Category: Athletes

When considering an elite 100m sprinter’s anaerobic capacities, the success of the athlete is dependent mainly on their alactic and lactic anaerobic metabolism (Legaz-Arrese et.al, 2007) . The source of fuel sprinters use is the ATP/PC energy system (pdhpe.net, 2015); this is due to the duration of the event not lasting long and ATP only lasts 8-12 seconds.

In comparison, a long distance runner of 42km uses the aerobic energy system (pdhpe.net, 2015) due to it being very efficient in producing ATP. This system produces ATP continuously as the fuel for this system are carbohydrates and fats, which can be replenished quickly making it beneficial for long distance runners.

In relation to a soccer player where they are known to run up to 10km per game (REFERENCE) they use both the anaerobic ATP/PC and aerobic energy systems (pdhpe.net, 2015). This is due to the short fast outbursts needed when playing the sport alongside the continuous slow phases of running. By using both these systems allows for optimal performance over the 90 minutes.

When comparing the aerobic capacities of all three elite athletes it was found that long distance runner had the highest VO2max of 80.1, this was closely followed by VO2max of a soccer player 77.1. It’s known the average oxygen uptake during soccer match play is estimated to be 77-80% (Datson et al., 2014). The range in VO2max for soccer players was found to be because the higher the standard of play the higher VO2max (Haugen et.al, 2014). The 100m sprinter had the lowest VO2max of 61.9 due to them only requiring a small amount of oxygen for their event. The differences in these VO2 max results is because of the different time variations of their sports and how much oxygen they need to complete their event.

Compare and contrast the lower limb strength and alactic power of an elite soccer player, an elite middle/long distance runner, and an elite 100m sprinter.

In all of these sports lower limb strength and alactic power are quite important aspects for the individual. Countermovement jump is a test that measures lower limb strength and soccer players use as they jump on average 15.5 times, partaking in nine headers a match (Bangsbo, 1994). The best performances were obtained by the post pubertal highly-trained soccer players (Quagliarella L, 2011) allowing for more powerful jumps and sprints during the game (Wisloff et al., 1998). Depending on the stages of the competitive season the vertical jump performances of soccer players was stable (Thomas & Reilly 1979). It has been shown that it is the level of maximal strength and the rate of force development that influence both jump height and sprint performance (Hoff et al., 2001; Schmidtbleicher, 1992).

In regards to sprinters there is a relationship between leg power and sprint ability from the use of vertical jumps (Bret et al., 2002; Kukolj et al., 1999; Mero et al., 1983; Nesser et al., 1996). As sprinters need to propel themselves off the blocks they need the lower limb strength and it has shown to have a strong correlation of r = -0.88 between sprint performance and their countermovement jumps (Liebermann and Katz, 2003, Young et al., 1995). The force and power measures from vertical jump tests performed by sprinters revealed to show the best sprint time. This signals the importance of power production from the leg muscles in sprint performance. Through evidence it shows that explosive leg power in the countermovement jump is a key aspect of sprint performance, especially in the early acceleration phase off the blocks/at start.

Long distance runners have been found to be limited not only by physiological factors, but also by muscle power factors. Therefore strength and power training have been beneficial in increasing rapid force production and helps increase running speed in long distance events (Dellagrana RA, Santos and Guglielmo, 2015). Countermovement and vertical jumps can help with the building of the lower limb strength and alactic power which is important for the start and endurance part of the running event. Strength training allows for three main goals for runners to achieve. It prevents injuries by strengthening muscles, improves neuromuscular coordination and power and improves stride efficiency (The Runner’s World, 2018).

Based on a student’s results from conducting tests of aerobic, anaerobic and musculoskeletal fitness (below), which of the three sports above do you think they would be best suited to? Justify your answer with reference to appropriate literature

From looking at Joe Soap’s results, he would be best suited to the sport of soccer. He would suit the forward position on the field as they are of smaller size and lower mass which seen in his scores related to that. This can work to his advantage as he can move more skillfully and efficiently over larger distances (Rebelo, 2012). Joe’s result in the VO2max is above average and by having a well-developed aerobic fitness helps him maintain high intensity actions, accelerate his recovery process and maintain his physical condition during the entire game (Stolen et al., 2005). In regards to Joe’s lower limb strength and alactic power his wingate score of 11.3 reflects an excellent classification. This is beneficial in soccer when he makes small breaks or has short bursts of sprinting to do. His high concentric knee extension result of 200 shows his leg is able to exceed 90 degrees so he is able to get the follow through and force needed to perform a good kick.

The Principles of Training help to guide athletes and coaches in creating training sessions that meet both athlete and competition needs. The principles of training are specificity, progressive overload, reversibility, variety, training thresholds, and warmup/cooldowns. When the training principles are thoroughly applied and followed regularly, the body responds by adapting or adjusting to the new levels of stress placed upon it. These adaptations for an endurance athlete include resting heart rate, haemoglobin level, stroke volume, and cardiac output, muscle hypertrophy, oxygen uptake, lung capacity, and slow-twitch muscle fibres. Therefore, applying the Principles of training to an endurance athlete will produce adaptations that enhance performance.

The progressive overload principle states that adaptations occur only when training intensity is greater than the normal intensity, and gradually increases as the body adapts and improves (Minifie, 2020). For endurance-based athletes, training loads are gradually increased by varying the type, volume, and intensity of training. However, if the load does not increase incrementally, then the effect will plateau, and further improvements and adaptations will not occur. For example, Don Ritchie who was an ultra-runner, based his training on this principle. He had a 10-week build-up to any event, which consisted of gradually increasing the base mileage from about 170 km to about 260 km a week (Hawley, 2000). In response to progressive overload, endurance athletes are likely to lower their resting heart rates, have increased cardiac output, stroke volume, and oxygen uptake, as well as muscle hypertrophy of the heart. These adjustments are observed because endurance athletes focus on the overload of the aerobic system. Stroke Volume refers to the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle each time the heart beats (Minifie, 2020). As athletes progressively overload, they increase the hypertrophy of the muscle walls of the heart as well as increase the physical size and ventricles. As the heart is now bigger and the walls are stronger, it allows for more blood to be ejected each time. This increase in stroke volume will lead to a higher cardiac output, as the amount of blood leaving the heart each minute is increasing (Minifie, 2020). The more blood that the heart can push out, the more oxygen will be delivered to working muscles, which will result in a lower resting heart rate. These adaptations to progressive overload are particularly evident for cyclist Miguel Indurain who has a resting heart rate of 28 beats per minute and 50 litres per minute of cardiac output.

Variety refers to the use of different drills and techniques for athletes to be challenged by the activity to maintain motivation (textbook, 2018). For endurance athletes this can be done by changing the altitude of training sessions, changing the pace or distance run in training sessions, even performing training sessions where the key focus might be lifting weights instead of running. For example, leading into a competition Eliud Kipchoge would do gym aerobics for one month, and weekly training sessions including track workouts, and a variety of fartlek workouts. Kipchoge also varies the altitude of which he trains at. The variation in training sessions allows for more stress to be placed on different aspects of the body leading to a variety of adaptations. Endurance athletes are likely to experience adaptations to their oxygen uptake, haemoglobin levels, and resting heart rate. Haemoglobin is responsible for absorbing oxygen from the lungs and transporting it through the blood so when aerobic training stimulates the increase production of haemoglobin, oxygen uptake would increase as well. This adaptation that allows for greater transport of oxygen means the hart does not have to contract as frequently, decreasing the resting heart rate. (Minifie, 2020. Although Kipchoge has never undertaken a VO2 max test or lactate threshold it is clear to see how variety has allowed for Kipchoge’s body to adapt and improve his performance. For example, these adaptations have allowed him to be the first person to break 2hours in a marathon.

The principle of specificity implies training to be targeted towards the demands of the sport. It involves creating training programs that focus on the energy systems predominately used in an event, as well as targeting certain muscle groups and components of fitness (textbook, 2018). This principle allows for the body to better equipped for the demand of their sports, as the body has adapted to the stresses resembling the activity. For Example, Kilian Jornet a sky runner does 33-40% of his total training at above 2000m and over 200 hours of his training at over 4000m. He does this as it places stress on the predominant parts of his body used in competition at altitude. Another example includes Lance Armstrong, who predominately targets his aerobic capacity with the majority of his training involving cycling. This resulted in an increase in haemoglobin levels, lower resting heart rate, increase in slow-twitch muscle fibres and an increase in oxygen uptake and lung capacity. Slow-twitch muscle fibres use oxygen to generate ATP for muscular contraction over a long time and therefore are highly important for endurance-type activities. When slow-twitch fibres are subjected to specific endurance activities they are recruited for the movement because they are more efficient in meeting the immediate metabolic demands of the working muscles (Minifie, 2020). This endurance training will cause the capillaries surrounding the muscle fibres to increase improving muscular efficiency. (textbook, 2018). For Example, Lance Armstrong has a resting heart of 32 beats per minute with a peak exertion of up to 200 beats per minute. Not only this but he has adapted his lung capacity to be around 85ml/kg compared to the average male of 40ml/kg. As well, the Coyle Study predicted that his slow-twitch muscle fibres increased from 60% to 80% and muscular efficiency increased by 8%. For Kilian Jornet, this specific altitude training changed the amount of haemoglobin saturated by oxygen. At the beginning of his training, his saturation levels would drop to as low as 70% but as the months progressed it eventually increased to 85% which was a good sign that his body had adapted.

