The reviewed strategies for sustaining museum experience all seem to contribute to the user’s understanding, contemplating, and memorizing the installations or artworks they witnessed. Each of them has its own channel of influence and the tools that are used to implement them. The success of the strategies seems to be comprised of multiple aspects such as user’s intention for attending the exhibition, the perceived quality or attractiveness of the presented items, and the organization choices. For instance, personalization through engagement seems to work well with those who are tired of beholding countless portraits and landscapes in art galleries. In this case, technology could both entertain and help memorize particular works due to active participation. In this case, it also serves as an attraction to share the received experience provided it was immersive enough.
The level of personalization is highly dependent on the perceived quality of the exhibited item. Even if the content is well presented and advertised, it is still doubtful that it would satisfy a visitor if he or she does not produce an emotional response. Therefore, the visitor is unlikely to share it via social media. An implication here is that proper advertising and grouping the exhibition items would, to a certain extent, make the audience more homogenous and prepared for the experiences that await them in the exhibition hall. This, in turn would create more opportunities for using engagement techniques. However, an element of shock such as newly introduced VR technology could be used to mitigate the negative perception of the content and act as a retaining agent. The use of space is also a strategy that could be used to alter the perception of a visitor tuning him or her to a certain mood and helping conserve energy (Tzortzi, 2015).
Co-creation seems to incorporate the full meaning of interactive exhibition design. This changes the concept of a museum from a place for sheer witnessing items to a participative environment. However, adapting various exhibitions for co-creation could be challenging if the idea goes beyond a sharing campaign as in Natural History Museum of Los Angeles.
Social media is the invention of a 21st century that has produced a tremendous effect on all spheres of life. When museums are concerned, engagement through social media has become practically irreplaceable for advertising. It has also become a retaining strategy that addresses information straight to the potential visitors and reminds them about the experience they received. Active usage of this instrument will allow a museum to stay competitive among other sources of learning and entertainment.
The future popularity of museums ass sources of traditional and emerging cultural knowledge depends on their ability to interact with their audience. The use of the above mentioned strategies seem to contribute to creation of long-lasting experiences that create a positive image of a museum. Use of modern technologies such as VR should become a feature that establishes a modern trend for presenting exhibitions. Above that, museums should not ignore the increasing dominance of social media as a main means of information distribution. The combined use of these strategies could help address the problem of low coverage of young audience that persists in the modern world. The compromise between the traditional presentation for the previous generation and the emerging technological approach have to be balanced in order to achieve compromise and retain as much social strata as possible.
Each of the two painters, Duccio and Raphael, did an individual piece of Adoration of the Magi during two different generations- about two centuries apart. These times were characterized by different theories of art. It is therefore natural that these works, albeit of the same subject matter and content, would be different. Yet, despite of the expected differences, these works exhibit certain similarities.
It should be noted that Duccio’s Adoration of the Magi was part of a larger one, Maesta. The Maesta was created between 1308 and 1311. The Adoration of the Magi is therefore a sub-section of the themes and styles expressed in Maesta. Thus in this paper, it is the main work that will be analyzed.
The assumption here is that the Adoration of the Magi contains the same characteristics of its mother-work. The paper will also explore the features of Duccio di Buoninsegna’s Maesta, Raphael Sanzio’s Adoration of the Magi, and the similarities and differences between the two paintings. The paper will also implicitly make an account of the historical contexts in which the paintings were created.
The Renaissance period in Italy, like the times before, was marked by two popular fascinations: art and religion. The regulations of the guild of artists mainly dedicated their works to the church and the Virgin Mary (Norman 198). Adoration of Magi, also known as Adoration of the Kings, is an example of the paintings that expressed both.
It was based on the story of the three wise (Oriental) men, the so-known as ‘Magi’ who- as told in the gospel of Mathew- followed a guiding star to the manger in Bethlehem where Jesus was born. Adoration of Magi is the title of many paintings done by individual painters, including Raphael Sanzio and Duccio di Buoninsegna.
Religious wise, the two paintings shared a certain degree of thematic resemblance. However, these paintings were done by different people. Obviously, they had different artistic signatures. Moreover, they did not belong to the same generations. Duccio’s Adoration of the Magi was one of the many sections of his most famous work, Maesta, done between 1308 and 1311.
Raphael’s work was done much later, between 1502 and 1503. These historical cases are significant in discussing the two paintings as they account for the contextual influences on both artists and by extension, their works.
Raphael, alongside many of his contemporaries like Leornado da Vinci, was a famous High Renaissance artist. His works, characteristics of most paintings of the time, extended the rule-breaking stance of the Early Renaissance. Not only were the works artisan, but also intellectual. They “raised the status of artists from being simply artisan to the intellectual status as were philosophers, writers and scientists” (Cole 21).
They revolutionized classical ideals of form and beauty; sought to achieve scientific and anatomical accuracy in their drawings, as well as a psychological response to the use of color and composition; and appreciated the classical notion that content is an artist’s subject matter (Cole 18).
Duccio’s work belonged in the Gothic Art period. This period was marked with artistic rigidity. That is, one had to abide by certain formal artistic conventions; artists’ personal creativity was limited within these conventions.
The success of art at the time was judged based on the materials used, their richness and the skill with which an artist applied them. As such, the works of this period showed a considerable “sense of naturalism in the posture and shape of the subjects, and an expressive employment of line, color and pattern” (Cole 28).
