example, reeser used volleyball and statistics collected from the sport in the past to explain this limitation. He expanded on the fact that even though volleyball players are tall, that is not the only contributing factor that allows for their success. Reeser claims that according to data collected by the FIVB, “the gold medal winning women’s team in every olympic games since 1968 has (with one exception) not been the tallest team in the tournament” (Reeser, 698). This information demonstrates that physical characteristics and advantages are not always the reason for success. Furthermore, the ranking of the final medal round in Athens 2004 summer games for men’s volleyball, was found to be “inversely related to average team height,” which further proves the limitation of physical advantages. Therefore in the case of volleyball, it appears that there are “actors more critical to individual performance and team success than average player height” (Reeser, 698). This data can be applied to other sports and demonstrates that there are multiple other factors that come into play when understanding athletic success. Therefore, a physical advantage due to exposure to testosterone during puberty will not specifically mean that the transitioning athlete will definitely succeed.

Hormone Treatment:

Even though most of the effects of testosterone on the body during puberty are irreversible, that does not mean that after hormone treatment, those effects will be able to give the athlete performance advantages. In his article, Reeser mentions testing that was conducted on multiple transgender athletes regarding their performance in competitions. It was concluded that after hormone therapy, the athletes fell “well within the normal range of female performance characteristics” (Reeser, 697). This demonstrates that even though testosterone already affected their bodies, it did not give them an advantage as they fell within the normal range of biological females while competing.

Joanna Harper, who is a medical physicist in profession, and a transgender athlete herself agrees with Reeser. Dr. Harper is currently an advisor to the International Olympic Committee in matters of gender and sport, and is the only person to publish a peer – reviewed article on the performance of transgender athletes. In her article “Do transgender atheltes have an edge? I sure don’t.”, she reports and summarizes the findings of her research on the trasngender athletes she observed. After collecting over 200 race times she concluded that not only did all of the competitors get slower after transitioning, but they “put up nearly identical age-graded scores as men and as women, meaning they were equally — but no more — competitive in their new gender categories” (Harper, 2). Harper’s research was published in The journal of Sporting Cultures and Identities, and her findings support Reeser’s claims as well as the rules of the IAAF, “which allows anyone who is legally and hormonally female to compete in women’s events” (Harper, 3).

She further dives into detail to demonstrate why transgender women dony have any advantage after treatment. She asserts that hormone treatment “involves a testosterone-blocking drug plus an estrogen supplement” and over time there is a “ decrease in muscle mass, bone density and the proportion of oxygen-carrying red cells in their blood. The estrogen, meanwhile, boosts fat storage, especially around the hips.” The two treatments coupled together lead to a significant muscle, and speed loss, which are all “key components of athleticism.” (Harper, 3)

Even though there is evidence in support of Reeser and Harper’s claims, Cheryl Radachowsky argues against their assertion in her article about the unfairness of including ​transgender athletes in competetions. She implies that even if the testosterone levels of a MTF athlete “matches that of a biological woman, the men’s competitive advantages remained almost fully intact, with muscle size and bone density remaining virtually unchanged in some and decreasing only 5 percent in others” (Radachowsky, 2). Even though there is scientific data in her argument, Ratachowsky lacks a medical education, and is biased due to the fact that her daughter is an athlete who has lost numerous times to a transgender athlete.

Her claim that the male body will remain unchanged after transitioning is refuted by Reeser when the findings in a study that was aimed to find the “ effect transsexual hormonal treatment has on athletic preformance.” (Reeser,697). Results were collected over a year of hormone treatment, and it was observed that the cross sectional thigh muscle area of the male to female transsexuals declined significantly, such that the mean muscle area approached that of the comparison group” (Reeser, 697). Furthermore, Torre agrees with the refutation when speaking on Harper’s performance and how it was “approximately equal” in both genders and how she did not have an advantage because she was “almost exactly as good a female runner as she was as a male” (Torre, 5); Therefore, Radachowsky’s data was inaccurate and should be disregarded as the refutation was backed up by scientific data collected by medical professionals. In summary, due to the fact that not all effects of testosterone specifically give an athletic advantage to competitors, the playing field remains level as most of their capabilities are within the range of biological female athletes.

Genetic outliers:

Not only are athletic competitions a level playing field because of hormone therapy, but as well because all successful competitors are outliers of some sort. When it comes to a biological advantage, transgender athletes are not the only ones that should be crtisized, instead, it should be all sucessfull athletes, as they all have an advanatge that allowed them to succeed. As described in the article “Fighting Words” by Laurie Penny, all athletes have some sort of advantage, “that’s why they are athletes” (Penny,1). Cheng confirms this statement in her article by using Michael Phelps as an example. He is one of the most successful and known swimmers in history, however, he too has an advantage over other competitors. Not only does he “​possess a huge wingspan, long torso and short legs, [and] large feet,” but he also “produces less lactic acid than a normal swimmer” (Chen, 16). All of these characteristics combined, create a major advantage that he has over many swimmers who work just as hard as the famous swimmer. Over time, only those athletes who have a big enough advantage are those who become successful and move to the top. Therefore, if there is “any such thing as an average female and male body, you’d have a hard time finding it in an olympic team” (Penny, 1). Reeser agrees with the argument presented and even argues that “elite sport selects for physiological outliers whose genetic potential for excellence has been realised through fortuitous interaction with” (Reeser, 698) different environmental factors.

To further elaborate, Reeser uses Flo Hymen, who was on the United States Women’s volleyball team and suffered from Marfans syndrome (which allowed her to have traits that favoured an athlete, such as: tall stature, long arms, long legs etc.) as an example. These traits most definitely contributed to her success in the sport and gave her an advantage, yet there was no limitation or regulation on her being allowed to participate. Even though “ she was clearly phenotypically different from the vast majority of her fellow athletes,” (Reeser, 698) she was never restricted and was able to develop into an exceptional athlete. So is there a difference between her abnormality, and a transgender athlete’s abnormality? No.

The statements made above demonstrate that a level playing field does not require sports to be fair in every single respect, as complete fairness would be impossible. Renee Richards agrees with this in stating that even though her height is a physical advantage she had while competing, other players had advantages as well. She further explained by stating that “ I am tall, but that’s the same advantage Betty Stove has in tennis, and Carol Mann in golf. Both of them are [biologically female and are] bigger and stronger than I. That is a physical advantage unrelated to sex” (Heldman, 1). Even though she had advantages due to her transition, other players had advantages due to their genetics. Reeser agrees with this when stating that transgender athletes are similar to “geneticdally uniqe individuals who by virtue of their genotype, developn attrbiutes that permit him or her to excel at that sport” (Reeser, 697). Therefore, the playing field is still level when including transgender athletes, becasue all competitors have a unique advantage.

Ratachowsky disagrees and argues with the claim above when stating that “fairness of play” (Ratachowsky,1) can be achieved through the exclusion of transgender athletes only. She illustrates her daughters difficulties when it came to competing against trasngender athletes, and went on to explain that her daughter lost “athletic opportunities to a pernicious gender ideology” (Radachowsky, 2). However, Harper disagrees when implying that opportunities are only lost to other successful athletes, not trannsgender athletes in particular. She further elaborates when stating that “All successful athletes have advantages over less- successful athletes”, regardless of gender identity (Harper, 2)

Conclusion

In conclusion, the debate on the inclusion of transgender athltes in athletic competitions has been one that has been changing the lives of many for years. Being inclusive, while maintaining a level playing field is a difficult task, but one that has to eventually be achieved as modern society evolves and becomes more accepting. With careful consideration of all factors, it is concluded that even though ​the irreversible changes transgender athletes go through during puberty are thought to affect thefairness of athletic competetions, the playing field still remains level due to the fact that hormone treatment can control performance, and all athletes are outliers due to unique advanatges that allowed for their prosperity. I believe that due to the two claims previously stated, athletic competitions remain a level playing field with the changing gender spectrum. There is substantial data and evience in support of the inclusion of transgender athletes. The balance between inclusion and a level playing field is diffficult to reach, however, the argumnets in favour of allowing participation of transgender athltes is uncomplicated, and there is inadequate evidence that suggests that these athletes will effect the level playing field.