There are no physical adaptations that directly relate to warm up and cool down however it used for creating an efficient training session, therefore, allowing for the adaptations to occur. Warmups are used to decrease the possibility of injuries or soreness by increasing the blood flow to the muscles thus increasing body temperature causing the muscles, ligaments, and tendons to become more elastic. Cooldowns help to metabolise lactic acid concentration, replenish the body’s energy stores and to replace the oxygen used. It is used to recover the body after the intense training session. Dennis Barker the coach of Team USA Minnesota said “It’s during recovery that adaptions from the hard training take place/ If a runner doesn’t recover, the body is not going to adapt”

Training Thresholds refers to the level of intensity that our body works at to cause adaptations. The size of improvement is roughly proportional to the threshold level at which we work (Textbook, 2018). As an endurance athlete’s main energy source is from the aerobic energy system, to improve the cardiorespiratory system an athlete will need to work closer to the anaerobic threshold of 70-85% of VO2 max. This results in increased capacity and function of the cardiovascular system, for example, due to increased stroke volume and oxygen uptake, which improves aerobic endurance and efficiency. For example, Kilian Jornet does 88% of is training at low intensity and 10% at high intensity. He then performs 2% of the training at maximum intensity (Jornet, 2018). As a result, the adaptations for Jornet are a lower resting heart rate of 34 bpm compared to the average of 70 bpm and a VO2max of 92 ml/kg/min, one of the highest ever recorded (Jornet, 2019). All of this has allowed him to train harder and longer, but to also withstand longer and more gruelling events.

The reversibility process concludes that in the same way the body responds to training by increasing adaptations, these adaptations can be lost by the lack of training. The rate at which an athlete will lose these adaptations is similar to that of which it is gained. (Minifie, 2020). For endurance athletes, significant detraining effects will be seen 4-6 weeks after training stops. For example, Oskar Svendsen a Norwegian Cyclist recorded the highest VO2 max of 97.5ml/kg/m in 2012, but in 2015 after 15 months without formal training, his VO2max tested at 77.0ml/kg/min. Not only this but a study found that endurance cyclists reduced their VO2 max values by an average of 7% in 21 days and 16% in 56 days of no training (Kenney, Wilmore and Costill, 2012). As well a different research study found that endurance elite athletes reduced their time to exhaustion tests by 9-25% after 2 weeks of detraining, 8-21% in 4 weeks of detraining and in 5 weeks 23% (Mujika and Padilla, 2001).

Athletes all across the world have or had some type of motivation during their road to success. Motivation, in my own words, is something that drives you and push you harder so you can accomplish your goal. Every athlete should have motivation. It drives you and gives build confidence in yourself, so you can perform and accomplish what you are trying to accomplish. To improve your performance you need determination and desire, and all of your other factors like intensity, focus, and emotions. To be the best athletic player you can be you will need to be motivated to do anything that it takes to increase your skills and to aim high for your goals.

If you’re athlete and you want to perform at your high, you must start the process of growing and developing as an athlete. You have to maintain and stay solid until you have achieved your goals that you have set. In sports motivation is very important. Athletes must be willing to face all of the droughts. Like pain, fatigue, boredom, and the desiring of doing other things. Motivation will greatly impact every athlete. It impacts everything pertaining your performance like, your condition, tactical and technical training, mental, and general lifestyle. The reason motivation is very important to each and every athlete life is because it’s the contributor to their performance.

Athletes can also have low motivation, showing signs like a lack of desire to work hard, giving less effort, skipping practices and shirking workouts, and being inconsistent. Some athletes will lose sight of their goal and will have no motivation to drive them. If you don’t have motivation to push you to become the best it’s no point in playing the sport. Your motivation is your foundation to making you perform and to compete at a higher level. Athletes can get motivation from anything. Athletes may get their motivation from how they were raised to what their individual hopes and dreams are. Most Athletes motivation is Fame and Money because of the perks you obtain from them. You shouldn’t let your motivation die because things may not be going your way. Fight to become the best player out of the many. The numbers are made to discourage you, clouding your judgement, making you think it’s not for you. If you really want something you’ll go get it. You have to believe in yourself and don’t let anything stop you. Like for instance, some people may use a loved ones death as motivation. Death plays a major role in motivation because the athlete begins to take his/her sport to a personal level driving their ambition. Thinking about a loved one and it will give you the energy and fuel to go harder. Love is important because once you love something you’ll do anything to make that situation or thing better. If you love your Son, wouldn’t you do all it takes to see him happy and be the greatest he can be. It works the same with basketball, if you truly desire the game and love it you’ll put for your best effort towards it. It does something to you mentally and physically and that’s what drives you. It’s said that motivation comes from the cerebral cortex. Motivation is more of a feeling then it is a human process because you don’t know what truly drives you or how you really feel about the particular situation.

There are different types of motivation, for instance, intrinsic motivation. Intrinsically drive players to play in sport for several types of reasons, for pure enjoyment, happiness, and satisfaction, and intrinsically pushed athletes typically to concentrate on skill development and growth. Better task-relevant focus, greater satisfaction, fewer changes (ups and downs) in motivation, increased confidence and self-efficacy, less distraction, less stress when mistakes are made, are all behaviors that are related to intrinsic motivation.

Another type of motivation is extrinsic motivation. This motivation comes from situations like social sources, like not wanting to disappoint your mom and dad, or material rewards, like metals, trophies, and scholarships. Extrinsically motivated athletes try to focus on the competitive or performance outcome.

There are also two types of extrinsic motivation, weakening or strengthening. Based on the types of extrinsic motivation, extrinsic may weaken or strengthen the intrinsic motivation in athletes.

Let’s talk about maintain motivation. Maintain motivation is not easy. When times gets hard athletes tend to lose sight of the goal they are trying to achieve. When this happens they need to hear positive things like “don’t give up” “you got this” things like that. That gives them a little push and helps to get some motivation back. Athletes lose motivation because they might not succeed in what they have been working on. They may end up giving up or start lacking in a certain area. Or if they lose a game that they played hard and fought hard in but they lost. There are many ways athletes lose motivation.

Coaches play a big part in athlete motivation as well. They can help develop a psychologically to help motivate athletes with positive and good self-regard by creating self-worth and a sense of belonging and by limiting judgmental comparisons to other athletes’ success. Coaches can also boost autonomy in their athletes so much just by encouraging self-monitoring, performance reflection, and honest opinion of physical and emotional. Athletes need people in their background to keep them motivated. It’s not easy to stay motivated on your own. I’m an athlete myself and I struggled myself along my journey of being successful in basketball.

In my own road to success, motivation was something I lacked. I always gave up and never thought I would be able to achieve my goals. It would be times that I got motivated but it wasn’t for long. But also along the way , I had coaches , family , and friends , that gave me fuel about feeding me stuff that I needed to hear and that was motivation.

Abstract

Athletes have struggled over the years with the pressure of having to deliver results in competition during crunch time. Many have succeeded, and many have failed. It is not uncommon for superstar athletes to fail and continue to see success during the course of their career. Take Michael Jordan for example, he missed over 12,000 shots over the course of his career yet he is considered the greatest basketball player of all time. On the other hand, there are those athletes who struggle with high pressure situations and fail to deliver results. They lose focus, their mechanics are off and they can no longer compete at a high level. The most common cause of this is called the yips or focal dystonia. Findings suggest that there is a connection between the message the brain sends and what the body part is receiving thus causing the athlete to miss a target they would usually hit.

Introduction

Ever wonder what goes through the mind of an athlete who is competing on the world’s biggest stage? The game is on the line, the pressure is mounting, and the next shot, pitch, or pass decides the outcome of the game. These are the types of moments athletes work hard and routinely practice for. They go through pre-game rituals and have developed the physical mechanics to execute the play with precision yet, something triggers a systematic malfunction and transfer of information from the brain to the body part delivering the ball. The athlete can no longer shoot the ball or throw the strike with accuracy. Lack of confidence sets in and the athlete is now on a quest for answers. A number of professional athletes today suffer from an anxiety disorder called the yips. Over time, the yips have resulted in the inability for a professional athlete to compete at a high level and through therapy and medication, athletes have been able to reverse the effects of the yips.

Method

Growing up having played baseball, it was a game that I really enjoyed and had a passion for. I would spend hours at home throwing tennis balls off the wall and catching them. My natural position was shortstop and I was always recognized for my strong arm. Throws to first were routine plays and I could literally throw to first on target with my eyes closed. As I grew older and the game became more competitive, I recognized the feeling of anxiousness, butterflies in my stomach. I would still power through the game, however; I started to commit more throwing errors in the process. No injuries, slippery baseballs, nothing, just plain missing the mark. Ultimately it became too much, and I stopped playing altogether. Years, later I recall turning on the television and watching a young promising pitcher pitching for the St. Louis Cardinals by the name of Rick Ankiel. He was a phenom and one of the most talented pitchers at that time. He was one of the hardest throwing lefties in the game when it happened; he could no longer throw strikes. As a result, his pitching career was over. It peaked my interest as I felt a connection with what had occurred with Rick. I followed Rick’s journey which included a major league comeback at a different position and ended with a long successful career. At some point, between Rick’s downfall as a pitcher and his inevitable comeback as an outfielder, while reading an article or watching a sports report, I first heard of the term “the yips”.

“Yips is usually described as focal dystonia, or choking under pressure, or as lying on a continuum between both” (Ioannou, et al.). In an interview Rick described it as, “one of those things like where you just feel like the yips, the monster, this disease. . . . It didn’t fight fair, so I felt like, ‘Well, you know what? I’m not going to fight fair either,’ (Russell). According to The Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, “Isolated dystonia is a group of movement disorders characterized by sustained or intermittent involuntary muscle contractions that lead to abnormal and often repetitive movements, postures or both. These disorders are not accompanied by other neurological abnormalities except for tremor and have no known cause except for relatively rare gene mutations. The most common form of isolated dystonia is adult-onset focal dystonia (AOFD), defined by dystonia that begins in adulthood and primarily affects one body region such as the face, neck or limbs” (Berman 595). In watching how Rick Ankiel lost control of his ability to pitch, I often wondered how common this was and is it truly an illness. Mackey Sasser, former catcher for the New York Mets, also suffered from a severe case of the yips, however, he was able to pin point the exact moment it occurred. In 1990 Sasser was in a serious collision with another player at home plate. Shortly thereafter, Sasser had trouble throwing the baseball back to the pitcher. He would begin to tap his glove and double clutch before he threw the ball back. He spoke in depth about his issues during an ESPN 30 for 30 short film documentary film. Eventually, he overcame his throwing issues after seeking help from a psychotherapist.