Duccio di Buoninsegna’s Maesta
As already mentioned, Duccio did the Maesta between 1308 and 1311 under the commission of the cathedral authorities. It is believed to be Duccio’s greatest work. The front main panel is occupied by the magnificent scene of the Virgin Mary and child Jesus enthroned with angels and saints.
Both beneath and above it one finds the scenes taken from Christ’s childhood, and seven scenes taken from the Virgin’s life. On the back, are forty two scenes taken from various sections of the New Testament. These scenes represent Jesus’ passions (Cole 18).
By the standards of the Byzantine era, the scenes depicted in this work are quite simple. Notably, contrary to the rigid conventions of the time, Duccio undertook a novel adventure. He attempted to account for the whole Christian story in narrative scenes: “in Maesta, Duccio extended the expressive scope of painted narrative” (Cole 8).). In this effort, Duccio used unique elements of art.
For instance, against the popular tendency of Florence painters to use rounder and more realistic forms, Duccio used a linear decorative style, which employed gold and strong color to create rhythm and pattern. This would be the common style for most fourteenth century Sianese painters.
At the sight of this painting, what strikes one first is its complexity and magnificence. It is about four meters on all sides; painted on both sides and is bright in its glittering gorgeous golden colors. This piece contains within it elements, different styles. The painting has a realistic quality to it, which is likened to that of Giotto Massachio. The overall result is great beauty.
But more than being just a work of art, Maesta was also a revelation of the context in which it was created, including the creator, Duccio. Records on Duccio’s life reveal that he faced legal and social problems. These included fines and suspicions of witchcraft (Cole 26). The art scene of the time was dominated by people of upper classes. Being from a humble background, Duccio did not have much recognition in that circle.
The Maesta was, as discussed above, an unimaginable project. It was not just novel in its size, but in style and content as well. This was believed to be a manifestation of Duccio’s affinity for the unusual. The Maesta was an attempt by Duccio to outdo the other workshops around. In a larger scale, it was also a reflection of a prosperous period following the beating of Florence by Siena at Montaperti.
The Maesta was a reflection of personal and communal hunger for splendor and pomp. But it was not just a secular symbol. It was equally seen as a clear sign of faith and devotion to religion- specifically the church. As such, the Sianese liked the painting as carrying the power of Virgin Mary, seen as the spiritual protector of Siena (Van Os 12).
Raphael Sanzio’s Adoration of the Magi
Raphael was seen as the boy-genius of the Italian High Renaissance. He was unique in his work, which also showed signs of influence from the already available works. For instance, although the style of his work showed traces of Perugino, his work also showed unique forms of modeling, composition and color.
Away from the traditional conventions of art at the time, his subjects were more informal. In order to focus all attention on his characters, Raphael played with light on flesh and fabric, mostly before neutral backgrounds (Van Os 14).
Similarities
These two works, as already seen in part, share certain common features. The most notable similarities between these two works have to do with the materials used- albeit with certain differences. They also share the exploration of the same subject matter. This is portrayed through their religious content, but this is not all. Both artists used wood as the basic material for their works.
This may partly be because wood is generally available and cheap. Also, there are many varieties of wood from which one may choose. But while Duccio’s painting is done with egg-tempera on wood, Raphael’s is oil on wood.
Duccio’s use of wood is perhaps inspired by the need to attempt a new challenge at a time when the material used constituted an important part of one being judged as artistically successful. As seen above, this project was an ambitious move by Duccio to make a record. The choice of material, and the size of it, may generally have been part of that ambition.
The most visual similarity is the use of color in both works. Both artists used bright colors to bring out rhythm and pattern. Both works also seem to take on the same theme, under the same subject matter, religion. It is largely evident that the Italian paintings in these two periods focused on religion. The painters in the Gothic period used their works to express their devotions and faith to the Christianity and the church.
But the High Renaissance painters, while focused their works on religion, did not necessarily deal with Christian themes, and sometimes when they did, they did not necessarily express their devotions. Some, like Leornado da Vinci, questioned certain beliefs and practices of the church (such as the presentation of the human body), or explored other religions besides Christianity (Van Os 12).
Differences
Although the two painters use the same basic material, wood, Duccio uses egg-tempera and Raphael uses oil. Egg-tempera has a low binding ability. It needs a well-absorbing surface if there’s need for durability of the painting.
This may have been the reason why Duccio picked on wood as his basic material. There are certain woods that have as good absorbing ability. This combination may be the reason Duccio’s work has survived many years.
There are other visible differences that expose the styles of the times. Duccio’s work achieves magnificence in size, color, composition, rhythm and pattern among others.
But it lacks in detail. In comparison, Raphael’s work achieves success in detail. Renaissance paintings, unlike those done in the Gothic times, emphasized on details and depth (of human body, of the three-dimensionality of figures, shadowing and so on).
On theme, Duccio, to a certain degree, makes his devotion to faith in the church obvious. He is set out to make a timeless statement on the place of the church in his own heart and that of the people of Siena. Raphael does not. Raphael seems to have merely done what he was commissioned to do. He does not necessarily make his attachment to the church- if any- obvious.
Conclusion
Generally, the similarities between the two works have to do with the relatively short time-lapse between the two periods in which they were created. For instance, there was a seemingly little understanding on how to present the human body.