References

1. Chen, V. (2018). Ethical issues concerning transgender athletes. ​Penn Bioethics Journal​, ​14​(1), 15-18. Retrieved from Ebsco: Academic Search Premier database. (Accession No.133535150)
2. Dreger, A. (2010). Sex typing for sport. ​Hastings Center Report​, ​40​(2), 22-24. https://doi.org/10.1353/hcr.0.0250
3. Griffin, P., & Carroll, H. (2011). ​NCAA inclusion of transgender student athletes​ [Handbook]. Retrieved from https://www.ncaa.org/sites/default/files/Transgender_Handbook_2011_Final.pdf
4. Harper, J. (2015, April 1). Do transgender athletes have an edge? I sure don’t. ​The Washington Post​, pp. 1-3. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/do-transgender-athletes-have-an-edge-i-sure-dont/2015/04/01/ccacb1da-c68e-11e4-b2a1-bed1aaea2816_story.html
5. Heldman, G. (1976, October 29). Tennis doctor’s dilemma. ​The Times​.
6. Penny, L. (2016). Fighting words. ​New Statesman​, ​145​(5324), 27. Retrieved from Ebsco: Academic Search Premier database.
7. Radachowsky, C. (2019, October 13). Justice’ for trans athletes is unfair to girls like my daughter. New York Post​, pp. 1-2. Retrieved from https://nypost.com/2019/10/13/justice-for-trans-athletes-is-unfair-to-girls-like-my-daughter/
8. Reeser, J. C. (2005). Gender identity and sport: Is the playing field level? ​British Journal of Sports Medicine​, ​39​(10), 695-699. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2005.018119
9. Torre, P. S., & Epstein, D. (2012, May 28). The transgender athlete. ​Sports Illustrated​, ​116​(22), 66-73. Retrieved from Ebsco: Academic Search Premier database.
10. Vilain, E., Martínez-Patiño, M., & Sánchez, F. (2013). The new policy on hyperandrogenism in elite female athletes is not about ‘sex testing’. ​Journal of Sex Research​, ​50​(2), 112-115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.752429

When it comes to university athletics, there constantly will be a trouble that arises. It is one of the most controversial subjects there is. One of the main issues with athletics is the idea of whether or not to pay university athletes or not. This has been on the upward shove mainly in football and basketball. In college basketball a big problem arises when it comes to “March Madness”. In media alone “March Madness” is worth 771 million a year. (Keilman). This is when you have to take the time to sit down and think whether these college athletes honestly are getting the short end of the stick or not. Under NCAA laws it is forbidden to pay these athletes for their performance but at the equal time they virtually are talented enough to have a profitable market.

My opinion is college athletes are well deserving of some variety of income. Another motive they have to be paid is due to the truth they are no longer preforming for fun. Nowadays Payment of athletes can be justified because of the commercialized enjoyment they provide to millions of people. These are just a few reasons to rationalize the payment of athletes.

Students are paid to work in club events, as an ambassador, as a waitress at the university dinner spot, or a librarian assistant. These jobs are given to students due to the pastime of a future job. This is simply like college athletes who one day want to be professionals. Why does a student get paid for working on campus doing a hobby they enjoy while making the school money as in working in subway when athlete’s play in games as their hobbies and they don’t? These athletes deserve pay for the time and effort they exert in their sport. If these athletes did not perform on television, then the tv providers would not make money and the schools would not produce as much of an income.

In the end, if anything these college students are the most deserving because rather of their job as a student, they are anticipated to be an athlete and a student at the same time. Their practices and game schedules are so intense and busy they often don’t have time to finish school, or they just drop the difficult classes they take. It is not the fact of taking less complicated training in the sports that is the problem, but it is the fact that these athletes’ jobs are so hard that they can’t take care of school work, studying, training plus everything else. This is a full-time job and if we all put in the hours that these athletes did, we would be looking for pay too. Some may also argue this is their choice. However, it is wrong to expect someone’s situation. Many athletes come from poverty and are using their brain to be trained and make a identity for themselves. They have to work twice as hard as the common scholar to succeed. These university athletes deserve at least a little reimbursement for their hard work.

Another purpose athletes need to be paid is due to the thinking that their so called “free” education is no longer continually free. This is often a strong counter argument when dealing with whether or not to pay university athletes or not. Many will argue that they are given the opportunity of education, cash in the form of scholarships, and the chance to travel around the country. This may also be true, however at what cost? These college students are stuck at the school during breaks and most the summer if not all. They barely see their families, cannot maintain a job due to heavy school and game schedules, and on top of that have lessons to deal with. Coaches work on close to the same schedule as the athletes but at least 60 of the 119 Division 1 coaches make over one million dollars annually. (Winkeljohn). So even though athletes are given a vast amount of scholarships, they still don’t even come close to what their coaches are making. As noted, before, many of these athletes are poor and cannot rub two pennies together. It does now not appear proper that if they are not going to pay the athletes, then why give the coaches millions of dollars when they don’t even have to put in physical work like athletes.

We frequently neglect that taking part in a sport is now not the only way to earn a scholarship. Many students are familiar for first-rate grades, involvement in the band, clubs, or being nicely rounded. Most of these students simply have to study to hold their scholarship, while the athletes have to work at playing the sport well and to be a student. It no longer appears right That brands as in Nike, and reebok pay universities millions of dollars to wear their apparel. (Winkeljohn). Under the NCAA they are now not allowed to make any cash for their skill. Any university scholar has to be able to advise products. This is why the concept of going to college for free no longer can be an argument against paying athletes, because that is no longer the case and they have earned it.

One final purpose of which college athletes should be paid is due to the fact they are already so commercialized. The NCAA is a multi-billion-dollar enterprise that generated over $1 billion dollars in one year due to their players’ ability to entertain and function to their fullest extent. (Berkowitz). This makes you think the place the cash have to go. These athletes work hard and are televised for their results. Millions of viewers watch games of these athletes, respect positive players, and pack massive stadiums to watch them play. It almost is complicated to why these athletes would permit tremendous publicity without the chance of being paid. The best possible paid university football coach’s salaries resulted in over 5 million bucks in a year when not a penny went to the athletes. (Holleran). If the athletes have to play for free, then shouldn’t the coaches have a normal mediocre salary instead of earning millions of dollars while the players earn none? There is a great deal of fans when it comes to a fan base between experts and college amateurs that it just does not add up to as why they can receive no money for entertaining millions of people. Even if these university athletes are not receiving a salary, they must be allowed to compensate cash for fans buying their logos are carrying their jerseys or when the athletes get put on videogames or movies. When there is a great amount commercialized on these athletes, it is only fair to pay them for their difficult work and entertainment to others.