During the NBA draft in June of 2017, many NBA pundits were debating who the number one overall pick would be. Was it going to be Lonzo Ball out of UCLA or Markelle Fultz from the University of Washington. During pre-workout drafts, it was evident that Markelle Fultz would be landing the top spot in the NBA draft. Scouts were impressed by his pre-draft workouts and his body of work on the collegiate level helped solidify his position. The time came to draft the NBA class of 2017 and sure enough, Markelle Fultz, the number one pick of the draft, began his journey as an NBA star for the Philadelphia 76ers. By the middle of his rookie season, he struggled, and it became clear that he had lost his jump shot. Reports claimed that he was suffering from a shoulder injury. Another report claimed that he had worked at altering his shot. What became clear was that something was wrong and, in an effort to prolong his career, something had to be done to fix it. Tim Marcin from Newsweek noted, “In months that would follow, there’d be numerous (and conflicting) reports of shoulder injuries and training gone awry. Months later, NBA trainer Drew Hanlen would finally pin his client’s issues on the yips–a frightening diagnosis but one most observers had long suspected”. It was an unfortunate prognosis and painful process to watch. An elite athlete choking in the moment. Sports psychologist Debbie Crews who studied the yips for two decades told Newsweek, ‘It’s not about fixing it, it’s about outsmarting it, staying one step ahead of it. Staying in charge so the yip is not controlling their game.’ (Marcin). In the beginning of 2019, Markelle Fultz was traded to the Orlando Magic where he will be given the opportunity for a fresh start and regain the form that had him as the top collegiate athlete in the country.

Results

Initially, the yips were a common occurrence with golfers. Identified as the putting yips, the act of putting for a golfer can be one of the most important strokes they can take during a match or game. Imagine standing on the green with a silent crowd behind you watching and waiting on you to put the golf ball in the cup. It is nerve racking just to think about it. Studies have been aimed to confirm that reinvestment, defined as the attempt to consciously control one’s own movement during skill execution by the application of explicit and rule-based knowledge, also leads to the occurrence of the yips, which would have important implications for designing effective interventions. As a result of the study, it was determined that there was no link between reinvestment and the yips as described (Martin, et al.). So, what is the root cause of the yips? How are athlete’s able to overcome such a debilitating, career ending condition? Many believe that it is a performance anxiety issue, yet research suggests that athletes with movement disorders actual have a form of focal limb dystonia (Journal of Family Practice). Athletes with the yips were treated with low dose medication to relieve anxiety and relax the muscles. The Journal of Family Practice published the results and determined that repetitive use was a contributing factor and that it was also a treatable neurological condition and required more research. Baseball players such as Chuck Knoblauch and Steve Sax, who were notable for struggling to make throws from second base to first base (one of the easiest throws in baseball) realized that when they threw the ball without thinking about it, they had no problems. It was the moment that slow ground ball reached them that they had time to think about the throw and by the time it left their hands, it ended up in the stands. This example would validate the neurological condition as the contributing factor.

References

1. Berman, Brian D., et al. ‘Psychiatric Associations of Adult-Onset Focal Dystonia Phenotypes.’ Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 88.7 (2017): 595. ProQuest. Web. 8 Mar. 2019.
2. Ioannou, C. I., Klämpfl, M. K., Lobinger, B. H., Raab, M., & Altenmüller, E. (2018). Psychodiagnostics: Classification of the yips phenomenon based on musician’s dystonia. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
3. Jones, Kyle Bradford, Juliann Allred, and David Shprecher. ‘The case.’ Journal of Family Practice Apr. 2017: 234+. Business Insights: Global. Web. 9 Mar. 2019.
4. Marcin, T. (2018, September 7). Markelle Fultz’s Jump Shot, the Yips and Explaining the Sports Phenomenon Through Past Cases; Rick Ankiel, Mackey Sasser and others weigh in on just how difficult the yips can be–and how the crushing anxiety can take over your life. Newsweek, 171(7). Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A552361665/OVIC?u=lawest&sid=OVIC&xid=9d5fda05
5. Martin, Karl Kl, Babett Helen Lobinger, and Markus Raab. ‘Reinvestment – the Cause of the Yips?’ PLoS One 8.12 (2013)ProQuest. Web. 9 Mar. 2019.
6. Russell, Jake. Rick Ankiel Says He Drank Vodka before First Start of 2001 to Calm His Nerves. Washington: WP Company LLC d/b/a The Washington Post, 2017. ProQuest. Web. 8 Mar. 2019.

The consensus statement (2016) defines PFP as pain presenting behind or around the kneecap that is provoked by at least one activity that stresses the PFJ while weight-bearing on a flexed knee. The aggravating activities include: climbing stairs, squatting, running and jumping. However, the term PFP was previously used interchangeably with chondromalacia patellae, but the latter refers to the softening of articular cartilage detected on MRI and arthroscopy. On the other hand, structural defects are not present in PFP and investigations are not required for making a diagnosis of PFP.(1)

The cardinal feature for PFP is peri patellar or retro patellar pain or stiffness provoked by prolong sitting with knee flexed (movie sign).(1) That condition is commonly found in athletes and physically active individuals. Its impact is significant, frequently decreasing the sport performing abilities.(2) As a matter of fact, a number of recreational athletes quit their sport, due to PFP.(3) The annual prevalence of PFP in adults is almost 23% and roughly covers 29% of the adolescents in the general population. 36% of the professional cyclists are affected by PFP.(4)PFP affects physically active persons and account for 25 to 40% of all knee complains examine in a sports injury setting.(5) Females are 2.23 times more likely to develop PFP than male counterparts.(6) Its occurrence varies from 22 newly discovered cases per 1000 individuals per year in highly active population to 5-6 newly discovered cases per 1000 individuals in general practice.(7)

Painful symptoms associated with this condition decreases the level of physical activity and limit participation in athletic events.(4) PFP is the preferred terminology used for diffuse anterior knee pain.(2) In the UK there are approximately more than 100 million primary care appointments per day for musculoskeletal disorders. On the other hand there are almost 126.6 million citizens affected from musculoskeletal disorder in the US. In above all musculoskeletal related disorders, knee pain is the second most prevalent condition, with PFP is considered one of the most common reason of knee pain. The cited prevalence lies between 15 to 45%.(8) PFP has increase prevalence in orthopaedic, general practice and sports medicine. The condition starts in early adolescence. Approximately 71 to 91% of patients report chronic pain up to 20 years after initial diagnosis.(9) The pathogenesis is complex and multifactorial with multi interactive pathways advocated to contribute to the onset and persistence of pain.(10)

However, the true etiology is still unknown. The factors associated with PFP are lower hip extension strength, lower knee extension strength and lesser flexibility of the lower extremity muscles.(7)

Patient feels crepitus while descending stairs could indicate PFP. Unfortunately there is no patellofemoral special test that has significant accuracy in making diagnosis, so the diagnosis is made primarily on the basis of history taking and subjective assessment. Strong subjective clues such as pain while descending stairs, discomfort with prolong sitting with knee flexed (movie-goer’s sign) helps a physical therapist to make a clinical hypothesis and provocative tests are just considered to be an icing on the cake of assessment.(11) It is non-traumatic in nature, with diffuse anterior knee pain especially on joint loading activities. There is no gold standard method or special test to clinically diagnose PFP. The diagnosis is made on detailed history and objective assessment.(8)

The diagnosis is made if the patient report AKP or peripatellar pain for > 3 months, in the absence of intra-articular pathology. If the patient report pain at least 2 of the following pain provoking functional activities: squatting; stairs climbing; prolonged sitting; running; kneeling and jumping. The pain provoking clinical tests are: tenderness on palpation of patellar facets; positive response on Clarke’s test.(7)

The therapist should ask about recent changes in physical activity, current physical activity and previous history of trauma or knee surgeries. PFP is a common form of knee overuse condition. Joint locking and clicking sensation are not consistently present in PFP, but highlights internal derangements in the knee such as meniscal tears.(1)

Athletes with poor gluteal control are not able to control their hip, which causes the hip to rotate medially. This puts excessive stress through the knee with a valgus stress being exerted and therefore causing compression to the lateral compartment and stress to the medial patellar ligaments. These alignment alterations can result in ITB tightness and eventually can cause a lateral patellar tracking.(12)There is evidence that individuals with PFP demonstrate impairments regarding soft tissue restraints i.e. ligamentous injury especially the medial patellofemoral ligament. Generalized ligamentous laxity is linked with the development of PFP. Such impairments can contribute to patellar maltracking.(13) During weight-bearing, medial rotation of the femur is a contributing factor to lateral patellar tilt.(13) In women with PFP, altered joint kinematics is linked with increased medial rotation of the femur during single leg squat maneuver.(13)

PFJ is considered as the “joint of extensor mechanism of the knee”.(14) Patella has a major role in the distribution of compressive forces by increasing the contact area between patellar tendon and the femur. Patellar articular cartilage is the thickest cartilage of the body, 5-6 mm thick. Patella moves cadually about 7cm as the knee moves from full extension to full flexion. The patella become submerged into the intercondylar groove during full knee flexion.(14) AKP is an explanation of symptoms felt by the patient; however the term is usually misused as a diagnosis. A pseudo-locking effect is reported by patients after first gets up from prolong sitting. It is actually a stiffness, which usually settles after taking a few steps. “Walking downstairs”, aggravate the patient symptoms because the forces acting on PFJ are increased to roughly “three times” the body weight.(14) Individuals with patellar alta (high riding patella) demonstrate diminished contact area for a given knee flexion angle and greater patellofemoral stress while fast walking.(13)