This may have been because the church saw any such attempts as sin. The differences in theme for instance, can partly be attributed to a relatively “dwindling power of the church” (Van Os 18). People were growing more and more self-aware. Da Vinci was the first to attempt accurate presentation of the human body, much to the chagrin of the church.
Works Cited
Cole, Bruce. Sienese Painting in the Age of the Renaissance. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985. Print.
Norman, Diana. Art Society and Religion. New York: Harper & Row, 1995. Print.
Germaine Greer books reflect issues affecting women artists. She is a feminist writer who explores the works of female painters. She looked at the contribution female painters have achieved. In her book, The Obstacle Race, Greer analyses the works and destiny of women artists.
She keenly observes why women have not excelled in the field of art. The author points at such issues like social, economic and gender factors as the main cause of women oppression in every aspect of their lives. Greer points out that for women to achieve their true excellence, they have to fight the conventional roles society imposed on them (Nochlin 30).
Greer notes that a fundamental obstacle to progress of women is the institution of family. Whereas one should get all the support from family, it is ironical to observe that it is the family which is destroying women’s career in arts as well as other fields. Greer gives Marietta as an example. Marietta’s father jealously guarded her to the point of destroying her talent.
Though Marietta was a highly gifted artist, there are extremely few traces of her paintings left. Female artists also faced obstacles from potential lovers. These men presented obstacles to prosperity of women artists. Greer uses a character like Frida, whose works and life Diego significantly influenced negatively.
The relationships lead to termination of the development and prosperity of female painters as they take the roles of a wife and mother.
Greer laments the loss of arts done by female artists. She writes that society’s physical neglect of women painting is worse than cultural vandalism. Greer symbolically equates this to a form of rape. She keeps on referring to neglected oeuvre, which is slowly disappearing.
Greer alludes to names, which can longer be remembered. Society considers women painting as non significance leading to their disappearance. This is how the vital part of women’s heritage is missing in history.
Greer demonstrates that women painters who the society gave praise also ended up worse. Excessive praises lead to confinement of women artists. The society saw womanly arts as the solution to those qualities of arts rejected in men’s work.
Their paintings failed to survive changing times in history and tastes. People thought that some painting done by women were the works of men. The public subjected successful women painters to gossips related to promiscuity such as Artemisia Gentileschi. Other female artists became the objects of desire for the society.
Creative women working in different arts share common obstacles and challenges. These obstacles and challenges range from economic, social and to some extent, personal. The politics of male dominance is an issue of concern among women for a long time. The society perceives women artists and their conditions in the art industry from the view point of their male counterparts.
John Stuart Mill recognizes the subjectivity and distortion of issues affecting female artists. This situation must be corrected to give an accurate view of women artists’ situations. In fact, Nolchin suggests that women should solve their own problems.
The economic situations result into hardship among women artists. Women artists who were not lucky enough to possess considerable fortunes often had their careers at limbo. Nolchin blames the poor economic status of women in society and the education system. At the same time, she points out issues of racism among the dominant whites who could have affected the contribution of female painters in art (Nochlin 50).
The social order in society creates social injustice to women artists. History distorts achievements of women artist. This is because there has never been a way to capture achievements of women and reflect them later in an accurate and non distorted way. The cultural ideological of the time subjected women professionalism to inadequacies and biases.
Further, feminist scholars note that any question regarding female artists will provoke a chain-reaction, leading to other issues rather than the issue at hand. Talented female artists existed. However, history has never fully investigated their works or contribution to the field of art. Their contributions are neither recognized nor appreciated.
Since the period of feminism movements, the issue of gender and education took center stage. Rosenberg and Thurber bring issues of gender equity into art classroom. Equity requires that differences between men and women be recognized and provided for in gender studies.
The authors are extending the same opportunities available to men through recognizing areas of gender inequality and reducing them via art and gender studies. For instance, inequality in recognition of feminist artists can only be addressed through gender and art education (Rosenberg & Thurber 140).
The studies try to recognize and value the ways in which women are different from men (identity). Women experience sexual, cultural and bodily variations from men, which the society should recognize and celebrate.
These scholars put emphasis on enhancing the position of women as artists and projecting their values into artistic life. The study is critical of social equality methods where the male dominance is the norm against which society perceives women, and where women’s position transcends so as to achieve equality.
Gender and art studies try to address the socially conceived male dominance nature as the methods of evaluation seen relevant to social inclusion. The studies address the equality and difference rather than their incompatible oppositions. Gender inequality exists among social and cultural groups.
However, gender and art studies show that equality can exist out of mutual respect for each gender, and affirmation of one another in their differences. These studies try to work out a strategy of artists’ group consciousness. Group consciousness will ensure mutual recognition and affirmation of group differences among artists of various forms of arts (Rosenberg & Thurber 30).
Gender-related ideas and assumptions have affected women’s creative abilities is several ways. Studies suggest that women demonstrate their creative abilities in several ways from aesthetic sensitivity, personal, relationships to public life.
Female artists have realized their creative abilities and expressed them in several spheres of life. This has enabled them to develop their talents. Female artists are in a position of adjusting to problems they encounter.
A number of creative women have nurtured their skills throughout due to achievements made by feminism movements. The developments associated with gender equality have sensitized women, and they are striving to have their artistic works gain recognition. For instance, female authors often portray issues affecting them in their works. At the same time, they can demand equal representation in art arena.
Gender-related ideas tend to encourage women to minimize the gender gap that previously existed. Historically, society isolated and labeled successful female artists with sexual connotations. People never appreciated and recognized women artists. In fact, their works disappeared due to negligence.