Overall, many people nevertheless disagree that athletes should no longer be paid. However, a number of proposals have been made to limit the fee of athletes. If we are not going to pay their worth, then they should at least get hold of a small amount of earning simply as different phase time jobs. I personally think they should get paid simply from their own market. If they can build their brand, then they can earn money. This could be a way to supply a little extra to the paying these athletes. It would also be a good idea to pay those that deserve it. If we are to pay athletes, then it shouldn’t be the injured or the ones that sit down the bench. And if we are no longer going to pay athletes at all it is solely fair to pay for their entire scholarship in total which includes all the extras like travel expenses.

In conclusion, university athletes deserve to be paid for their hard work they put in for their schools. They deserve it because of all the time they put into preparing for big games and practicing long hours after school. They should be paid due to the fact they are no longer being advertised for free. Payment of athletes can be justified because of the commercialized amusement they provide. Athletes don’t only earn the school’s money they also earn plenty of different organizations money. If they can’t get paid due to the school’s income there are plenty of other ways, they could get paid.

Introduction

In sports science, it is widely acknowledged that warming up before vigorous activity is important(Caliskan et al., 2019). As it helps to increase the body temperature and facilitates increased blood flow to the working muscles to supply oxygen and nutrients. The overall goal of any pre-activity routine is to prevent muscle injuries and to prepare athletes for practice or competition ahead (Caliskan et al., 2019). It has been suggested that coaches and physical trainers should consider the warm-up in order not to cause a loss of physical performance in the players and to get individual improvement in preparation for the competition(Yanci, Iturri, Castillo, Pardeiro, & Nakamura, 2019).

Warm protocols normally involve some stretching either be dynamic stretching, static stretch or both, which facilitates blood flow and range of motion through the joints. Increasing blood flow provides a greater amount of oxygen delivery to the working muscles and better perfusion of muscles allow the possibility of better nutrition(Caliskan et al., 2019). Increasing oxygen and nutrients in the blood, to the working muscles can greatly enhance the performance of an athlete. According to (Caliskan et al., 2019) different muscles in the body show proportional change resulting from previous training and frequency of use or function.

According to (Chaâri et al., 2015) athletes and coaches must take into account the time of the day, duration and load of the warm-up protocol before undertaking physical performance.(Avloniti et al., 2016) added that relatively short duration protocols (≤ 60 sec) that are usually employed during warm-up sessions prior to training or competition may not impair speed and agility performance. Prolonged Static Stretching protocols are not usually employed during everyday practice or competition during which the development of maximal force is the main issue. They are rather used when a chronic enhancement of muscle’s stretching potential is the primary training goal(Avloniti et al., 2016). In their study (Yanci et al., 2019) speculated that a greater warm-up load may be associated with greater fatigue, an aspect that may have influenced the decrease in sprint performance.

The Wingate test (WAnT) is composed by 30 s all-out effort against a constant load and is the most commonly used test to evaluate the anaerobic performance of athletes on upper and lower body cycle ergometers(Nikolaidis et al., 2018). Variables such as peak power (PP) and mean power (MP) are usually utilized to measure the anaerobic power and capacity. Regular, programmed physical activity leads to physical and physiological benefits, and increase in strength and endurance(Nikolaidis et al., 2018). Assessment of the physical capacities of athletes is one of the most important issues in modern sports, and many tests are used in order to monitor the efficacy of training regimes and improvement of sport performance(Jakovljević et al., 2018).

The ability of an athlete to be able to meet the demand of the sport they participate in is closely related to their capacity to produce maximum power in single action during performance. (Jakovljević et al., 2018) suggested that physiological determinants like explosive power, which are affected by anaerobic energy pathways, should also be incorporated in the planning of training processes, performance prediction and talent identification in sport. These physiological variables are not only the determinants of sport success, it takes more than those alone, whereby motivation and tactics are important contributing factors as well. A well planned and systematic warm up duration prior to physical performance to activate these variables is also a vital element when it comes to the success of an athlete(Nikolaidis et al., 2018).

From the observations I made generally in sports, specifically in sporting practice or competition performance, many athletes just before they engage in physical performance activities, they usually undertake some warm up haphazardly without a proper plan and time frame to perform those particular warm ups. Those untimely warm ups protocols entirely depends on the interest and preference of an athlete. They are normally not done with proper monitoring of their effects on the subsequent physical performance. This could affect the outcome of the physical performance if not done properly in a systematic manner.

A systematic well planned warm up protocols with time frame that govern the duration it is suppose to take and the content of the warm up, would be an important step in the right direction by coaches and physical trainers. However, it is very important that these exercise specialists, when formulating these warm up protocols that they should develop them in such a way that they cater for every athlete`s individual uniqueness and needs. This is because athletes respond differently under different circumstances

The main purpose of the current study is to investigate the effect of warm-up durations (WU8min, WU15min, and WU25min) on Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) performance and physical performance of elite athletes. There is a need to investigate the effect of warm-up with different duration (WU8min, WU15min, and WU25min) on Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) and physical performance of elite athletes; athletes in different sport perform warm-up routines randomly without taking into consideration the duration of the warm-up in preparation for physical performances. This study therefore, purpose to find out whether or not the different warm-up durations has an effect on the WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes.

Statement of the problem

Duration of the warm-up protocol has a significant impact on the subsequent performance of physical activity or any particular sport. The aim of warming up before any sport or physical performance is to increase the core temperature, increase blood flow with oxygen to the working muscles to get an athlete ready for the performance. Athletes are different as individuals and respond differently to warm ups depending on its duration and circumstances. Some athletes respond quickly to short warm-up protocols, some they take longer to respond or even get ready for the physical performance within the time period given. Athletes respond differently to warm up depending on its duration, content or even the intensity of the warm up, it could affecting the outcome of physical performance of those particular athletes, if not catered for. This is to say that coaches and physical trainers should not use one warm up protocol for all the athletes.

(Yanci et al., 2019) carried out a study of similar nature, though they have investigated effects of warm up durations using only team sport (soccer) and did not used the WAnT or combined both elite team sport and individual sport codes.(Frikha, Chaâri, & Souissi, 2015)examined the effects of sport practice and warm-up duration on diurnal changes in anaerobic exercise performance and RPE.(Frikha et al., 2015) used physical education student those who trained and those who did not train, but not elite athletes from different sporting codes.

Maximizing and preventing injuries with a systematic and well planned warm up protocol, as an athlete is of great importance. It can even boast one`s confidence to perform to their maximum ability. (Yanci et al., 2019) recommended that athletes and coaches should consider controlling the duration of the warm up protocols.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of different warm up durations on WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes. Specific knowledge for time period for warm up may be of good benefit to athletes, coaches and physical trainers. They may be able to optimize their level of performance by manipulating their training or competition progarmmes. Furthermore, the data from this study will be original; since it will be collected from different elite sport codes, comprising both team and individual sport. As a benefit, many sport codes could adopt it and utilize it for their optimum benefit.

Rationale for the study

Warm up prior to strenuous physical activities has always attracted the attention of sport scientists(Harmancı & Karavelioğlu, 2017). The main aim of warm up is to enhance the athlete`s performance as they ready themselves for physical performance and prevent possible injuries that could happen, if it is not performed accordingly. Furthermore (Harmancı & Karavelioğlu, 2017) highlighted that approaches with regarding to warm up exercise have been continuously changed and brings about the contradictions related to the effects of warm up and duration on the performance . Elements in the warm up protocol, such as duration and the intensity of the warm up and subsequent performance of physical high intensities may determine the success and execution of power activities. A well planned and systematic warm up protocol, that in campuses adequate content, duration and intensity, performed by an elite athlete could enhance their subsequent physical performance and help to prevent injuries.