Greater Q-angle or excessive knee valgus causes lateralization of the patella, which increases the loading of the medial patellofemoral ligaments, potentially resulting in PFP. In addition to this, hamstring tightness, leg length discrepancy, muscular imbalances, excessive foot pronation and abnormal trochlea or patella morphologies can bring out PFP.(15) chondromalacia patellae must not be used as a synonym for PFP, although chondromalacia is a condition in which there is pathological changes and softening of articular cartilage. Usually PFP is bilateral and patient report tenderness on patellar facet palpation. The stability of PFJ depends upon both static and dynamic restraints. Pain-free submaximal exercises and prevention of flaring activities having increased patellofemoral joint reactive forces are the fundaments of rehabilitation of PFP. Hip and trunk poor muscular control (hip abductors, hip external rotators, trunk lateral flexors and core weakness) increases the development of increase hip adduction and increase hip medial rotation during standing. This medial femoral torsion further increases the retropatellar stress. There is an increased tendency to have abnormal lower limb biomechanics especially in fatigued athletes who participate in strenuous activities.(16) Individuals with PFP demonstrate calf tightness and navicular drop and this is not a universal finding in all patients.(13)

Different causes of anterior knee pain after ACL reconstruction surgery are: contracture of retropatellar fat pad and patellar tendon and scarring in peripatellar structures and so called “Cyclops lesion”. Pain provocation on coming downstairs is the important finding because the forces acting on the PFJ are approximately three times the body weight. Muscular wasting of oblique fibers of VMO may be present in PFP. Pseudo locking with prolong sitting may be present in PFP.(14) Individuals with PFP demonstrate lesser flexibility in hamstring and quadriceps muscles groups. Tightness of both muscles can increase the PFJRFs.(13) During exercise therapy, importance is forced on the coordinated contraction of the medial and lateral components of quadriceps muscles and also on the coordinated muscular contraction of hip abductors, hip adductors and gluteal muscles.(7)

PFP has been associated with decreased contact area and increased load on the lateral PFJ, as a consequence of patellar maltracking such as increase lateral patellar tilt, translation and spin.(17) Current evidence-based recommended exercise therapy and International consensus, concentrated on knee and hip strengthening, as a cornerstone of management of PFP.(10) The current available evidence advocates that “abnormal loading of the PFJ”, propelled to a larger extent by deficits in quadriceps strength is a hallmark factor contributing to the onset and persistence of PFP.(10)

Patellar maltracking as a consequence of dynamic valgus might be an underlying cause of PFP. Potential reasons of dynamic or functional valgus are decreased hip muscular strength and foot abnormalities (hind foot eversion and pes planovalgus). The clinical importance of such findings is that an individually tailored or customized, multimodal treatment program for each athlete based on their underlying pathology is mandatory.(18)

Supplementation is a constantly evolving and controversial topic in the sports world. With more and more companies jumping on opportunities to release the best athletic supplements, it has become riskier than ever to start new diets of these powders, foods and liquids. Supplementation is largely lacking in regulation and research due to the rapid influx of new products, which can prove to be dangerous in athletes, especially those still developing. Because of the unpredictability of supplements and their interaction with the human body, as well as the lack of regulation and research, they should not be taken until eighteen years of age to avoid developmental problems in users.

Because of lax regulations in the production of supplements, athletic leagues across the globe are often placing restrictions on supplements taken by participants. The tracking of supplementation is difficult and often expensive, due to the invasive and meticulous nature of logging every single supplement taken by athletes, on top of the possibility that logs could be tampered with to aid in illegal supplementation. Because of this, many leagues have banned the use of certain supplements altogether to avoid having to carefully supervise what athletic participants are putting into their bodies. However, the natural production of supplemental biochemicals may be increased in the body accidentally with the use of indirectly associated legal supplements or home remedies. New Zealand swimmer Trent Bray was accused of breaking rules of his league through illegal food supplementation, which prompted Southland Athletics development officer Graeme Hyde to warn other athletes of possible home remedies and supplements, because they could unknowingly be against the rules of the sport league (McCarthy 28). Because of the lack of regulation in supplements, top coaches are warning against their usage, for they can cause increases in biochemicals not approved of by the league. Perhaps one of the most popular supplements is creatine, an amino acid that aids in muscle regeneration and endurance.

Creatine is a continually researched supplement that has been released to the public for a comparatively long time when placed aside modern supplements. “Cells may be able to better handle rapidly changing energy demands with supplementation.” Creatine not only provides the muscles with ample energy to continue exercising longer, but it also aids in speedy recovery with significantly increased gain over that which low creatine levels support. Creatine supply in the body is finite, which means that complete saturation can lead to decreased volume of distribution and clearance. This leads to complicated pharmacokinetic situations (Persky 557). Because of the spontaneity of individual reactions to such situations within the body, creatine is still unpredictable. If creatine, one of the most studied modern supplements is this unpredictable, the amount of research thrown into similar but newer supplements can hardly be regarded as thorough and complete. Because of this, supplements can be dangerous, especially to developing athletes. Although unpredictable, there has been a foundation of research into the side effects of creatine.

Among research done regarding creatine, some recurring side effects have become apparent. Creatine levels taken in excess can have an adverse effect on kidney and liver function. Creatine draws water out of cells, which can affect hydration in the body. “Excess creatine can also cause stomach pain and cramps, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Combining it with ibuprofen may harm the kidneys and there is evidence it may interact with caffeine, too. Other potential dangers may include abnormal heart rhythm, deep vein thrombosis, depression, reduced sex drive and increased irritability or aggression” (McKenna 40). These effects of creatine are comparatively severe when placed next to the potential benefits of the supplementation, and although the choice to use the supplement still stands in the hands of the consumer, these adverse side effects should not be waved off without significant contemplation. While a couple of these side effects may be preventable through cautious hydration and meticulous supervision of what medication is used while on the supplement, research is still being done. The immense number of variable circumstances that these possible side effects incur provides no easily diagnosable situation, should complications taking the supplement arise. Creatine doesn’t only affect those involved in athletics, however.

In both pregnant women and older individuals, creatine has been found to have a positive effect. It has been proven that pregnant women tend to have smaller babies when simultaneously holding a creatine deficiency, while elderly people have the same positive reaction to the supplement as the athletes taking it in regard to muscle function, though the magnitude of its effect is still unclear. A study by Melbourne’s Hudson Institute of Medical Research and Monash University found women with lower levels of creatine gave birth to smaller babies. “The more creatine that was found in the urine samples of 278 expectant mothers studied, the less likely they were to have an underweight baby,” according to lead researcher Dr. Hayley Dickinson. “We showed that for every unit increase in the amount of creatine that the mother had in her urine there was just over a one unit increase in the birth weight centile” (Spooner 8). “Approximately half of the available studies demonstrate a beneficial effect of creatine on muscle function and body composition in older individuals, less than what has been reported in young subjects” (Rawson 262). While these effects are undoubtedly impressive, the fact still stands that research regarding this supplement is incomplete and side effects are drastic when compared to potential positive effects. Due to the beneficial health effects of creatine in a wide range of cases, it’s no wonder the supplement is popular in athletes around the world. However, while the benefits might be significant to those whose bodies are already developed, usage of the supplement should be avoided until developmental stages of life have come to a close.

Because of the unpredictability of supplements and their interactions with the human body due to their lack regulation and research, supplements should not be taken until eighteen years of age to avoid developmental problems in users. Because of lax regulations in the production of supplements, leagues are often placing restrictions on supplements taken by participants, which should be taken into consideration to avoid accidental illegal activity. Creatine is a continually researched supplement that has been released to the public for a comparatively long time when placed aside of modern supplements. Although the research done on it is comparably immense when compared to newer supplements, the research is far from thorough and complete. Among research done regarding creatine, some recurring side effects have become apparent, all of which are catastrophically negative in regard to the human body. Another thing to consider is the varying effectiveness of the drug from individual to individual. In both pregnant women and older individuals, creatine has been found to have a positive effect. The only negative effects found in this research were closely related to other pre-existing health conditions. Some supplementation, especially that of creatine, can have a positive effect on most over the age of eighteen. However, the variables and lack of research behind the side effects lead to unpredictability in those more prone to health problems, and those still in the developmental stages of life.

Abstract

The purpose of this term paper is to prevent the usage of steroids. Steroids are organic substances like hormones and cholesterol used to build up the body and increase its work. It was first used by athletes who wanted to increase their performance in the game. They were first used in 1860s. It leads to delusions and the player will see unreal things. Also, it damages the tendons and wipes their collagen fibers. Moreover, it causes liver and heart diseases and then the death. Finally, it damages the testicles and lowers their ability to produce hormones. Then, it displays the opponent’s viewpoints and what they argue for.

Should Athletes Take Steroids?

What are steroids? According to Mifflin (2002) steroids in medicine are “any numerous naturally synthetic fat-soluble organic compounds having 17-carbon atoms arranged in four rings, and include cholesterol, sex hormones and certain vitamins”. Steroids were defined in 2012 as “one of a large group of chemical substances classified by a specific carbon structure” .

Steroids are synthetic, man-made substances similar to the male sex hormone testosterone. Steroids promote the growth of skeletal muscle and increase lean body mass. Anabolic steroids were first abused by athletes seeking to improve performance. Today, athletes and others abuse anabolic steroids to enhance performance and also to improve physical appearance. Using of steroids began in 1860s when a group of swimmers from Amsterdam took steroids to speeds up their race. And using them continued till now.

Nowadays, it is illegal to use steroids during competitions because it strengthens athlete’s performance. Therefore, the intake of this medicine must be controlled or limited for many reasons and mainly for healthy issues, illegal intake, and even addiction.

