Category: Art and Religion

Since the dawn of time moments, modern society has evolved over decades of history, ever-changing ever-growing, but some larger historical events and periods have aided the advancement and further development of modern society today. The Age of The Enlightenment was the dawning point of multiple subject shifts that can be traced to now such as Religion, thought, politics, science/technology, and even art. These changes in subjects it’s resulted in the blooming of culture and society.

Religion and the church have played a major role in the hustle and bustle of daily life; before the enlightenment “unorthodox beliefs could lead to punishment by the law, and in the ups and downs of everyday life the wiles of the devil had to be carefully guarded against. Religion was also a powerful political force; in several European countries, the wealth of the church almost matched that of the state. The church also dominated education”. The age of the enlightenment was a time that brought forth new thought where “people had the courage to think for themselves, no matter who they are or what their statuses in life were”. New ideas emerged about religion and the church and people began to challenge previous traditions “the protestant reformation had already told people that they did not need a system of intermediaries to discover the truth and live a good life”. Meaning that a system of links was not necessary like once thought. The enlightenment also shifted away from previous thoughts about witchcraft and a God being the central government of the universe that interacted amongst people; people soon began to believe that God governed the universe but didn’t interact amongst inhabitants this belief was known as deism.

But Modern society has stemmed from the enlightenment; people have ties to religion and their church but not like they once did. Churchgoers are more flexible on attendance to ceremonies, while some choose not to go, and others choose not to believe. Parts of deism still inhabit some thoughts and since the enlightenment, more religions have evolved as a result of being able to think freely.

While religion progressed, so did science but science’s shift stemmed from Isaac Newton and his turn away from medieval thought. Originally medieval “thought of nature as a rarely changing medium that was independent and dictated by God in order to fulfill a purpose. As well they believed that humans were at the center of the cosmos and the church mediated them between heaven and earth and also believed in dualism in that materials served a higher purpose to the spiritual.” Whereas Newton’s thought possessed more modern thought in that “nature had more potential to change but its underlying cause was stable and consisted of particles that could be examined as opposed to a greater being dictating. Newton though disregarded that thought of the cosmos as a median between two universes and simplified it to laws and components.” There became a high interest in finding reason than being led by sheer faith, so this created the desire and need to see experiments being performed in order to see the truth. Modern society has built off of Isaac Newton’s scientific thought which researches into cells of organisms, astronomy, gravity, and much more. Had scientific thought not been tuned and tweaked we could still be resting on previous medieval thought causing less scientific advancement.

Though Isaac Newton was not the only thinker who influenced the enlightenment john Locke made a significant contribution to philosophy and politics through his thought which he built using previous philosophical ideas. Locke believed that “personal identity stemmed from a series of conscious consists of continuity of consciousness. One is the same person as the person who existed last week or many years ago if one has memories of the earlier person’s conscious experiences. Along with this Locke thought that the trigger of one idea created a domino effect in which one idea lead to another.” Locke’s mind was not short of thought; creating books on knowledge, identity, and language shaped thought of the time and even altered political thought such as the English declaration of independence. Each thought influenced later philosophers and even liberalism which in turn affected modern society by giving it a base point for decades after the enlightenment. Personal identity can still be thought of in the way Locke did but other philosophers and or psychologists could argue otherwise. Even scientists studying memory loss in patients can view Locke’s theory on personal identity as a stepping stone that helps aid research to prove that when one can’t recall previous memories that their personal identity is lost, and even their personality is changed.

During the enlightenment technology and machinery also began their slow upward incline that started and shaped modern technology. One of the new advancements made was the development of the train which helped aid a way for products to be distributed across counties, especially agricultural goods. The slow development of technology ignited a flame that ceases to burn out by helping pave a way for the industrial revolution years later. This ripple effect of the train helped get products to and from places years later, create an interest in movement and how to make machinery move, and it also created a deeper look into how to improve the quality of life.