With regards to the duration of warm up, previous studies have used different durations ranging from 5 min (Baklouti, Chtourou, Aloui, Chaouachi, & Souissi, 2015) to 25 min (Yanci et al., 2019). It has been suggested that a greater warm up load may be associated with greater fatigue, an aspect that may have influence the decrease in speed performance activities (Yanci et al., 2019). Several studies have investigated this aspect in order to find out effect of warm up duration on physical performance(Chaâri et al., 2015; Frikha et al., 2015; Yanci et al., 2019). It has been found that when applying two different warm durations, one of 5 – 15 min, and one of 17 – 35 min, participants showed an increased power generation, after both protocols where performed. So far, there is no work done that investigated the effect of warm up duration on WAnT and physical performance of elite athletes from different sporting codes. A study by(Baklouti et al., 2015) investigated the effect of active warm up duration on morning short term maximal performance during Ramadan, and concluded that during Ramadan food and fluid intake is limited, as such the beneficial effect of prolonged warm up was no longer observed. Most studies did not utilize athletes or elite athlete from different sporting codes(Baklouti et al., 2015; Caliskan et al., 2019; Chaâri et al., 2015; Frikha et al., 2015).

The effect of warm duration on WAnT and physical performance of elite athletes, should be investigated, specifically teams and individual sport; emphasizing the duration of the warm up protocol, that is to say how long it takes. If not, the warm up on itself could have a great impact on the activity that will be performed afterwards. Warm up is meant to elevate the core temperature, and activate physiological responses in the body. Athletes are different and respond differently under different circumstances, some respond fast to shorter warm up duration and be ready for the main even instantly while some may take longer to respond to the same warm up protocol, especially in team sports where by the warm up normally is performed as a team. Due to these differences no single warm up protocol should be generalized to different athletes or players, coaches and physical trainers should design warm up protocols taking into considerations the individual differences amongst athletes. In that regard warm up protocols will fully benefic the athletes, and as a result helps to improve the performance. This is an attempt to show that warm up duration is very important aspect of physical performance; specifically in those sport activities that requires generation of explosive power.

With this knowledge, this study could address the gap on scientific knowledge on the effect of warm up duration on WAnT and physical performance of elite athletes, of different sporting codes. This might also help the coaches and physical trainers to not design the warm up protocol that is for everyone but individualized one.

Objective of the study

The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of duration (WU8min, WU15min, and WU25min) on WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes.

Research Questions

The following research questions will direct this study.

• a) Is there a significant difference between WU8minon WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes?
• b) Is there a significant difference between WU15minon WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes?
• c) Is there a significant difference between WU25minon WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes?

Hypotheses

• d) There is no significant difference between WU8minon WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes?
• e) There is no significant difference between WU15minon WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes?
• f) There is no significant difference between WU25minon WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes

Assumptions

The following assumptions will be considered in the study.

• a) It is assumed that the selected elite athletes will not miss the test sessions until the end of the study
• b) It is assumed that the data that will be collected will be accurate to the precision of the instruments used
• c) It is assumed that the instruments that will be used to collect data will be valid, reliable and of international standard
• d) It is assumed that the researchers that will be collecting data will be skilled and certified in data collection

Significant of the study

The study investigates the effect of warm up durations (WU8min, WU15min, and WU25min) on WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes. There is currently limited work specifically investigating effect of warm up durations (WU8min, WU15min, and WU25min) on WAnT performance and physical performance of elite athletes. Therefore, the findings could be used by the athletes, coaches and physical trainers to incorporate them in their sporting programmes to improve their performance. The study could provide the basis for coming up with suitable warm up duration that will be best utilized to optimize athlete’s performance.

Both athletes and coaches should know and be able to utilize the best warm up protocol duration which will help them improve their athletic performance. The only way to know is to identify the suitable warm up protocol duration that will help to effectively enhance the physical performance, which will not have a detrimental effect on the performance of an athlete, but helps to produce the best result possible. To athletes this could minimize the fatigue that is caused by longer warmup duration, in which athletes may feel tired before even the main performance. With effective and efficient warm up duration physical performance could improve and limited injuries occurrence among athletes.

Limitations

Participants of the study will be elite athletes comprising of sprinters, soccer players and basketball players, who are competing in different elite leagues in Botswana. The study will use elite athletes only. Therefore, the results of the study could not be generalized to everyone who is not an elite athlete. The success of this study will be based on the willingness of the participants to take part in it.

However,

• a) Participants may not fully commit to duration of the study
• b) Participant may not give out their all, despite the fact that the importance of giving “all-out” to give them maximum power output during the Wingate anaerobic test having been explained to motivate them.

Delimitations

The study will be confined in the University of Botswana campus indoor sports center. The study will be delimited in Gaborone city, where the fitness laboratory, with the relevant equipment needed for the test is located. The study is also delimited to the elite athletes from different sporting codes.

References

1. Avloniti, A., Chatzinikolaou, A., Fatouros, I. G., Protopapa, M., Athanailidis, I., Avloniti, C., Jamurtas, A. Z. (2016). The effects of static stretching on speed and agility: One or multiple repetition protocols? European Journal of Sport Science, 16(4), 402-408.
2. Baklouti, H., Chtourou, H., Aloui, A., Chaouachi, A., & Souissi, N. (2015). Effect of active warm-up duration on morning short-term maximal performance during Ramadan. Libyan Journal of Medicine, 10(1), 26229. doi:10.3402/ljm.v10.26229
3. Caliskan, E., Akkoc, O., Bayramoglu, Z., Gozubuyuk, O. B., Kural, D., Azamat, S., & Adaletli, I. (2019). Effects of static stretching duration on muscle stiffness and blood flow in the rectus femoris in adolescents. Med Ultrason, 21(2), 136-143. doi:10.11152/mu-1859
4. Chaâri, N., Frikha, M., Mezghanni, N., Ayadi, J., Chaouachi, A., & Souissi, N. (2015). Does post-warm-up rest interval affect the diurnal variation of 30-s Wingate cycle ergometry? Biological Rhythm Research, 46(6), 949-963. doi:10.1080/09291016.2015.1073477
5. Frikha, M., Chaâri, N., & Souissi, N. (2015). Effect of sport practice and warm-up duration on the morning–evening difference in anaerobic exercise performance and perceptual responses to it. Biological Rhythm Research, 46(4), 497-509. doi:10.1080/09291016.2015.1020710
6. Harmancı, H., & Karavelioğlu, M. B. (2017). Effects of different warm-up methods on repeated sprint performance. Biomedical Research (0970-938X), 28(17), 7540.
7. Jakovljević, D. K., Eric, M., Jovanovic, G., Dimitric, G., Cupic, M. B., & Ponorac, N. (2018). Explosive Muscle Power Assessment in Elite Athletes Using Wingate Anaerobic Test. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 24(2), 107-111. doi:10.1590/1517-869220182402183151
8. Nikolaidis, P. T., Matos, B., Clemente, F. M., Bezerra, P., Camoes, M., Rosemann, T., & Knechtle, B. (2018). Normative Data of the Wingate Anaerobic Test in 1 Year Age Groups of Male Soccer Players. Front Physiol, 9, 1619. doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01619
9. Yanci, J., Iturri, J., Castillo, D., Pardeiro, M., & Nakamura, F. Y. (2019). Influence of warm-up duration on perceived exertion and subsequent physical performance of soccer players. Biol Sport, 36(2), 125-131. doi:10.5114/biolsport.2019.81114

On October 29th, the National Collegiate Athletic Association top governing board passed a law allowing college athletes to earn endorsements and sponsorships. The law states that student-athletes are to be treated like non-athletes attending their universities, and they should have a “clear distinction between college and professional opportunities” (Getty, 2019). In the past, rules have been in place so athletes do not see economic benefits other than scholarships. They are not allowed to sign with an agent or receive gifts from anyone other than family (Torr, 2005). College athletes make the NCAA millions of dollars by competing while representing their universities. In professional leagues, the employees are athletes. They are being paid millions of dollars to perform the same task as college athletes. Employees of one of America’s largest industries do not even have to pay those working for them. Companies are making millions off of young men and women, and those men and women do not see any of the profit. (Torr, 2005) Paying college athletes through endorsements would be no different than paying students working on campus, as working on campus is like the athletes going to practice everyday and competing in the games in that they use the money to pay for tuition and room and board, and because they dedicate much of their time to their sport as if it were a job.