Taking steroids is very dangerous. For one thing, taking high doses of steroids lead to delusions. Delusion- psychosis- is a mental disease that one can hear or see things which is not real . So the player, who takes lots of these substances, will see false images and hear unreal sounds. Also he will become aggressive and offensive. In addition they will lead to Memory loss. Doctors and researchers have reported many cases that linked memory loss to using steroids and addicting them .

A second harm of taking steroids is that it increases the risk of tendonitis. Taking these substances affect the body’s tendons and weaken its ability to work and support the body. The strong fiber of ligaments is made of collagen, and these doping disrupt their normal formation. So they produce abnormalities and make them not connected to the muscles . Scientists showed that taking lots of hormones and exercising at the same time will lead to dysplasia of collagen fibers which reduces the tendon strengthen. So the high doses of steroids taken by high trained players will put them in front of tendons’ destruction .

Thirdly, taking steroids causes heart and liver diseases. These materials can cause liver cancers. Dr. Wu showed that steroids cause liver cancer but at low rates. But it actually raises tumors inside the liver. Such this tumor, the hepatic adenomas which is not cancer but it’s very dangerous because it ruptures the liver and lead to bleeding inside it. And finally it leads to death of the player who is using these steroids a lot . Another thing, it weaken the heart and make it ineffectively. It is associated to the CVD (cardiovascular diseases) by causing heart attacks even in young athletes who are addicted to them. They lead to changes in cholesterol levels in the blood and alternation in the proteins that carry the cholesterol molecules .

Last but not least, steroids cause infertility. It harms the men’s testicles where the male sex hormone – testosterone – is produced. The brain send signals to the testicles to begin producing the testosterone, but using steroid for a long term will weaken this signals from

The brain until it stops. So the testicles will stop producing the hormone. As a result the testicle will shrink and the production will stop. This can lead to death. So bodybuilder and athletes taking these hormones either by mouth or by injecting will lose this ability to produce sperms thus losing their chance to bring babies.

In addition, athletes try to enhance their abilities by taking steroids without medical supervision or illegally. There is no safe dose of an anabolic steroid, even under a doctor’s supervision and health warnings . According to NSW, athletes are being brainwashed by magazines and handbooks about ways of using anabolic steroids through complicated ‘scientific’ explanations, which are often not based on science at all. Higher doses don’t have much more of an effect than lower doses because the anabolic steroid receptor sites in muscle become saturated. There is really no point in taking extra anabolic steroids when they have no extra effects on your build – and can certainly cause more side effects. All over the globe, steroids are the giant in the room at bodybuilding championship, gyms, and playing fields. These substances are illegal in most countries around the world. The easy access to these substances is partially to blame, and they are easily obtained the black-market. Anyone can get these substances that will promote growth immediately without being aware of the potential side effects or the harm they can cause, or even death. (Anderson, 2011).

Opponents believe steroids should become legal arguing that they will improve the athletes’ performance. This is through having boosted muscles and reducing their body fat. It’s true that they increase the ability to work hard and have a high performance, but It does also have many side effects like weaken and destroying the muscles. In addition, it will lead to addiction on other drugs, and it may cause muscle dysmorphia.

Another believer for legalizing taking steroids assumes that their lives would be much easier and being the star will become true faster. They said that it increases their hormones and accelerates their hormone production, so the body becomes stronger and bigger and well-built one. It’s true that steroids increase the production of the hormones, but these materials affect the testes and shrinking them lowering the testosterone production, which is the main hormone inside the men’s body.

As a result, legalizing steroids in athletic competitions should be prevented and no one must take them. After all, since the beginning of the Olympic Games, sports are held to compete not to kill yourself to win.

Although steroids have some useful issues, they have many side effects. Even if they build the body and make it strong, they cause delusions, tendon inflammation, heart and liver diseases and destroying the testicles. So the purpose of this paper is to limit steroids usage, so that these effects will disappear.

References

1. Anderson, S. (2011). Steroids use continues despite dangers. The Daily Star. Retrieved on May 16, 2015, From: http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-%20News/2011/Oct-14/151248-steroid-use-continues-despite-dangers.ashx
2. Anabolic Steroid Abuse (2006). Drugabuse.gov. Retrieved May 10, 2015 From: http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/anabolic-steroid-abuse/what-are-health-consequences-steroid-abuse
3. IIiades, C. (2009). Steroids use and liver cancer, Everydayhealth.com. Retrieved May 10, 2015 From: http://www.everydayhealth.com/liver-cancer/steroid-use-and-liver-cancer.aspx
4. Definition of steroids (2012). Steroid definition, Medicinenet.com. Retrieved May 9, 2015 From: http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5556
5. Colgan, Dr.M. (2009). TENDONS AND STEROIDS, Musculardevelpment.com Retrieved May 9,2015 From: http://www.musculardevelopment.com/articles/research-and-review/1848-tendons-and-steroids-beware-the-r-i-i-i-i-p-p-p.html#.VU8NJvlVikp
6. Psychosis (2015). Healthline.com. Retrieved May 9,2015 From: http://www.healthline.com/health/psychosis#Overview1
7. Brown, E. S. (2001). Mood and Cognitive Changes during Systemic Corticosteroid Therapy. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved May 9,2015 From: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC181154/
8. History of steroids (2011). Intheknowzone.com. Retrieved May 9,2015 Form: http://www.intheknowzone.com/substance-abuse-topics/steroids/history.html
9. Houghton Mifflin Company (2002). Steroid definition, Dictionary.com. Retrieved May 9,2015 From: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/steroid
10. W. King, J. (1991). Anabolic steroid-induced tendon pathology, Pubmed.gov. Retrieved May 9,2015 From: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1997802
11. Brown, M. (2002-2015). How to Keep Your Balls in Order. Bodybuild.com. Retrieved May 10, 2015 From: http://www.bodybuildbid.com/articles/steroids/ballsinorder.html
12. NSW. (July, 2013) Anabolic Steroids. Retrieved on May 16, 2015, From: http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/mhdao/Factsheets/Pages/anabolic.aspx

Gender pay gap in general

The gender pay gap and equal pay are phrases that are commonly used by the current generation; on tv, in papers and most prominently in the workplace. But do people really understand what these phrases mean? The gender pay gap or gender wage gap is the average difference between the remuneration for men and women who are working calculated from the median hourly earnings figures . Equal pay refers to men and women who are in the same job, working the same hours must be on the same wage. The UK parliament enforced the equal pay act in 1970 in order to prohibit companies from treating men and women in the workplace any more or less favourably than one another in terms of pay and conditions of employment. However, this equal pay act was only updated and replaced 40 years later in 2010. After 47 years of the equal pay act being in place, regulations were enforced so that the 10,000 UK employers that the Government has identified as having over 250 employees have to publish their data as of April 2017. Although the regulations were enforced by the government, according to the Equalities and Human Rights Commission 1,557 firms had missed the deadline to publish their figures.

Gender pay gap in sport

Sport is defined as an activity involving physical exertion and skill in which an individual or team competes against another or others for entertainment. However, Pierre de Coubertin, who founded the modern Olympic Games in 1896 described women’s sport as “the most unaesthetic sight human eyes could contemplate” and advocated that the games be reserved for women and considered there participation would make the competition ‘impractical, uninteresting’ and ‘improper’.

Cricket

Cricket is historically known for being a male sport with the first time women were recorded playing cricket was on the 26th July in 1745 in Guilford, Surrey almost 200 years after the first males match was played in the same location in 1550 . The England and Wales cricket board has previously stated it is committed to tackling and fighting back against a gender pay imbalance within the organisation. However, figures released by the ECB in 2017 revealed that the mean pay gap between males and females is the highest amongst the four main sporting governing bodies (including the FA, LTA, JCR and ECB) at 38% .

Women’s cricket matches can take many different formats including: T20 (the shortest format with each team facing a total of 20 overs), One Day matches (50 overs each side) and test matches which were played for the last time in 2017 before the ICC called it a day on the particular format. This decision to stop playing test matches in the women’s game was made as test matches in the women’s game were considered commercially unviable. Men’s cricket also takes many different formats including the ones listed above as well as test matches. There is a much greater emphasis on the shorter formats of the game in both women and mens cricket and a greater movement away from the longer test match format of the game. This movement is much more prominent in the women’s side of the sport as the England men’s side in a year play on average 8-12 test matches. This could give a total of 60 days of cricket if each test was to last the full 5 days. This is 60 more days of cricket than the women’s England team who in 2018 played a total of 0 test matches.

Cricket World cup

According to Topend sport, the first women’s World Cup was held in England in 1973 with England winning. This women’s world cup was two years before the first men’s world cup and this evidence of the first women’s world cup is backed up by scorecards on espn sport showing that this event did take place. Women’s cricket back then was a relief from working and purely recreational. However, now for the women that play international cricket, it is their profession. This is a huge step towards the men’s game as in the men’s game anyone playing at a county level are considered professionals unlike the women. This shows the disparity in the game at both international and county standard.

The prize money for this event is drastically different between the men and women’s tournament. The overall prize money for the women’s tournament in 2013 was a mere $200,000 to be distributed between 8 teams each consisting of 11 players a side excluding the coaching staff and reserves. This figure may seem a lot for just one sporting event but in comparison to the prize money of $8 million available for the men’s equivalent tournament it seems frivolous. People may argue that the additional prize money is justifiable due to the 16 teams that entered the men’s tournament compared to just the 8 in the women’s competition. Surely that would mean the prize money for the women’s tournament should have been half that of the mens? This disparity since the 2013 World cup has improved considerably along with the profile of women’s cricket across the world with the teams competing in the women’s world cup in 2018 competing for a share of $2 million. Despite being 10 times the amount from 2013, this is still a large way off the men’s equivalent which along with the women’s side has also increased by 40% since their previous tournament with the prize money available a colossal $14 million! The gap between the men’s and women’s prize money has increased from $7.8 million to $12 million; many may say that previously the men’s prize money was 40 times that of the women’s and that it is now only 7 times as large. Although this fact may be true, the difference of $12 million is still unacceptable.