Female artists have become more assertive and have demonstrated their vital and various creative abilities. Gender and art studies show that women have emerged strongly and now competing aggressively with their male counterparts.
Works Cited
Nochlin, Linda. Women, Art, And Power And Other Essays. New York: Westview Press , 1989. Print.
Rosenberg, Martin & Thurber, Frances. Gender Matters in Art Education. Worcester, MA: Davis Publications, 2007. Print.
Timbre is one of the fundamental elements of music and depends on the method of sound production, instrument construction, playing technique, and aesthetics. It can be referred to as color in music since sounds of the same pitch played by different instruments are distinguished by their coloration. Speaking about this music element, it is possible to describe timbre in such words as “dark”, “light”, “soft”, “rough”, “metallic”, “smooth”, “velvety”, etc. (Hast, Cowdery, & Scott, 2010, p. 140). This difference in timbres of various instruments stems from the acoustic difference in the overtone series: the individual timbre of instruments depends on the particular overtone structure generated by them. Emphasis on particular partial tones in different instrument timbres is placed by the instrument shape, material, and size.
In addition to purely physical factors forming timbre variations, the difference in timbre is by large predefined by cultural norms and standards. The same instrument may sound differently played by different performers in various cultural contexts. Being the most personal element in music, timbre reflects the “tradition, technique, structure, individual expertise and sensitivity” (Stubbs, as cited in Hast et al., 2010, p. 141). The timbre characteristics of certain culture’s musical aesthetics find their material realization in the instruments, the range of which depends on the available natural materials and skills of instrument-makers.
A basic classification of all the diversity of timbres is grounded on the categories of sound production which can be string, wind, percussion, and electronic. Accordingly, instruments are divided into chordophones, aerophones, membranophones and idiophones, and electrophones in Sachs–Hornbostel system mostly used nowadays. Different musical cultures feature various musical instruments in each of the four categories and attach different meanings to the instrument timbres depending on the cultural context.
Texture
Like silk or woolen cloth is woven from threads, so is music made up of certain melodic parts that interlace with each other in various structures. The notion of musical texture refers to the way music is organized in a combination of one or more parts sounding simultaneously or alternately. It also refers to the ways those parts relate to each other in an equivalent or subordinate manner. Since musical texture consists of musical parts, the key notions connected to musical texture are those of timbre and melody. Depending on the number of parts and the kind of sound they result in, one can speak of the textural density: rhythm, tempo, and dynamics are the decisive factors for the latter.
The most universal way of describing musical texture is by classifying it into four basic categories. Monophony is one-part music devoid of any supporting accompaniment. Due to its simplicity, it is most common in mass religious practices. Heterophony refers to one melody simultaneously performed in different ways by several musicians. Traditional Irish dance music is a good example of this kind of texture. Polyphony emerges when two or more different melodies are played simultaneously. The important feature of this kind of texture is that each part is equal in its importance for the overall piece. Homophony includes multiple parts of which one is dominant and the rest are subordinate, accompanying the main melody. This is the most widespread kind of texture in Euro-American classical and popular music.
All of the four aforementioned types of texture can be illustrated by precise examples. However, there exists a big quantity of works that do not fall exactly into one given category. Therefore, when analyzing musical pieces it is advisable to consider the dominant, prevailing texture as the main one (Swain, as cited in Hast et al., 2010, p. 188). Such a flexible approach facilitates understanding of the complex phenomenon of musical texture.
Harmony
Harmony is a powerful instrument of social influence since producing harmonious combinations of several musical parts promotes the ideals of cooperation, accordance, and consonance. Harmony is a vertical combination of two or more simultaneously sounding pitches, and therefore it is inseparable from the notion of musical texture (Hast et al., 2010, p. 194). In different textures, the focus of harmony varies but in any case, it concerns individual intervals that occur at every given moment as a result of simultaneous tone combinations.
The two major classes of intervals are consonants and dissonance: the former sound agreeable to the ear, while the latter may provoke the feeling of restlessness and demand a resolution to a consonant. The distinction between consonances and dissonances is based on the overtone series. The lowest ratios in the series form intervals that sound consonant (octaves, fifth, fourth, and thirds); the lowest ratios form dissonants (seconds, seventh, and tritones).
The views on harmony differ throughout the ages and cultures, with the most comprehensive analytical system formed in Western musicology. The basic harmonic practice is considered to be the drone, one or more pitch that is repeated unchanged throughout the piece and provides a background to any melodic formations. In the Middle Ages, the rudiments of harmony appeared by doubling the melody in fifths and fourths in a so-called organum and by creating three-note chords of fifths and thirds, the so-called triads. In the Renaissance, four-voice harmony was established with the emphasis on the triad and the subordination of dissonance to consonance. Baroque witnessed such harmonic innovation as the seventh-chords which used the dissonant interval of the seventh as an expressive device. At this time the first concepts of tonality appeared, further developed to the notion of the key with all the triads organized around the tonic.
Form: The Shape of Music
Music refers to the group of arts that unfold in time: this progression of a musical piece from beginning to end refers to musical form. The way such musical elements as rhythm, melody, dynamics, texture, and timbre are organized in time and held together comprises the form of a musical piece (Hast et al., 2010, p. 216). The form may be considered at multiple levels of music, from a short melodic phrase to the whole construction of symphony. As a rule, certain types and styles of music (genres) are characterized by individual forms, but it is not infrequent that the same form may occur in various genres.