This is not the first time the debate of paying college athletes has come about. In 1987, Southern Methodist University was found by the NCAA for paying college football players. In the early to mid 1980s Southern Methodist University was on top of the college football world. In 1982, Southern Methodist University was undefeated and was ranked second in the country. They were playing against some of the biggest powerhouses in the country like Texas, Texas A&M and Arkansas. But with Southern Methodist University only having six thousand students, it was difficult for them to compete. So you could say the university was seeing benefits from paying the athletes. At the time Ron Meyer was the SMU head coach, and he had to build a program in a hurry now that they were competing against better competition (Dodds, 2015). The regulations for the new law that will go into effect in 2023 states that student-athletes throughout California to be compensated for the use of their name, image or likeness, and it will also allow them to hire agents. This new law still disallows student-athletes from earning an allowance in exchange for promoting the sale or use of a commercial product or service of any kind or his or her name or picture to advertise. Bylaws forbidden from taking cash for autographs or monetizing social media channels and accepting sponsorships. The NCAA did have a general rule that players cannot participate in a college sport if they have agreed “to be represented by an agent for the purpose of marketing his or her athletics ability or reputation in that sport” Don’t leave this quote hanging(Blinder, 2019).

Traditionally, arguments for paying male football and basketball athletes has been the main focus. Student-athletes have to compromise their schedules with practices and academics. But for the player not on scholarship, who is traveling, practicing, and working out with the team, they have no time to work. The non-scholarship athletes come out with thousands of dollars in debt because they have no time to work. For most student-athletes, not graduating debt-free with a paper does not equate to a job post-graduation (Harvard University, 2015). Athletes can have their scholarships revoked if they sustain an injury or a violation of a either NCAA or University code of conduct. Players can also get lifelong injuries that colleges may do nothing to compensate for. For example, Kyle Hardrick lost his basketball scholarship to Oklahoma because he tore his meniscus, Jason Whitehead almost lost his scholarship to Ohio State due to a neck injury, and after leaving early from South Carolina, Stanley Doughty found out at his NFL combine physical that he had a serious spine injury that would end his professional career before it even started. As it is unusual for an athlete to lose their scholarship due to an injury, but there has been a push by the National College Players Association President, Ramogi Huma,often after they lose their scholarship they will still have to pay for health insurance and health care for the injury even though the injury was sustained while competing. Huma’s goal is to have a plan to set up for current and formally injured athletes comparable to worker compensation (Strauss, 2014). Full scholarships cover tuition and fees, room, board and course-related books. Most student-athletes who receive athletics scholarships receive an amount covering a portion of these costs. NCAA Divisions I and II schools provide more than $2.9 billion in athletics scholarships annually to more than 150,000 student-athletes. (NCAA) College athletics departments often complain about the lack of money they have to pay their players, generally because college football and basketball coaches have huge paychecks. In 39 states, the highest paid public employee is either a college football or basketball coach. These coaches earn more than governors and university presidents. Overall, the college football coaches at the top 32 football schools in the country are paid a greater proportion of their college football program’s revenue than NFL coaches are paid of their franchises. (Paying College Athletes) For example, in May of 2017, Alabama Head Football Coach, Nick Saban signed an eight year $74 million dollar contract extension after winning his fifth National Title. That’s $9 million a year. Saban would be top five paid head coaches in the NFL. Nick Saban may be the one making the game plan, but he is not the one competing on the field (Associated Press, 2018). Athletes have an extreme amount of pressure on them. They might make that play in the final seconds as if a sales associate had to present a product to a group of investors. And if they do not make that play or sell this product, they could lose their job. All it takes is one slip to tear an ACL, one opponent to knock the ball out, or one investor to say no that could ruin a career.

The NCAA makes sure that collegiate athletes are being provided the essential academic opportunities to succeed, for nearly half a million college athletes each year. Allowing student-athletes to be paid for their athletic performance and image would undermine the balance between their academics and performance. University leaders argued that paying student-athletes would contradict the schools educational mission and could result in the elimination of academic programs or non-revenue sports. For most college athletes, after they get injured or play in their last bowl game or march madness game they will never play that sport professionally. Because for most college athletes they will never play that sport again. For example in 2019 only 1.2% were drafted into the NBA and 1.6% were drafted into the NFL. This is without undrafted free agents but still the likeliness of an athlete making it in their professional league is slim to just get drafted not even playing for years as a professional. More than 480,000 athletes compete as NCAA athletes, and just a select few within each sport move on to compete at the professional or Olympic level, professional opportunities are extremely limited and the likelihood of a high school or even college athlete becoming a professional athlete is very low. Some argue Division I players receive a full scholarship plus access to top facilities and resources to make them superstars. The NBA Draft only takes 60 players a year, and there are thousands of college players who do not have the opportunity to participate. But for the 90% of athletes they have to have something to fall back on, either a savings account to help pay off debt or a college diploma.(NCAA)

As paying or not paying college athletes there are many people that have strong feelings Elaborate on the topic but some people already believe college athletes are already being paid. According to Jason Whitlock, they are paid in education. For most, college sports is it for them. But for some athletes they just want to be like Lil Wayne. They blow off all of their money on beer, pizza and weed over the weekend. He believes that some day they should be forced to eat macaroni and cheese. These athletes act like they want to be professional athletes a stipend and a significant portion of that money will be going directly to the local dealer for steroids and marijuana, another good chunk will get guzzled down a beer bong and the rest will be a down payment on a necklace they will never be able to pay off (Whitlock, 2005). Former athletes have very strong feelings on the debate. Tim Tebow, former Heisman Trophy winner and BCS National Champion has a very strong opinion about the topic. On ESPN’s First Take Tebow spoke with Stephen A. Smith and Max Kellerman on the matter. Tebow states “I feel like I have a bit of knowledge about this because, when I was at the University of Florida, I think my jersey was one of the top selling jerseys in the world…and I didn’t see a dollar, nor did I want to, I knew going into college what it was all about….if I could support my team and my university, that’s what it was all about…because I care which makes college football and college sports special…it will turn into the NFL, people go where the money goes…that’s why people are more passionate about college football than the NFL, that’s why college stadiums are bigger than in the NFL because it’s about the team, about the university….about my grandfather wanting to see Florida win a national championship, and taking that away so kids can make a dollar in my opinion is not where football needs to go” (Lewis, 2019). Tebow still believes that they are called student-athletes, and that being a student comes first. He would not like different schools offering more to get better players on their teams. Tebow believes that this will ruin the competitive nature of college athletics, because athletes will no longer be playing for the love of the game but just to make a dollar (Lewis, 2019).