Women’s Football

During World War 1 whilst many men were fighting away from home, women’s football thrived in many areas of the UK and grew massively in popularity with a Boxing Day match played by Dick Kerr’s Ladies side against St Helen’s Ladies in 1920 attracted a crowd of 53,000 to Everton’s Goodison Park ground, with thousands more fans locked outside. To put that into perspective, Everton men’s highest attendance in the 2014/15 season was 39,000 . This increase in interest was met by the FA a few years later on December 5th 1921 with a ban on women in England playing football at the grounds of Football Association clubs. Despite seeming ludicrous to society in the present day, this ban by the FA was welcomed by many men of the era. Even the boss of Arsenal at the time backed the ban and stated; ‘Anyone acquainted with the nature of the injuries received by men footballers could not help but think – looking at the girls playing – that should they get similar knocks and buffetings their future duties as mothers would be seriously impaired.’ This comment from Leslie Knighton is extremely sexist and if it had been made in the present day, Leslie would have been looking at some sort of ban and would more than likely have been sacked as Arsenal’s boss.

It took the women of the time until 1969 to fight back against this ban but they did resulting in the formation of the women’s FA (WFA) that included 44 clubs. In light of the formation of the WFA, and the increased pressure from women all over the country, the FA eventually lifted the ban on women playing in 1971.

Women’s football World Cup

The women’s World Cup sees high quality football played at an international level. The first competition took place in 1991 in China featuring 12 international sides with the United States being crowned the champions in a 2-1 win over Norway. Similar to the men’s tournaments, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association otherwise known as FIFA, govern the competition and it is held every four years in different nations around the world who take part in a bidding process to host the event. In order for a team to be included in the tournament, they must be successful in the rigorous qualification matches that take place several months before the first game of the tournament. The 1995 tournament, like the 1991 competition, also saw 12 teams compete but more recently due to the increase in participation in the sport, the teams competing in the tournament has been increased to 24 for the 2019 World Cup taking place in France consisting of 6 groups followed by knockout stages to see who will take home the trophy.

As regards prize money for the event, FIFA have been eager to publicise their news that the prize money for the 2019 tournament will be double that of the 2015 equivalent. This may seem like a large increase and leap towards equality as the FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated “it’s a very important message for women’s football”. However, the winners of the tournament will take home $4m almost a tenth of what France, the winners of the men’s world cup in Russia 2018 won, which was a large total of $38m. The overall prize fund for the men’s tournament is a huge $400m, a colossal 13 times that of the Women’s. Therefore, many people along with Fifpro, the worldwide representative organisation for 65,000 professional footballers, believe this increase is therefore insufficient and despite the willingness of FIFA to make structural improvements to support women’s football, the sport still remains a long way away from equality.

Tennis

Tennis is a sport played across the world by millions of people, and was invented in France around the 11/12th century but the use of rackets was only introduced years later in England. The popularity of tennis decreased in the 1700’s however, when a hard rubber material (vulcanized rubber) that was used to cover the ball was invented in 1850, the game changed drastically. This new material allowed for tennis to be played outside and on grass. Participation as a result heightened and due to this increase in popularity, in 1877 the All England Croquet Club held its first tennis tournament at Wimbledon. This is where the origins of the well loved tournaments began. In spite of this tournament being a great development in the sport at the time, women weren’t allowed to play in the tournament until 7 years later in 1884 . Another strange condition to the tournament was that all participants were expected to wear hats and serving was only allowed underarm, rules that have since been abolished much to the delight of the players of today.

Since the introduction of outdoor tennis courts, the game has advanced to being played on a variety of different surfaced courts. There’s the traditional grass courts that do still exist but are less prominent due to the high maintenance required, this surface is generally considered to be quick with a much lower bounce. Hard courts which are the most common type of surface and provide players with a high bounce combined with a medium speed. Clay courts are the slowest of the three surfaces but also provide a high bounce. Different players suit each surface dependant on their style of play.

Wimbledon

Wimbledon is notorious for being the only Grand Slam to be played on grass. At the first championships in 1877, there were 22 men who took part each paying a fee of a pound and a shilling in order to participate but there were no women allowed. Contrary to the competition that takes place now, only 200 spectators were present to watch the players compete using wooden rackets and hand sewn balls. Lottie Dodd made history in 1884 when she became Wimbledon champion at the mere age of 15 becoming the youngest woman to win a title . She remained undefeated and won the championships four years in a row exerting her excellence on a large stage. The men’s format is slightly different to the women’s as they play the best of 5 sets to decide who progresses to the next round whereas the women’s in best of 3 sets. Therefore the men can sometimes be playing for up to 4 hours longer than the women dependant upon the length of the match, which creates the debate of whether men are in fact ‘working’ for longer therefore should receive greater pay.

Out of the 4 grand slams that take place over the year, Wimbledon, the French open, the Australian open and the US open, Wimbledon was the last to award equal prize money to men and women. Women tennis players finally received equality at all four grand slams in 2007 some 34 years since the US open became the first in 1973. Billie Jean king, who founded the Women’s Tennis Association, was a key driver in achieving the best for women’s tennis. This campaign for creating a better women’s tennis was sustained by the Williams sisters, Serena and Venus. Eight out of the 10 highest paid sports women are tennis players with Serena Williams at the top of the tree. She has been a phenomenon in the sport and inspired thousands of girls to pick up a racket. She has experienced a record breaking career, winning 39 grand slams over 20 years and ranking number 1 in the world for a total of 319 weeks. These incredible achievements have earnt her $81.7 million in prize money throughout her career. The number 1 ranked male tennis player, Novak Djokovic, who has won only 12 grand slams has earnt an enormous $108.8 million.

Media’s influence

In an age when adults on average spend 24 hours on their phone each week, it comes as no surprise that the media’s influence on sport and the money in sport is increasing at a rapid rate. Unlike the prize money for women’s sport, much to many peoples amazement, the television coverage of women’s sport from 1989 to 2014 has in fact decreased. In 1989, the coverage of women’s sport on US sports channels was 5% of all sport shown. This figure is extremely small however since then, the coverage of women’s sport has reduced as in 2014 on ESPN, the percentage of air time of women’s sport was an embarassing 2% of all sport. How is women’s sport able to increase participation and interest if the barriers to entry such as being able to watch women inspiring others to play are so high? This is one of the key steps in the journey to achieving equal pay in sport and I believe this is one of the major ways to encourage young girls to get into sport. If young girls can see women competing in different sports they can be inspired and see that it is possible for them to have a career in sport.

Sponsorship can occur at all levels of sport from school teams right up to the elite athletes but can take many different forms. For example, a school team may be sponsored by receiving funded kit or some sort of equipment whereas a professional athlete can be paid millions to endorse a particular brand or product, receive free travel, equipment and much more. Usain Bolt, reported to have a net worth of $90 million according to CelebrityNetWorth is the world’s most successful sprinters. Despite his big name, his sport of athletics has very little in the way of prize money compared to many other sports. However, Bolt is ranked amongst the world’s best paid athletes thanks to sponsorships especially that of sports giant Puma. Being Bolt’s main sponsor set Puma back $10 million a year in 2017 when the World Championships took place. Bolt also has a global ambassador deal in place with Puma to ensure during his retirement he will receive $4 million a year up to 2025. Endorsements also make up a large proportion of women athlete’s salary. The tennis star Maria Sharapova has earned a total $10.5 million in 2018. From this you may infer she has been extremely successful winning countless tournaments; this is not the case. She has been a very good player but in fact $9.5 million of the $10.5 million has come from endorsements and only $1 million from prize money. In 2010, Sharapova signed a record $70 million contract with Nike spanning over 8 years.

Not only do these two sports players receive large sponsorship deals, they also promote brand over social media due to their large followings. Sharapova has more than 23 million followers on Facebook, twitter and Instagram and Usain bolt has 9 million followers of Instagram alone. Athletes strike up deals with major brands and can be paid per post or for a certain amount of posts per year including hashtags and slogans that can make brands millions. An athlete can make as much money in a year when they are injured than when they are at the top of their game.

Initiatives

This Girl Can, is a campaign by Sport England. Its aim is to get women and girls regardless of shape, size and ability moving all around the UK. The campaign was launched in 2015 in order to boost women’s participation in exercise when it was discovered that 40% of women are not active enough to get the full health benefits of sport and physical activity. This is 5% higher than that of men which sparked the target market for Sport England. According to Sport England figures, 2.8 million women were living more active lifestyles as a direct result of the campaign. This is a large claim made that from the campaign alone, women nationwide were inspired to become more active. The advert that received lot of attention due to the way This Girl Can depicted women’s sport as being vibrant, buoyant and not in the stereotypical mandatory manner previous initiatives had. It seemed like a new way for women to exercise featuring zumba, football, boxing and other sports not typically associated with women. The initial aim of the campaign is to just boost participation not necessarily looking for the next Serena Williams but talented sports women may be discovered as a result. Therefore, the This Girl Can campaign may be taking steps towards equal pay by increasing participation as a whole in women’s sport and consequently increasing the standard and competitiveness of women’s sport which in time will increase the pay of women’s sport.

Cricket is currently a male dominated sport with women representing only 10% of all the participants of the game. Following these figures, the International Cricket Council (ICC) has set a target of wanting half of all new participants in cricket to be women by 2023 . In order to fulfil this goal, in 2017 the English Cricket Board (ECB) introduced the Women’s Soft Ball cricket festival in order to engage more women in the sport. They have aimed to rebrand cricket by changing people’s perception of the game being a ‘boring’ and ‘individual’ game to a more fun and sociable sport. In Yorkshire alone the initiative has been hugely successful with over 500 women and girls taking part across the 12 festivals in the first year of its launch and an impressive 1700 participants in the second year. This shows a rapid growth in the sport which has been resembled by the introduction of 2 softball leagues containing 8 teams in 2018 in addition to 3 softball leagues in 2018/19 including 20 teams . This spark in interest of women’s cricket will hopefully lead to an increase in spectators to women’s international and county cricket games, increasing the ticket revenue and in turn increasing the prize money and wages for the women competing at a high level.