Among the major principles of form, the organization is the tri-partite structure of beginning, middle, and ending. Beginning and ending may be quite formulaic, including stable patterns and sequences. The middle part is often based on the methods of repetition, contrast, and sequences that serve as structural devices for organizing major musical events and keeping the attention of the listener. With this basic structure, musical forms may be closed — those governed by a strict set of rules and limitations as to the order of sections — or open-ended, allowing the flexibility of improvisation to the performers.
The overall plan of a musical piece is often described in Latin letters that designate sections. A two-part structure, or binary form, can be represented as A section and B section. A three-part piece is labeled accordingly ABA. Various combinations of themes and sections may lead to structures as ABACADA etc. The binary form is one of the most widespread forms in world music and is vividly represented in the “call-and-response” structures (Hast et al., 2010, p. 219). Classical music widely applied sonata-allegro form including exposition, development, and recapitulation. Folk music tends to utilize more flexible open forms that develop through spontaneous improvisation.
Composers and Improvisers
The process of music creation can be referred to in two ways: composition and improvisation. While composition presupposes intentional preparatory work on a musical piece before it is performed in front of the audience, improvisation relates to the spontaneity of music creating exactly at the moment of its performance. The border between those two concepts is incredibly thin since each of them inevitably contains elements of the other. On the one hand, a composer often starts with improvising music to obtain inspirational musical material before he/she sets it down to polishing it to perfection. On the other hand, an improviser can rely heavily on certain background musical standards according to which he/she vents an immediate musical response.
Whatever the case may be, both composers and improvisers base their creative work within an established musical system, and therefore they are “grounded in the past” (Hast et al., 2010, p. 246). Their music is a kind of response to the prevailing cultural rules, norms, and tendencies of the time. The factors defining composers’ and improvisers’ work can be grouped into three large categories. First, the musical system dictates its rules in terms of form, material, and style. Second, a musical piece is a reflection of its creator’s inner world including personal emotions and impressions. Last but not least, the outside world leaves its mark on the musical piece depending on the situation of creation and the interaction of tradition and innovation.
The roles of composer and improviser in various periods and cultures are characterized by different significance. Classical music recognizes the composer as a dominant figure and authority in professional music creation. Folk music leaves the composer anonymous, while in such traditions as jazz the improviser is the king of the stage.
Music and Technology
Despite the widespread notion that technology only reached the art of music when electronic musical devices were invented, technology and music have been interrelated and inseparable from the very beginning (Hast et al., 2010, p. 271). Technology has allowed extending human capacities in the realm of music-making by creating and improving instruments, as well as by enabling electronic creation, amplification, storage, and transmission of music. The first technological progress in music occurred already when primitive percussion instruments were used instead of humans clapping their hands, and the first wind instruments were devised of hollow bones to extend the possibilities of the human voice. Gradually, musical instruments have been complicated through technological developments regarding effective constructions that benefit sound quality.
With the development of electronic technology, several innovations have been introduced into the world of music. First, sound amplification has been made possible through not echoing resonators but microphones, amplifiers, and loudspeakers. This has changed the aesthetics of modern music since louder sound embodies the idea of power and dominance over the audience. Second, the sound recording has enabled transmission and storage of music samples that can be used both for entertainment and research purposes. On the one hand, music is now more available to the general public; on the other hand, researchers get access to rare samples of music in sonic archives. Third, sound-producing and processing devices make it possible to both play conventional music on electronic synthesizers and to produce special effects unattainable through traditional instruments. Last but not least, studio recordings have brought about unprecedented clarity and depth of sound, as well as new creative potential in terms of recording. An example of this opportunity enhancement is the technique of overdubbing multiple musical layers.
References
Hast, D. E., Cowdery, J. R., & Scott, S. (2010). Exploring the world of music, 2nd ed. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Publishing.
The emergence of virtual reality is a significant technological achievement that can be used not only as a means of entertainment, education, and design, but also for creating a completely new type of works of fine art. One of the most distinguished artworks produced by using the apparatus of virtual reality was “Osmose” by Charlotte Davies. The people who have the experience of being in this virtual reality were able to explore a vast, breathtaking world. Notably, “Osmose” possesses all the five distinguishing qualities of the digital media as described by Packer and Jordan (2002): integration, interactivity, hypermedia, immersion, and narrativity.
The art project “Osmose”, created in 1995, is a virtual reality artwork which allows its participant, or an “immersant” (as Char Davies calls them), to “float” through a number (about a dozen) of virtual worlds, or “realms” (Packer & Jordan, 2002, p. 294, 295). It “refreshes… ‘ways of seeing’” and perceiving the world around the participants by changing the (perceived) surrounding space and the rules of interaction with it, thus making the “immersant” to give up their usual perceptual habits (Packer & Jordan, 2002, p. 295, 298).
The artwork of Char Davies shows a number of digital media’s distinguishing qualities described by Packer and Jordan (2002). The participant feels as if they are a part of the digital reality when they are floating through the constructed worlds of the watery abysses or deep forests; the feeling of integration with the reality is strong. The “immersants” also were able to interact with the virtual reality, to affect it; many of them claimed that the more they were involved in the digital world, the more they attempted to interact with it and the more emotions they gave, the stronger they felt that the virtual reality was their personal experience rather than the digitally created model (Grau, 2003, p. 200). The work of art might also be considered a hypermedia, for it contains numerous graphical, video, audio elements, is not linear, and refers, even though indirectly, to other works of art.