Considering the information above athletes being endorsed for their image is very supported. College athletes do have a job. They perform at their best for their university. Just like how the students working at the food court, in the admissions office, as a lab assistant, or working in a coffee shop. In both scenarios they put in a lot of time and effort to their job while still getting an education. And for most college athletes, college is it. Stepping back on the field or court may never happen again. For the young men and women that work so hard to entertain millions of people, they deserve to get something in return. It is very important to remember that college athletes have a very slim chance to make a professional league and by endorsing them will set them up for a solid life after they play their final competition.

Introduction

With the increase amount of student athletes, sexual harassment and violence has increase in athletic programs across the country. Sexual harassment and violence in athletics increase the risk of student athletes, athletic directors, and institutions to be held liable in a civil suit. There should be a more active role for athletic directors in preventing sexual harassment and assault in athletic programs. The purpose of this research paper is to emphasize the seriousness of sexual harassment and violence in athletic programs, discuss the history of sexual harassment and violence in athletic programs, statistics and examples of sexual violence in college athletes, risk factors of sexual violence, Title IX, pros and cons, NCAA sexual violence policy, workshops for student athletes.

Statistics & Examples of Sexual Violence

In athletics, sexual harassment and violence have become a serious issue for many years affecting the athletic programs. Student athletes should be provided with the safest environment, while they are pursuing their education. Parents are putting total trust in the administration that their child will remain safe while in the case of the institution. According the ESPN Outside the Lines, student athletes have a more than 50% chance to experience sexual misconduct during their college athletic career (Lavinge, 2018). The statistic was initially based on a study that was performed from 65 power 5 schools in athletics in a six-year span. Only 32 of the 65 power 5 schools provided the necessary information.

There is a fine line in athletics between being successful and winning or the well-being of the student athlete. Setting goals and having major accomplishment is important, however success can be costly when it’s done out of character by sacrificing the student athlete well-being, health, and safely (Kirby & Demers, 2013). Coaches have been guilty of taking advantage of student athletes by using the power they possess to make sexual advances. Some examples of sexual violence in college athletic programs are Baylor University being accused of being indifferent to reports of student-athletes being victims of sexual assault by university personnel, a student at the Florida State University won a settlement for $950,000 with a former student who accused administrators of obstructing and concealing the sexual assault investigation so that stat quarterback Jameis Winston would be able to continue to play football (Wade, 2017).

There have been several institutions who have proposed a law regarding sexual assault with student athletes. Some of those institutions are Notre Dame, University of North Carolina, Tennessee, New Mexico, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Richmond, and Tulsa (Wade, 2017). Many institutions found themselves in major trouble by not reporting sexual assaults due to trying to protect certain student athletes. Research suggest that male student athletes have gained the repetition on being more dangerous than male no athletes. A study was performed amongst college campuses across the country.

The results to the study was determined that male student athlete was given an extreme amount of representation by a component of ten between the males who were guilty of sexual assault (Frintner & Rubinson, 1993). It was also noted that athletes make up for 2 percent of the enrollment at colleges and universities, which consists of 20.2 per cent of the males involved in sexual related crimes. According to the United States National Institution of Mental health, student athletes played a role in about 33% of 862 sexual violence on college campuses (Melnick, 1992). Student athletes are 5.5 times more likely to admit to sexual related acts that would be portrayed as sexual assault.

Risk Factors of Sexual Violence

There are many risk factors of sexual harassment, assaults, and violence that come with the sport. Some risk factors are male bonding, aggressive sport, sexualization and subordination of women, celebrity status and entitlement, drug abuse, and groupie culture (). Male bonding can sometimes increase the level of sexism and encourage other athletes to side with a specific group based on the loyalty, which can outweigh integrity. Contact sports presents aggression in men’s violence towards women. Aspects that allow men to be more aggressive are dominance, competitiveness, toughness, and being insensitive to others.

The misconception is when the media points to women in sports roles are being sexual props for men’s performance. Women are more than cheerleaders and supporters. Some athletes have superstar status in their specific sport. The treatment that comes with this displays a sense on entitlement for the athlete. The negative aspect is there is a lack of accountability as it relates to the actions of the athlete on and off the court or field.

Student athletes have been under the radar for the use of performance enhancing drugs in sport. In addition to drugs, alcohol had played a major part in drug abuse for student athletes. Both have been identified as a potential risk for sexual assault. Athletes can be identified by a specific group of people who enjoy the company of athletes. The sexual behavior with women has been use to explore the sexual company of elite athletes. Many have used their status may impact negatively on how their treat women (Benedict, 1998).

In 1972, Title IX was passed, which bans discrimination against women and girls in federally funded education and athletic programs (Bell, 2007). Prior to Title IX being created, females had very few opportunities in sports. In 1906, the NCAA was established to enforce specific rules and regulations in men’s football, instead took over every aspect of college athletics. During this time women was offered no athletic scholarships or qualified for no championship games or meets for women sports (Bell, 2007). There was limited access to facilities, equipment, and revenue.

In the early 1970s, there was 30,000 women playing college sports, compared to 170,000 men. The main purpose of Title IX was to change this trend so that women could have the sane equal and fair opportunities as the men in college athletics. Women wanted the same equal access and quality as the men. Although, both men and women had the same facility resources, scholarship funds are where they differed. Women felt they should get the same amount of scholarship fund as men. Since the changed have been made, female sports have increase drastically in high school and college.

In 1972, there were only 295,000 women playing sports nationwide. Currently, there is 2.6 million female athletes in the United States. In college alone, the number has increased from 30,000 to over 150,000 and is currently still growing. In addition, the female dropout numbers have decrease drastically as more females are becoming involved in athletics. There have been some positive changes by the United States Department that has strengthen its intension of sexual violence.

Title IX

Title IX confronted the speech and listed 55 institutions with accessible sexual assault investigations in 2011. There were 111 colleges who were being investigated for possible violations of Title IX against 3 community colleges in 2015 (Jones, 2017). In addition, there were also 315 college under a separate investigation. Unfortunately, athletic programs have been on the wrong side of history, as it relates to sports and sexual assault. Many cases are still under investigation for a violation of Title IX. The biggest one that comes with mind was back in 2006.

Duke lacrosse team was forced to end their season due sexual behavior at an off-campus team party (Cohan, 2016). Coaches of the team were no longer able to coach. The University was clearly under fire and repetitions were affected negatively. During the investigation the school and investigators found out that there were exotic dancers who were hired for the party. The players paid the dancer $800 to perform at the party. The African American dancer accused several of the lacrosse players of raping and sexually assaulting her in the bathroom. The players that were accused were Caucasians.

The different testimonies made the case complex. The case took a turn when the accuser could not remember the details of what transpired the night of the party. The DNA sample showed that there was no match. However, there was evidence that the woman had been with other men prior to the weekend of the party. Players were able to avoid the trial and received a settlement amount of $20 million with the University. Duke University invested over $100 million in legal fees, settlement costs, and other related expenses to preserve the integrity of the school (Cohan, 2016).

The Steubenville High School sex scandal in 2013 was also a high-profile case (Jones, 2017). The teenage students were found guilty of raping another classmate. The use of alcohol affected the student memory and caused her to vomit several times. She also had trouble speaking clearly and walking. Evidence was found through text messages and photos. Both students were found guilty and had to serve 1-2 years in a juvenile correction facility since they were both under the age of 18 (Almasy, 2013).