The main ideas behind both of these initiatives are to increase participation amongst women in sport. Therefore the success of these schemes will depend on the effect of the multiplier; the extent to which these campaigns will continue to grow in the future and expand across the country. There are numerous initiatives all over the country reaching out to women at the grass roots levels of sport however, in my opinion in order to increase the level of elite women’s sport for generations to come there needs to be more emphasis on increasing participation of sport, whatever sport it may be, from the ages of 5-8. If young girls can become involved in sport from a young age it may minimise the dropout rates of sport for girls between the ages of 14-18 and eradicate the stereotype of competitive sport being only available for men. The social stigma surrounding women’s sport is one that will only be removed through increased participation which is the main focus of the two initiatives I have previously mentioned. Another key issue surrounding women’s sport is the lack of positive role models, a problem that will continue to occur if women’s sport is not given the appropriate coverage on tv to enable girls to see these influential women.

Introduction

Motivation is a critical determinant of adherence to a training programme, as well as performance success, within any sport context (Roberts & Treasure, 2018). While motivational antecedents are highly variable between individuals, some consistent trends have been demonstrated in the literature that can be used to guide coaches’ motivational strategies to encourage athletes to engage in training. Additionally, evidence from the literature on motivation has been supported by theories of motivation which can be used to predict training adherence based on athlete characteristics, coach characteristics, and the general team or sport environment (Roberts & Treasure, 2018). The purpose of this paper is to discuss how coaches can motivate their athletes to engage in training using an evidence based approach that is underpinned by validated theoretical models of motivation. Specifically, this paper argues for a multidimensional approach that centres on three theories, including self-determination theory, achievement goal theory, and the coach-created motivational climate. Each of these theories is discussed in more detail and applications to the promotion of training adherence within a general sport context are presented. This paper concludes with a brief summary and outline of key points.

Using Self-Determination Theory

One theory of motivation that has been particularly successful in predicting motivational outcomes and guiding motivational interventions in sport is self-determination theory (Chan et al., 2015; Gillet & Vallerand, 2016). This theory assumes that motivation to adhere to training, or to fulfil any sport-related goal, is stronger when it is more self-determined (Gillet & Vallerand, 2016). Specifically, athletes whose adherence to a goal such as a training programme is more self-determined will be more intrinsically motivated, leading to more consistent performance and resilience in the face of adversity (Gillet & Vallerand, 2016). According to this theory, the level of self-determination associated with a particular goal or pursuit is dependent on three factors, including perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Chan et al., 2016).

Evidence suggests that athletes are more intrinsically motivated for an activity when they perceive themselves to be competent in that activity (Curran, Hill, Ntoumanis, Hall, & Lowett, 2016). Conversely, athletes who perceive themselves to lack competence in a particular activity are more likely to experience amotivation or apathy (Curran et al., 2016). Second, self-determination theory predicts that athletes are more motivated when there is greater autonomy in whether or not the activity is performed, as well as how it is performed (Fenton, Duda, & Barrett, 2016). When athletes perceive themselves to be autonomous in their engagement in an activity, they will experience more intrinsic motivation and consistent adherence to that endeavour (Fenton et al., 2016). Conversely, when athletes engage in an activity because of external pressures like incentives or peer pressure, the activity becomes less self-determined and a decrease in motivation is likely to occur (Van den Berghe, Vansteenkiste, Cardon, Kirk, & Haerens, 2014). Finally, evidence suggests that athletes experience greater levels of motivation when a high perception of relatedness exists (Niven & Markland, 2016). Specifically, athletes will be more motivated to engage in a particular activity when there is a positive team climate and that their participation in the activity increases their opportunity for social support (Niven & Markland, 2016). Conversely, athletes are more likely to suffer a decrease in motivation when there is little or no perception of relatedness and participation in the activity brings no social reward (Van den Berghe et al., 2014).

Coaches can use self-determination theory to motivate their athletes to engage in training by targeting each of the three factors that promote greater self-determination. First, coaches can increase athletes’ perceptions of competence by continually recognising success and highlighting areas where athletes demonstrate competence and broadcasting these successes to others. For example, the coach can publicise results to the team or members of the team environment every time an athlete achieves a training-related goal or sets a new training record. Second, coaches can increase athletes’ perceptions of autonomy by providing more options as to the training regime and allowing athletes to make personal choices that best suit their needs on a given day. For example, athletes can provide several different chest exercise options for athletes to choose from or enable them to perform workouts according to their own personal schedules in order to allow them to perceive that their participation is self-determined and not regulated by external forces or pressures. Finally, coaches can motivate their athletes to engage in training by increasing the sense of relatedness that exists through participation in the training programme. For example, coaches can encourage athletes to train in pairs or groups and also engage in team-building exercises to improve task and social cohesion as a means of increasing athletes’ perceptions of belongingness within a given sport context.

Using Achievement Goal Theory

A second theory that was presented in course lectures and has been supported by a large body of evidence within the sports sciences for increasing motivation is achievement goal theory (Lochbaum & Gottardy, 2015; Wang, Morin, Liu, & Chian, 2016). According to this theory, goals vary based on their emphasis on task mastery or perception of competence in comparison to others (Wang et al., 2016). Athletes who have mastery goal orientations predominantly set goals that are centred on effort, personal improvement, and general skill development which will increase their overall proficiency in a particular sport (Lochbaum & Gottardy, 2015). Conversely, athletes who are ego-oriented typically set goals that centre on being perceived positively by others and/or confirm their self-beliefs (Jaakkola, Ntoumanis, & Liukkonen, 2016). Evidence suggests that mastery-oriented athletes who set task-related goals demonstrate more stable motivation, more consistency adherence to training, greater resilience in the face of adversity, and a more positive response to challenging tasks and competitive pressures (Jaakkola et al., 2016). However, athletes that are ego oriented and set primarily performance related goals suffer from significant lapses in motivation when tasks become increasingly difficult and there is the opportunity for failure to occur (Isoard-Gautheur, Trouilloud, Gustafsson, & Guillet-Descas, 2016). Athletes who are ego-oriented can quickly develop fear-avoidance and a fear of failure because of their need to protect themselves from appearing incompetent in front of others (Isoard-Gautheur et al., 2016). Such athletes are much more likely than mastery oriented athletes to suffer from burnout and competitive anxiety as well (Isoard-Gautheur et al., 2016).

Coaches can use achievement goal theory to motivate their athletes to engage in training by evaluating the styles of goals they set and ensuring they are more mastery oriented than ego-oriented. Some ego-oriented outcome goals (e.g., winning a championship) can be effective long-term motivators, but must be supplemented with several mastery oriented, task-related, goals in order to prevent amotivation in the event that adversity occurs. Task-related goals are typically measured quantitatively and demonstrate small and progressive increases in proficiency in a particular activity, such as increasing one’s one-repetition maximum bench press by ten percent each month throughout the pre-competitive season. Coaches must also evaluate athletes’ goals to help convert ego-oriented goals into task oriented ones. For example, if an athlete has an ego-oriented goal of being the best athlete on the team, the coach can help this particular athlete frame this goal into small and measurable task-related and controllable goals that are based on metrics which would ensure this ego-oriented goal is achieved.

Optimising the Coach-created Motivational Climate

A final theory of motivation that has been supported by a large body of research within the sports sciences and can be used to help coaches motivate their athletes to engage in training is motivational climate theory (Curran, Hill, Hall, & Jowett, 2015; Vitali, Bortoli, Bertinato, Robazza, & Schena, 2015). While self-determination theory and achievement goal theory are both concerned with modifying athlete behaviours and goal orientations, motivational climate theory is concerned with structing the environment in such a way as to maximise. Substantial evidence suggests that the environment in which athletes train and the types of goals and attitudes that are rewarded by the coach have significant impacts on athletes’ levels and types of motivation (Curran et al., 2015; Vitali et al., 2015). Evidence also suggests that motivational climates significantly impact athletes’ individual goal setting orientations (Curran et al., 2015). According to motivational climate theory, a sport-related context can be either predominantly task or mastery involved, or predominantly ego-involved and performance-related (Vitali et al., 2015). Much like achievement goal theory, motivational climate theory is concerned with the types of goals that are set and how they are rewarded within that particular context or environment. Motivational climates where team related goals are generally task-related and task mastery is rewarded are associated with greater self-determination, higher levels of intrinsic motivation, greater resilience and problem-focused coping in the face of adversity, and more cohesion (Harwood, Keegan, Smith, & Raine, 2015). Motivational climates where ego-involved and performance related goals are set and rewarded are associated with extrinsic motivation, poorer social attitudes, greater fear of failure and fear-avoidant goals, poorer resilience in the face of adversity, and lower levels of social and task cohesion (Harwood et al., 2015).

Coaches can use motivational climate theory to motivate their athletes to engage in training much the same way as with achievement goal theory, although she or he should focus on how team-related goals reflect a mastery versus ego-involved pattern and which types of goals are predominantly being rewarded by the team. When evaluating coach-related goals for the team or goals set by the team, the coach should strive to ensure they are concerned with developing task mastery and skill proficiency and are progressive in nature based on previous benchmarks. Anywhere in which winning, beating teammates, and looking good in front of others, or in which challenging tasks are being avoided due to a fear of failure, the coach should restructure these goals so that they are oriented toward skill development and task mastery on a team level. For example, if the coach’s primary goal for the team is to beat its rival, she or he should divide this into several task-related goals that reflect effort and metrics needed in order to do so, such as having each team member attend 90 percent of training sessions or having all team members increase their sprinting speed by 10 percent.