The participants also experience a strong feeling of immersion in the virtual world; it was already noted that they perceive the virtual reality as a strong personal experience. The people who participated in the project felt as if they were a part of the digital world, travelling through its spaces; as if they were an “embodied being,” according to Char Davies’ expression (as cited in Packer & Jordan, 2002, p. 293). It no wonder, therefore, that the author of the project calls its participants “immersants.” And, finally, narrativity is also a characteristic of the virtual reality of “Osmose”; the participants constantly interact with the world, and even their motions and breath cause them to alter their position in it. They perform actions, but it is apparent that they also see them from their own point of view, as if the world around them unfolds around them and for them.
As it could be seen, “Osmose,” possessing all the five characteristics of the digital media (integration, interactivity, hypermedia, immersion, and narrativity), is an outstanding piece of art which permits its participants to have absolutely new experience, possibly unimaginable otherwise. It is concluded that “the psychological power of this new art of illusion [i.e., virtual reality] becomes apparent in this work as in no other of the genre” (Grau, 2003, p. 199).
References
Grau, O. (2003). Virtual art: From illusion to immersion. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Packer, R., & Jordan, K. (Eds). (2002). Multimedia: From Wagner to virtual reality (expanded edition). New York, NY: Norton.
Red Sorghum (1987) is a very symbolic presentation of the past, the present, and the future. Each scene is full of symbols, and each frame has a particular meaning. Frame 4c is no exception. The frame depicts the protagonist of the film who has prepared food for the men before the attack. The frame reveals the woman’s determination and doubt; it also reveals the price which is going to be paid, i.e., deaths and a lot of innocent bloodsheds.
In the first place, the meaning is revealed through the focus of the frame. The camera focuses on the woman and the table. The woman is in the center of the scene. This position reveals the central role the protagonist is playing in the affair. This is she who inspired the men to fight; this is her who sent them to fight.
Focus on the table can also be regarded as a symbolic representation of the price to be paid. Thus, there is meat that is often seen as a symbol of sacrifice and death. Thus, the meat on the table is a symbol of death, which is near and which is expecting for the protagonist and the men. There are also bowls of red liquor, which stands for red blood to be shed.
It is necessary to note that the background plays quite an important role. Though the focus is on the protagonist, the distillery is a part of the scene. The distillery is a symbolic representation of the protagonist’s life and her present. This is what she is fighting for. Of course, it is not only the way to earn living for the woman, it is her life. It is very remarkable that the protagonist is sitting at the table and is looking at the price to pay while she understands what she is fighting for as her very life (which is in the background) is the bet.
The use of light is also remarkable. There is certain obscurity. There is smoke coming from some places, which also adds some obscurity to the scene. This can be regarded as a symbol of doubt and uncertainty. It can also stand for the wrong choices made. Thus, the protagonist does not see the picture clearly. Her mind is blurred, and she does not see that the price is too high. Nonetheless, there is a determination on her face. The obscurity adds to the atmosphere of solemnity and doom.
It is necessary to note that another frame stresses the solemnity. Frame 4a reveals the idea of hope and represents the future, which is brighter than the present. Again, the focus is on the protagonist, or rather her face. It is also necessary to note that there is a lot of light and no trace of obscurity. The protagonist sees her son, who is the future. This is clear, and this is why there is so much light as it is obvious that the protagonist has the future, i.e., it is her son.
To sum up, frame 4c can be regarded as central to the film as it reveals the past, the present, and the future of the protagonist. The light, the focus, and the background serve to create the symbolic representation of the three dimensions of human life. The frame reveals the decision made and the price to be paid. This frame is as symbolic as the entire film.
When Jay-Z was writing his book, he had three major goals in mind. In this paper, I want to show how he achieved all of them.
The first goal was to show that hip-hop lyrics can be viewed as poetry. That means showing that they have the value of true poems rather than just primitive texts most people think they are. I think Jay-Z was incredibly successful in demonstrating that. He had analyzed his songs and has explained and “decoded” the messages they contain. For example, the lyric “It’s a dirty game so whatever is effective / From weed to selling Kane, gotta put that in effect, shit” (Jay-Z 269) can be seen as glorifying drug dealing, but Jay-Z explains and clarifies its deeper meaning. He tells us how it is about life in a brutal and corrupt town and trying to make a living. The lines like “Move your body like a snake mama / Make me wanna put the snake on ya” (Jay-Z 240) may seem crass and inelegant, but the author explains that this choice of words was meant to invoke the Indian roots of the song and create a playful party image for it. By putting the lyrics in context, Jay-Z explains the deeper meaning and rich history behind even the simplest of his songs and by doing that encourages the reader to look deeper into the hip-hop songs of other artists as well.
The second goal was to tell the reader about the author’s generation. That aim is also fulfilled well. Jay-Z tells the stories from his life chaotically and in no particular order. However, that just highlights the erratic, violent and confused life of his generation. On the same page he writes “If that sounds predatory, it’s because recruiting new workers is one of the most predatory aspects of the game” and “When I wrote a song for my first album inspired by the tension between older guys and recruits in the streets” (Jay-Z 67). He connects the stories from his teenage years and the stories about his music without creating a narrative. It is a collection of thoughts and descriptions which explain the life of the Jay-Z’s generation.