Pros and Cons of Title IX

There are several pros and cons as it relates to Title IX. There have been many changes to better serve women and allowing them to gain equal and fair rights in athletics. Some of the pros of Title IX are more educational opportunities for women, for athletic opportunities for women to be able to compete nationally and internationally, equal and fair across for men and women, increase in career opportunities, decrease in expulsions in high schools and colleges, it ended educational stereotypes, and great success in high school athletics.

The cons of Title IX are it eliminated the wrong program that were helpful to student athletes, money not divided properly between the schools and programs, encouraging acts of sexual violence, negative impact on coaching, opportunities became more limited in athletics, sexual discrimination has increased over the years putting a lot of pressure on some student athletes, taxpayers come out their pockets more due to inaccuracy in public institutions, and athletes have started to developed eating disorders (Stanberry, 2013).

NCAA Sexual Violence Policy

It has become mandatory for the colleges to provide sexual violence education for all coaches, athletes, and athletic administrators under the new sexual violence policy. There are three campus officials that must acknowledge that each institution athletic program is informed and unified about all educational policies and procedure pertaining to sexual violence prevention and resolution of actions of sexual violence. They also must acknowledge the institution policy on sexual violence prevention, which includes the name and number for that specific campus Title IX coordinator. (NCAA, 2019). The important must be available just in case of an emergency and accessible to student athletes. The report should consist of the name of the institution that indicates they have complied with the Board of Governors.

The board of sexual violence has taken several steps to address the issue in college athletics. For the past 9 years, institutions have worked on defining how college athletics should respond to student athletics who have been victims of sexual violence on and off college campuses (NCAA, 2019). In 2014, there was a resolution that was passed by the board that lists of different expectations for college athletic departments. The purpose is to develop a foundation for the policy so that student athletes can feel more protected moving forward. The NCAA created a handbook specifically for sexual assault and violence in athletics.

The handbooks have tips that help student athletes keep college campuses healthy and safe. A tool kit is included with the handbook to assist athletic directors in networking with other personnel to be free of violence and create a safer environment for students. There are three principles with the NCAA policy in the fight again campus sexual violence. The principles are that the athletics department should be notified and accommodate in all campus wide policies in preventing sexual violence, checklist recommendation would be viewed yearly of the NCAA Sexual Violence Prevention Toolkit (NCAA, 2019). Lastly, they should use the resources to serve as leaders around campus in supporting campus wide prevention. Each institution, president of the institution, athletic director, and Title IX coordinator must agree on all principles and sexual violence policies.

Sexual Harassment in Sports

Sexual harassment is defined as any form of sexual behavior towards another person. It was be verbal or non-verbal. Some examples of sexual harassment are making degrading comments of sexual nature to another individual, displaying non-verbal behavior such as staring in a sexual way or whistling, making sexual comments about a person’s body, gear, or secret life, written letters of sexual intent, giving or receiving photos on unwanted sexual content, making jokes or demands of sexual nature, unwanted sexual touching or grabbing body parts, forceable acts, and attempting to rape someone (Fasting, 2005). Sexual harassment and abuse have may similarities and differences. The similarities are they can occur at any moment and time.

Many times, with sexual harassment it can take repeating offenses for one to lead up to the other. Often happens by someone that the victim knows personally or has had contact with, and gender neutral (Swartz Swidler, 2019). Sexual harassment can occur anywhere and anytime. It doesn’t require any physically touching, were sexual assault involved physical contact. Some valid points on sexual harassments are that it’s never the victim’s fault, the harasser’s behavior is not welcomed or wanted, victim should express their feelings for the harasser to stop, and victim should reach out to support groups, friends, and family for assistance (Swartz Shidler, 2019).

The Penn State University sexual harassment and misconduct case was one of the biggest scandals in sports history. In the case, the NCAA handed down a severe punishment that will impacted the Penn State community for many years. Penn State was guilty for displaying illegitimate acts that was associated with former assistant football coach Jerry Sandusky and consecutive schools’ administrators (Dennie, 2012). The NCAA handed down a punishment that was out of code by standards of the NCAA. They penalties that was handed down was one of the biggest fines in NCAA history against a historic college or university. Penn State was fined $60 million.

In addition, the NCAA based Penn State from participating at any bowl game for 4 years, 5 years of probation, and forgetting all victories from 1998-2011 (Dennie, 2012). There have been several scandals in athletics associated with sexual harassment and misconduct. Several agencies have recommended that more sports organizations create policies that hand down stiff punishments for sexual harassment and sexual misconduct in sports. The Olympic Committee creates a morals and ethics policy that is strongly against coaches and players having any type of sexual or romantic relationship (Dennie, 2012). Many institutions are following the same path in making sure that all coaches, student athletes, and administrators are on the same page.

The University of Arizona has started a comprehensive educational and support system that focuses on and protects student athletics and coaches from situations related to sexual harassment and sexual violence. Institutions must have the appropriate safety measures in place in order to avoid an action lawsuit. Athletic trainers at institutions work one on one with student athletes. There is always a risk of sexual harassment. According to reports, at least two athletic trainers have filled an action lawsuit for sexual harassment against colleagues in the state of Georgia and Tennessee.

A study on sexual harassment was performed amongst 100 college athletic trainers on the east coast. It was determined that 25% of both gender trainers have experienced some type of sexual harassment while at work. There are some challenges that come with athletic trainers when working with student athletes. Athletic trainers should always treat athletes carefully and consider the sexual harassment policy. It allows the athletic trainer and student athlete to be covered.

Most athletic trainer are not familiar with the policies at their institution for sexual harassment. A study was performed on athletic trainers and sexual harassment matters in college athletics. The results showed there were 67% of athletic trainers in college athletics were familiar with the sexual harassment policy (Velasquez, 1998). There were 14% of athletic trainers who had no clue that there was a sexual harassment policy. In addition to the 67% who were familiar, 24% were unsure if the policy was institution base or just within the athletic department.

Less than half of the athletic trainer who participated in the study understood the dynamics of the policy. The facts are concerning for institutions if administrators or athletic trainer are not familiar with the sexual harassment policy. Institutions present a huge risk for a liability lawsuit. It is of great importance that all personnel and student athletes know the sexual harassment policy. Athletic trainers should build close relationships with personnel in the athletics to make sure each person is following the law and school policy on sexual harassment.

When a policy is created it should be detailed and concrete. It sends a clear message that sexual harassment won’t be tolerated in any shape or form. Each institution should create a self-evaluation form on sexual harassment for employees and student athletics to complete

Conclusion

In conclusion, there are some beneficial sexual harassment and violence athletic programs, nationally. Many athletic programs have been helpful in keeping student athletes and personnel safe from sexual harassment and violence. Risk factors have presented great awareness on things to look out for with sexual harassment and violence. Title IX created many opportunities moving forward to men and women, which have proven to decrease sexual harassment and violence. Overall, there are programs that have changed the dynamics moving forward for student athletes to feel safer at institutions.

Introduction

The term doping refers to the administration of drugs into a person’s bloodstream, this is mainly done to enhance the performance of any type. Anti-doping agencies, such as WADA, have been enforced to regulate and prevent drugs from being a common factor in sporting events. The drugs are being used to enable better performance, therefore, heightening an athlete’s ability to execute a sporting task/skill for longer at a better rate. This consequently leads to that specific athlete having an unfair advantage and tainting the overall result of the event. The main topic of this document is to target the aspects of doping and the effect that it has on athletes regarding their beliefs, knowledge, and views.

Why Do Athletes Dope and What are Elite Athlete’s Beliefs on the Topic?