Conclusion

The purpose of this paper was to critically discuss, using relevant research and theory, how coaches can motivate their athletes to adhere to training schedules. Drawing on research and three theoretical models presented in the course lectures, this paper argued for a multidimensional approach that targets athlete, coach, and motivational climate characteristics. Specifically, a justification for the use of self-determination theory, achievement goal, theory, and the coach-created motivational climate was provided and applications to motivational strategies were presented throughout. Based on the evidence presented in this paper, it is clear that multiple theories can be used to help coaches motivate their athletes to engage in training. Focusing on athlete, coach, and team-related characteristics through a combination of motivational theories is optimal in order to optimise training adherence.

References

1. Chan, D. K. C., Dimmock, J. A., Donovan, R. J., Hardcastle, S. A. R. A. H., Lentillon-Kaestner, V., & Hagger, M. S. (2015). Self-determined motivation in sport predicts anti-doping motivation and intention: A perspective from the trans-contextual model. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18(3), 315-322.
2. Curran, T., Hill, A. P., Hall, H. K., & Jowett, G. E. (2015). Relationships between the coach-created motivational climate and athlete engagement in youth sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37(2), 193-198.
3. Curran, T., Hill, A. P., Ntoumanis, N., Hall, H. K., & Jowett, G. E. (2016). A three-wave longitudinal test of self-determination theory’s mediation model of engagement and disaffection in youth sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 38(1), 15-29.
4. Fenton, S. A., Duda, J. L., & Barrett, T. (2016). Optimising physical activity engagement during youth sport: a self-determination theory approach. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(19), 1874-1884.
5. Gillet, N., & Vallerand, R. J. (2016). Effects of motivation on sport performance based on self-determination theory: Towards a person-centered approach. Psychologie Française, 61(4), 257-271.
6. Harwood, C. G., Keegan, R. J., Smith, J. M., & Raine, A. S. (2015). A systematic review of the intrapersonal correlates of motivational climate perceptions in sport and physical activity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 18, 9-25.
7. Isoard-Gautheur, S., Trouilloud, D., Gustafsson, H., & Guillet-Descas, E. (2016). Associations between the perceived quality of the coach–athlete relationship and athlete burnout: An examination of the mediating role of achievement goals. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 210-217.
8. Jaakkola, T., Ntoumanis, N., & Liukkonen, J. (2016). Motivational climate, goal orientation, perceived sport ability, and enjoyment within F innish junior ice hockey players. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 26(1), 109-115.
9. Lochbaum, M., & Gottardy, J. (2015). A meta-analytic review of the approach-avoidance achievement goals and performance relationships in the sport psychology literature. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4(2), 164-173.
10. Niven, A. G., & Markland, D. (2016). Using self-determination theory to understand motivation for walking: Instrument development and model testing using Bayesian structural equation modelling. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 23, 90-100.
11. Roberts, G. C., & Treasure, D. (2018). Advances in motivation in sport and exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
12. Van den Berghe, L., Vansteenkiste, M., Cardon, G., Kirk, D., & Haerens, L. (2014). Research on self-determination in physical education: Key findings and proposals for future research. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 19(1), 97-121.
13. Vitali, F., Bortoli, L., Bertinato, L., Robazza, C., & Schena, F. (2015). Motivational climate, resilience, and burnout in youth sport. Sport Sciences for Health, 11(1), 103-108.
14. Wang, J. C., Morin, A. J., Liu, W. C., & Chian, L. K. (2016). Predicting physical activity intention and behaviour using achievement goal theory: A person-centred analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 23, 13-20.

Every sports fan wants to see a fair contest when watching two people, or two teams battle it out. But when some athletes secretly take steroids, it gives them a very unfair advantage. As an athlete, taking steroids is not the smartest decision to make on the fact that if the word gets out to people it could be potentially career ending for them. Steroids also will harm a user in many ways. When it comes down to it, harming yourself or getting disqualified aren’t smart ways to improve your athletic performance.

First of all, what are steroids? Well according to the San Diego Hospital ““Steroids (sometimes referred to as ‘roids’ or ‘juice’) are the same as, or similar to, certain hormones in the body. The body produces steroids naturally to support such functions as fighting stress and promoting growth and development.”

Basically steroids work by making the tissue in the users muscles enlarge, which mimics the effect of training and naturally producing testosterone in the body. These steroids, also known as anabolic steroids, can stay inside the users body anywhere from a couple of days to a full year. People abuse this drug because it can increase endurance, strength, and muscle mass, but steroids are also said to not affect the users skill, agility, and athletic performance.

My opinion on this topic is that steroids are bad and that no one should use them unless prescribed by a doctor for a medical reason. I think this because steroids create an unfair advantage when it comes to sports and frequent use of steroids create medical problems.

The use of steroids will affect the mental and physical health of the user.

Taking Steroids will change the male and female bodies in very abnormal ways. Some side effects that it causes are similar between the male and female bodies and some side effects are different. Some side effects that they have in common include acne, hair loss/balding, gaining of weight, lack of sleep, high blood pressure, increases the chances of injuring/tearing a tendon or muscle, makes the skin yellow, liver damage, stops growth, increases the chances of heart disease and blood clots as well as strokes and some types of cancer, and worstly; it is an addictive drug which means that it will leave you wanting more.

Some specific changes for girls include: increased facial and body hair growth

development of masculine traits, such as deepening of the voice, and loss of feminine body characteristics, such as shrinking of the breasts, enlargement of the clitoris, menstrual cycle changes. Some specific changes for boys include: testicular shrinkage, pain when urinating, breast development, impotence (inability to get an erection), reduced sperm count and infertility. Users who inject the substance into themselves can also manage to get HIV, which is the virus that causes AIDS, that is because they are sharing needles with other users, although is sounds stupid to share needles, some people still do it. .These changes that occur to a person after taking steroids may leave them unsatisfied with the way that they look or they may develop a life threatening disease which obviously is not their goal.

Taking steroids can affect a user mentally

Usually, steroids leave a user feeling more confident/cocky and the user will have an increased self-esteem. Some users tend to become more aggressive and or combative, they may also start believing that something’s that occurred aren’t true (this is called delusion), or they may start to have feeling of mistrust or fear (this is called paranoia). Lastly people who use steroids also are more than 50% of the time using other drugs such as alcohol and cocaine, to go against some of the negative effects of steroids.

Steroids are extremely addicting, and will leave a user wanting more. Steroids do not chemically produce any feelings that make you happy or excited (euphoria), like most addictive substances do, but it will leave you feeling good about yourself and your appearance. Eventually after taking this drug for a while, until you feel as if you’ve reached your fitness goals, you are used to this drug making you feel good about yourself and your appearance, so you won’t want to stop because it helps make you happier.

Although Steroids are illegal without a doctor’s prescription, some athletes will still illegally abuse these drugs to enhance their performance. There are several risks for athletes when they decide to take steroids. Many sports associations have banned steroid and drug use since a long time ago. Despite that fact, some athletes will still want to risk it all and abuse this drug because they want to have a competitive advantage above their opponents. In many cases, if an athlete is caught using steroids, it could completely shatter his dreams of continuing as an athlete, as this would destroy their career.

Steroids can be expensive, if they’re frequently used

Generally, a 6-12 week steroid cycle, for a beginner, should be very affordable. But on the other hand, if you choose to be on this drug all year long on a competitive level for athletes and/or bodybuilders, this can come at a very costly price. Instead of wasting your money buying these drugs to help you look better and enhance your performance, there are many things that you can do without spending your money and staying completely healthy but you’ll get stronger, build muscles so you’ll look better, and enhance your skills and performance. You can train safely, without using drugs. Eat a healthy diet. Get plenty of rest. Set realistic goals and be proud of yourself when you reach them. Avoid injuries by playing safely and using protective gear. And more.

Some examples of athletes who chose to take steroids in the past;

Diego Maradona: At the 1994 FIFA World cup, most people thought that diego maradona was done for and wasn’t gonna make a big impact on the tournament. But when the first two games came around for the Argentina national team, Diego was showing signs of his old self and he had 1 goal and 1 assist to show for it. But just six hours before argentinas third game of the tournament, maradona was removed from the world cup after he tested positive for ephedrine. Ephedrine is a drug which is used to increase one’s energy and alertness, and it helps the user lose weight by speeding up their metabolism.

Tyson Gay: Back in 2013, Tyson Gay was said to maybe put on competition for the reighning 100-metre dash champion, Usain Bolt, at the moscow world championships. But instead of that, Gay ended up surrendering his spot from the race for testing positive to some sort of drug, although in his case, he was taking a drug that he did not know was banned (he has not revealed this drug to the public), he still got banned but for a shorter amount of time then others also because it was his first time, and because he cooperated with authorities. But he was still banned for a year and forfeited the Olympic silver medal he won as part of the United States 4×100 metres team in London.

In conclusion I believe that steroids are very bad for the people who abuse the drug because it can affect a person’s health physically and mentally as well as it can get a user addicted. I also believe that athletes who think they can secretly take it without getting caught should also stop taking it because there are many risks for them if they get caught by a sports association, or the authorities, and taking steroids all year round can be a very costly commitment. The risks that athletes have when taking steroids secretly have shown in the examples of Diego Maradona and Tyson Gay.

If somebody wants to get in shape they don’t have to use drugs, they just need to have patience so that over time of working out they can finally get the body that they’ve always dreamed of having. Steroids may appear to help an athlete perform better, but the risks are much more than the gains in this situation. The long term effects of these performance enhancing drugs have not been studied or proven yet, so we don’t know what could happen to a person who uses steroids now in a long time from now. Using steroids is a risky business, in any situation, for sure.