Aside from technology’s slow progression art on the other hand in the age of the enlightenment created a blooming effect. The era consisted of neoclassicism “which expressed the ideas and thought of the enlightenment” and romanticism “a deep love for nature and the landscape with emphasis on own personal viewpoints rather than classical rules”. Artists of the time wanted to paint, re-create or document history using various mediums, and Jacques Louise David did this with his painting “death of the Marat 1793, Oil On Canvas” here he displays the stone cold grey Marat lifelessly slumped over in his tub where he had been murdered. David had been a long-time friend of Marat’s and soon after his death he fell to like Napoleon sculpting masterpieces of him, but “if you were to compare between Bonaparte crossing the Great Saint Bernard Pass with Death of Marat and Oath of the Horatii. Rather than exhibiting classical restraint and purity, David fills his canvas with the dynamic form of a rearing horse. Horizontals and verticals, which create a feeling of stasis, have been replaced by strong diagonals, suggesting movement.” With neoclassicism artists were able to display the unsteady capabilities of nature; and how it ever changed a common thought during the enlightenment. Nature possessed powers that were untameable and should be shown in such a manner by using loose brush strokes and depth along with an array of colors to create a sense of an ever-changing environment. Both neoclassicism and romanticism sculpted a pathway for future art periods and later joined together towards the 19th century when artists began to depict the harsh and simple lives of the lower class instead of bourgeoisie cultures. This created a freedom of expression in art which continued to build from enlightenment ideas and change through the centuries which has created a period of art that allows for expression, abstraction, realism, and much more. Without the enlightenment art still could be rooted in the previous roman and greet practices had it not been for the loose flow and abstraction of the neoclassicists.

Though it may not be noticed in modern society history has shaped and advanced to what is known now. Without changes in periods of history including war, technology, science, art, and religion the world would’ve progressed differently and advancements might not have ever seen the light of day in the way it does now. The enlightenment was one of the major changing points in history that paved a pathway to now by sparking the human mind to dig deeper into the natural world and what is known and unknown by pushing further through the how and why to get to an answer. The drive pushed previous thoughts away from their unrealistic origin into a deeper truth creating a ripple effect that followed through centuries till now.

Introduction to Religion’s Role in “Jane Eyre”

Religion is an integral part of the plot that is Jane Eyre’s life. In the Victorian Era, Christianity was the primary religion. Many of the Victorian’s believed that, in order to be a good Christian, you had to be willing to self-sacrifice (Blumberg). This idea comes from Ilana Blumberg’s “Victorian Sacrifice”. Blumberg talks mainly about the female self-sacrifice found in Victorian times and how they let it rule their lives. Jane is definitely someone who takes priority in self-sacrificing. She is constantly looking for someone or somewhere to be useful. This self-sacrifice that many Christians in the Victorian Era had was seen to be a very “elusive moral ideal” (Blumberg, 33). But Jane still seems to have it even though, for the majority of her life, she struggles to find her own religious identity outside of it. There are three important religious figures that influence, either positively or negatively, Jane’s religious journey: Helen Burns, Mr. Brocklehurst, and St. John Rivers. All three of these different influences work together to help shape Jane’s own religious ideology. When Jane encounters these figures, she sees the helpfulness and faults in their own ideologies and lifestyles. She uses this understanding and comprehension to then form her own decisions about religion. Jane’s religious journey is a hard one full of belittlement, hardships, and self-sacrifice but she continues to struggle with her knowledge and faith in God until she reaches the end of her journey. In Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte uses the three religious figures of Helen, Mr. Brocklehurst, and St. John to show Jane’s struggle through her religious journey and the resolution that she comes to in the end. Bronte does this in order to show how, in the Victorian Era, religion was an integral part of people’s lives and how Jane learns to grow in her faith but not be controlled by it.