Doping in sport has become a huge topic of discussion due to the fact that it imposed and invalidates various methods of performance, this can be from a range of different sports. The main research into this article was carried out through a series of systematic literature reviews that followed a specific set of criteria. The articles found were ultimately whittled down from 99 to 33 relevant studies using a format of keywords. Morente-Sánchez and Zabala (2013), state that the more athletes who are aware of other athletes abusing drugs within a sporting context are more likely going to use performance-enhancing drugs (PED) for themselves. As a result, this creates a false consensus effect where athletes will start to question their own beliefs, opinions, and preferences. Therefore, it is clear to see that there is a significant psychological effect linked to the usage of drugs in a sporting situation. Within the same article, the author references a series of statics composed by Streigel et al. (2002) which highlights a study containing 101 participants. The article specified that the most frequent use for PED is used to achieve athletic success (86%) and financial gain (74%). Similarly, other factors of the same testing method found that athletes also dope in order to increase their self-confidence (30%) and for social recreation aspects (24%). In this investigation, there are no clear defining details in this document regarding the age range of the participants. Most of the articles used in the document consisted of a questionnaire type basis which requires athletes to give their own personal advice. There are multiple concerns with a topic this controversial as the participants may not have been wholly accurate. As a result, this can influence the overall findings of the topic review. Another aspect of this review is that it does not take into account the geographical and cultural differences. This aspect is important as different people will have different opinions Throughout the entirety of the document, the authors convey the fact that doping through PED poses a negative impact both to an athlete’s mental and physical health.

Historical Background

In terms of the historical perspective with doping in sport, Mottram (2010) states that there was an attempt to control the mishaps of drug use around 1950. However, due to the ignorance and lack of sophistication of testing procedures, there was a small amount that could be done to prevent it. As technology progressed, there was a surge in the use of drugs due to an increase in the pharmaceutical industry in 1960. This then led to the introduction of drug testing in the world championships in 1966. Similar to the previous review, Mottram believed that doping was bad as it could be related to an increased number of deaths. However, no specific data is stating that it was the drugs that had a direct influence on the athletes. The data used in this article has only been derived from key major sporting events. As a result, it does not pose a true reading of lower-level sport and is not fully accurate in displaying the vast history concerning doping. Additionally, Mottram states that the research carried out pointed to the fact that blood doping was the first prohibited doping technique to be added to the IOC prohibited list, this was due to high doses of athletes using this method. But the IOC had no genuine way of testing and as a result, there was an influx in blood doping numbers. Most articles are from a historic background and therefore provides us with the knowledge of drugs in the past. More so how they have become to increase and have such a dominant part in modern day society.

Blood Doping and the Health Issues Surrounding Blood Doping

Similar to one of the previous reviews, when referring to an athlete’s physical health, (Towns and Gerrard, 2014) cite that athletes would be naïve to partake in sports under the influence of drugs as there are multiple factors to influence health. More specifically the concept of blood doping involves the boosting of the number of red blood cells that is currently in an athlete’s bloodstream. These cells are responsible for carrying oxygenated blood around the system to specific working muscles. An increase in red blood cells means that there will be an increased amount of oxygen (O2) in the bloodstream. Therefore, during sporting events, athletes will most likely be able to perform at higher intensities for longer amounts of time with increased resistance to fatigue. Within ‘A Fool’s Game: Blood Doping in Sport’, the authors make a point in highlighting the health risks surrounding blood doping. Towns and Gerrard (2014) emphasise health risks of immune reactions, bacterial contamination and inadvertent transmission of viral diseases. The most common factor of that being HIV. The article is composed of data that is correlated and discovered from a range of other author’s articles. Cited within the article (Darby et al. 1995) points out that prior to testing during 1979-1989, 1227 patients with haemophilia were infected with HIV-1, this is of a significant tenfold increase in deaths compared to the usual population with haemophilia. On the other hand, not everybody agrees that doping creates significant health risks. ‘We should assess each substance on an individual basis. We should set enforceable, fair, and safe physiological limits’ (Savulescu, 2013, p1). The use of adding in a contrasting article allows the document to analyse both arguments and gives the reader an opportunity to understand both points made. However, throughout this document, the validity of the findings can be questioned due to the response in methods of data. In summary, the majority of findings from this data all seem to support the fact that there are predominant health issues in doping, specifically blood doping.

Numbers and Statistics

The ’Prevalence of Doping Use in Elite Sports’ provides readers with a combination of questionnaires using the Randomised Response Technique (RRT) and models of biological parameters which provide statistical analysis and possibilities. Additionally, it also involves an array of scientific articles dating back to 1997. This article is unique compared to others as it adopts more than one research technique to back up its original theory. According to de Hon et al. (2014), the laws and measures surrounding anti-doping have a direct impact on their lives due to the fact that it poses a major moral burden on them. Throughout this investigation, there were a few limitations to the outcome of the result. For example, there is an increasing amount of prohibited substances but there is no genuine way of testing as the ratio between analytical results and the doping itself is rather narrow. Furthermore, the laboratory-based chemical analysis only has a short detection window for the drug to be found within a system, this is even shorter if the dosage is weaker. In terms of the numbers, WADA (2014) compiled a list of past doping statistics ranging from 1987-2013 approximately 37,882 doping tests were performed and 854 of the results came back as positive, giving a 2.25% finding. In comparison to this in 2013, there were 269,878 tests performed and only 5,962 came back positive, equalling a 2.21% statistic. Therefore, this gives the reader the impression that the rate of elite athletes abusing PED has slightly decreased. This could be due to awareness of the consequences or due to their own moral beliefs. On the other hand, this data is six years out of date, so it does not provide a definitive answer as there is a limit to the statistical data which provides uncertainty. The questionnaires followed a form of RRT which was performed in Germany by 448 Olympic level athletes, “When asked if they had ever used illegal doping methods, an estimate of between 26.7% and 58.0% of athletes answered”, (Pitsch, Emrich and Klein, 2007, pp.95-96). Similar to ‘Doping in Sport: A review of Elite Athlete’s Attitudes, Belief and Knowledge’ and ‘A Fool’s Game: Blood Doping in Sport’ this review uses the research method of questionnaires, this method is not always accurate.

In relation to the sanctions surrounding doping in sport, Mandaric and Delibasic, (2014) suggest that due to the increase in pressures surrounding the physical and psychological pressures, athletes will ultimately have an increased desire to win. This relates to the suggestion that athletes are more likely going to commit to cheating if there is an added pressure. The document states that the most common forms of consequences from cheating via doping are the forfeiture of any medals, points and prizes, disqualification of results, ineligibility for presence imposed for the use of a prohibited substance and sometimes a lifetime ban from competition. Mandatory testing for illegal PED during sporting events is now present in all major sporting events. This is to counteract the increase in drugs and prevent unfair competition.

In conclusion, there is a general consensus that the methods of doping within a sporting situation is bad. This can be due to the effects that it has on an athlete’s health. There is a significant amount of data that warns readers of the influences and impacts that doping can have. Specifically, through the use of blood doping as this method of cheating is through the transmission of bodily fluids. Additionally, it was also clear to see that the majority of athletes were against the whole concept of doping due to their own beliefs and morals. This relates to the fact that doping is a frowned upon form of cheating that gives the player an advantage over regular players. The majority of the articles used in this literature review consisted of articles from the past couple of decades. This is due to the fact that the issues concerning doping have been relatively recent. The advancements in technology have enabled a surge in new PED that athletes can use in order to become more advanced in their skill set.

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