The final goal was to show how hip-hop can be a way to tell the public about the artist’s experience. Jay-Z achieved that by using the example of the “hustler story.” He explained in his book why it is important in the historical context. He describes how rap, as an art form, relates those stories and makes them exciting. The author writes “…hip-hop would be as boring as the news if all MCs did was report. Rap is also entertainment—and art” (Jay-Z 40). The use of metaphor and humor makes the message accessible to the general public. That way the rappers make people relate to their personal experiences and send a message to the audience. The analysis of the lyrics also helps the reader understand how this is achieved. In “American Dreamin” Jay-Z raps “Mama forgive me, should be thinkin bout Harvard / But that’s too far away, niggas are starving / Ain’t nothin wrong with aim, just gotta change the target” (Jay-Z 59). By explaining how that lyric relates to his own wish to get rich in the streets, he highlights the fact that the things he raps about are very personal. Providing such analysis is valuable since the true depth of the songs can be lost behind wordplay and metaphors.
Overall, I can conclude that Jay-Z successfully achieved all of his goals. He created a book which represents his own generation well and explained how the hip-hop music represents it. His lyrics analysis also helps the reader appreciate their depth and change their perception of the genre.
Works Cited
Jay-Z. Decoded. New York, NY: Spiegel & Grau, 2010. Ebook.
David sculpture is recognized to be one of the most famous masterpieces in the world. It was created by a well-known Italian sculptor and architect Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni in the 16th century. It is not a secret that one of the most well-known subjects of the art of Italy is considered to be the most interesting and prominent hero – David.
The statue is recognized to be the symbol of the defense of civil liberties in Italy. In the 19th century the statue was moved to an art academy in Florence – the Accademia di Belle Arti. There were many visitors, who came to the Gallery to see the sculptor’s masterpiece.
The distinctive feature of Michelangelo’s statue is that the Biblical hero is depicted alone; there is no Goliath of Gath. Thus, the statues of Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi and Andrea del Verrocchio depict the main hero in the battle with the head of the slain.
However, some scientists say that Michelangelo decided to create David before the battle. One more issue I would like to discuss concerns with the details of David’s face. Thus, the opinion that famous sculptor depicted his hero before the battle is confirmed by the hero’s facial expression. So, one may point out that David is rather composed, but angry.
It is said that the statue excelled all famous and contemporary works, as Michelangelo was able to restore to life a dead person. On the other hand, some scientists suppose that one of the most important Italian Renaissance sculptors depicted one of the political figures in Florence.
In my opinion, the sculpture depicts the most important traits of person’s character. Thus, the ancient work can be served as an example of the strongest emotions people can feel.
I would like to touch on the modern conception the masterpiece is related to. Thus, I want to describe a complex psychophysiological experience the sculpture concerns with. So, as far as the facial expression of David reminds us of anger, the only thing people can do is to admire Michelangelo’s ability to depict an automatic response to ill treatment.
To my mind, that basic idea of famous sculptor was to impress the viewers, or to discover the hidden issue of the objective reality. The sculpture provokes imagination and people start to think over the primary emotions they are born with. Thus, in my opinion, the sculpture is considered to be a feedback mechanism. One may state that there are unpleasant responses which depend on the same phenomena and vice versa.
Of course, it is true. Anger is considered to be a normal emotion and Michelangelo’s sculpture is related to three modalities of negative psychological interpretation. Thus, there are cognitive and behavioral modalities of anger which are depicted by famous sculptor.
Tension and antagonism are considered to be the primary issues Michelangelo showed. Body language and facial expressions are recognized to be the most widespread signs of an automatic response to ill treatment. Most of people know that David fought against Goliath of Gath and the sculptor showed us the inner state of the Biblical hero before the battle.
Thus, one may think that public acts of aggression are also the signs of anger. I suppose that the sculptor depicted a kind of aggressive behavior, which is called bullying. The signs include facial expressions (David’s eyes create immediate cues).
I think that Michelangelo’s work impacted on my ability to understand the emotional state of people.
Color management is based on profile specifications of the internationally accepted ICC (International Color Consortium), which is the “governing body” for color management (Sharma vii). It has beauty and simplicity because it ensures files are consistent and accurate as they move from one device to the other.
It is possible to single out some major measures to be undertaken to ensure that color is consistent and accurate between all components. These measures are based on analysis of variables that could impact color shifts.
First, it is important to understand that the color in digital imaging should be controlled using different systemic procedures, hardware and software (Sharma ix). Every imaging device consists of its own personality hence the accuracy and consistency of color imaging depends on personal characteristics of each device (Sharma 46).
For instance, different digital cameras and scanners may capture the same scene somewhat different or different printers may print the same digital file quite differently. Thus, color shifts are depended on scanner variability and printer variability. Therefore, it is important to take into consideration the individual characteristics of every device used in producing images.
There are two methods used to control color: closed-loop color and open-loop color (Sharma 47). It is acknowledged that the closed-loop color method is quite easy to implement as it presupposes that the digital color is a preserve of the high-end systems hence it is quite easy to get the desired colors.
Here the system includes the monitor, scanner, software and other outputs with images destined for printing in one type of printing process. Colors can be matched by calibrating specific types of hardware and software to one another. However, in this case the open-loop color method is used as it is more accurate and consistent.
This method is more effective as it employs the use of a central hub system to communicate the variability of color between devices. Here, images may come from different places; get viewed in varying displays and later printed using different printing technologies. Therefore, it is easy to control color even if different devices are going to be used (which is very common).
We guarantee that every device used has a profile which is the image + profile golden rule of color management. It is easier to add a new device into the workflow, provided, each single device has its own profile.
We also follow RGB (red, green and blue) and CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow and black) instructions of every device carefully (Sharma 40). Though, the two are not reliable descriptors of color, we also use CIE (International Commission on Illumination) systems that use instruments that measures color patch to produce numeric results irrespective of the device used to produce it.
The ingredients we used in the recipe do not limit accuracy and consistency in reproduction of colors (Sharma 42). We use color management module (CMM) when converting the color of one space to another (such as a RGB color to CMYK color) using the device’s profile.
We take into account such important details as the fact that the gamut of RGB scanners is larger compared to that of CMYK printers hence when converting an image from RGB to CMYK, we throw away colors that are set in RGB and not in CMYK (Sharma 156).
If colors cannot be reproduced, we replace them using the four-color replacement schemes provided by the ICC including perceptual, saturation, relative and absolute. This is referred to as rendering intents. Thus, we take into account all variables to ensure consistency and accuracy between components.
Works Cited
Sharma, Abhay. Understanding Color Management: Graphic Design/Interactive Media Series. Ohio: Cengage Learning, 2004. Print.
Culture is an acquired compliment of a long interactive process. It depends on the period of time in which an individual is exposed to the interactive process and level of internalization of the subculture. Reflectively, culture varies from one geographic region to another.
Besides, subcultures are unique in terms of beliefs, practices, and communicative gestures or language. A subculture defines the physical and spiritual interactive traits of its members who are united by a sense of belonging and desire for identity. Subcultures around the globe are unique in practices surrounding language, dressing style, religious affiliation, and philosophical beliefs. These processes are a lifetime and may not be easily changed despite the assimilation of new ideas or ways of life.
Reflecting on these life experiences has contributed positively to the remaining firm within a culture despite the assimilation of other ways of life in terms of cultural orientation. Besides, the person assimilating will have to appreciate contributions from family, religion, school life, and interaction among peers in defining cultural ambitions and life experiences that cannot be changed when new ways of life are assimilated. When a person understands his or her true identity and the factors monitoring its development, the assimilation process would only lead to temporary alterations that will balance upon complete exposure to new ideas.
Often, culture is an independent, flexible, respectful, and appreciative person of different cultural backgrounds despite the possibility of assimilating new ideas while keeping the original ones. After reviewing life experiences, an individual can paint a clear picture of what life is about and what to stand for in defining culture while maintaining originality in the process of assimilating new ways of life.
Things Destroying the African American Community
Human beings function on thoughts, behavior, and feelings, which are part of the building blocks of a family. The state of drug abuse in the African American community has lead to the possible effects of disorders such as social stigma, parent neglect, and general misunderstandings. For instance, domineering mothers or despondent guardians are likely to create an environment of anxiety and low self-esteem among their children and eventually dispose of them to substance abuse. Besides, overindulgence in alcoholism, crime, and aggressiveness has motivated low tolerance to distracters and frustrations among members of this community, as indicated in the film. As a result, the community has become poor in stress management, communication, and security.
Normally, unemployment is associated with domestic violence. Lowly paid and undereducated men usually suffer from alcohol consumption, delinquency, and incarceration. In addition, men usually lose their confidence when they are not able to provide for their families. They always yawn to re-conquer their worth. When men are not capable of articulating their situation, lack of confidence will lead them to be violent whenever they are, as indicated in the film, “Drop Squad.” Furthermore, when men do not work, they feel unappreciated. Whenever they are at home, they normally require their presence to be affirmed and recognized.
In addition, religious understanding of life varies from different backgrounds. The engine that ignites an unending desire to fulfill religious satisfaction is basically love, unity in the family, and self-consciousness. It is apparent that the religious disparity in this community is connected by a delicate balance between the supernatural and natural. Interestingly, all the fear factors limiting personal expression and reflection are destroyed in the newly found common ground of waiting for a miracle to free those stuck in rubbles.
Religion grooms people to be caring. One thing comes out clearly in the expression of religion as a comforter of a people sharing the same crisis despite differences in gender, race, and nationality, especially on inheritance. Since this community is located on a busy trade route, there is a continuous exchange of ideas, cultures, morals, and beliefs that are antagonistic to different religious inclinations that give little room for tolerance.
Mutual Exclusiveness
Unlike the African Americans who have deep inclination for culture and way of life, the white folks in the film seem rational and ready to embrace new ideas more easily. They show the will to accept changes without having to put serious opposition as long as the results are convincingly useful. On the other hand, the African Americans are more than willing to put a spirited fight to maintain the conservative and brain washing beliefs characterized by distributing blame to those perceived as the cause of distress. Thus, from the two arguments, it is in order to state that the two parties are mutually exclusive in adoptability or assimilation of new ideas.
Advertisement Campaigns
An audience conscious campaign concentrates on proactive reliance of the information with an intention of creating an ideal environment for making informed choices among the target audience. The process is intrinsic of reasoning and respecting the freedom of choice between alternatives. On the other hand, a condescending offensive campaign functions on the assumption that audience has same level of understanding of the subject. As a result, this form of advertisement is characterized by discontent, misrepresentation of an idea, and coercion in the midst of alternative available for the targeted audience.