Helen Burns: A Beacon of Faith and Endurance

One religious view that Jane was exposed to early on in her life at Lowood was the view of Helen Burns. Helen Burns is Jane’s first friend at Lowood and this fact causes them to share a very intimate connection. Helen is a very positive influence for Jane on her religious journey. She also has a very clear view of her own religious ideology. In one of her conversations with Jane, Helen says, “You think too much of the love of human beings; you are too impulsive, too vehement: the sovereign hand that created your frame, and put life into it, has provided you with other resources than your feeble self, or than creatures feeble as you… God waits only the separation of spirit from flesh to crown us with a full reward. Why, then, should we ever sink overwhelmed with distress, when life is so soon over, and death is so certain an entrance to happiness- to glory?” (Bronte, 69-70). This quote is important because it clearly shows Helen’s whole view of religion. Helen’s ideology is based on the salvation that comes after life. Her faith in the afterlife is something that teaches Jane the endurance that she needs to get through life. Helen tells her to give up on petty struggles that won’t mean anything when she’s before God. Because of her religious views and practices, Helen is seen as a Christ-like figure. After her death, her tombstone reads “resurgam” which is Latin for “I will rise again” (Bronte, 82). This emphasizes Helen’s importance and influence in Jane’s life.

Helen’s view of religion taught Jane to endure the hardships of life and how to overcome her struggles. In a sense, Helen also taught Jane to believe in herself and have more faith in herself. This is particularly seen when Helen says, “If all the world hated you, and believed you wicked, while your own consciousness approved you, and absolved you from guilt, you would not be without friends,” and Jane replies, “No; I know I should think well of myself; but that is not enough: if others don’t love me, I would rather die than live- I cannot bear to be solitary and hated, Helen” (69). This interaction between Helen and Jane is important because it shows how insecure Jane is in herself and her religious path. Helen thinks that all she has to do is put faith in God and in herself and she won’t be friendless or unhappy. But Jane doesn’t have this faith yet. It’s with Helen’s first teachings that Jane learns how to have more faith and surety in herself and her religion. Helen’s teachings encourage this growth in Jane. They also encourage Jane to forgive those who mistreat her; she often refers to the Gospels for this. Because of Helen’s teachings, Jane comes to learn and understand the mercy of God and how everyone is equal when it comes to death. Helen’s view of religion is very optimistic and this optimism helps Jane. She starts to let go of the past, and look for a purpose in the future. She doesn’t completely find this purpose until the end when she marries Mr. Rochester but it starts with her self-sacrificing and finding a way to help people around her.

Mr. Brocklehurst: Misuse of Religion for Control

Another view of religion that Jane was exposed to at Lowood was that of Mr. Brocklehurst. Unlike Helen’s view of religion, Mr. Brocklehurst’s views were often associated with the bullying and cruel neglect of the girls at Lowood. Mr. Brocklehurst used his religion as an excuse for his mistreatment and neglect; he called it “charity”. His “charity” starved and killed multiple girls at Lowood. Mr. Brocklehurst didn’t want the girls at Lowood to be preoccupied with worldly possessions when they should be too busy studying and learning their religion. This is clearly seen when he says to Miss Temple, “Naturally! Yes but we are not to conform to nature: I wish these girls to be the children of Grace: and why that abundance? I have again and again intimated that I desire the hair to be arranged closely, modestly, plainly” (Bronte, 64). This quote is important because it shows the extreme lengths that Mr. Brocklehurst will go to in order to keep the girls in line. He is willing to humiliate and dehumanize the girls as long as they don’t take pride in their worldly possessions. This quote also shows the hypocrisy of Mr. Brocklehurst. He thinks that proper care and worldly possessions will “starve their immortal souls”, so he chooses to neglect them of proper meals and proper clothes (Bronte, 63). But at the same time, Mr. Brocklehurst and his family flaunt their own wealth and luxuries; he doesn’t practice what he’s preaching to the girls. He uses his religion as an instrument of power against the girls with the excuse that he’s doing it for their benefit. Mr. Brocklehurst’s view of religion is a very negative view but it helps to show Jane that Mr. Brocklehurst was wrong and that she doesn’t need to suffer in order to be a good Christian.

Unlike Helen’s view of religion, Mr. Brocklehurst’s view showed Jane that she does not have to throw away her worldly possessions or her emotions in order to have a good religious ideology. Mr. Brocklehurst’s religious ideology taught the girls at Lowood the idea of self-sacrifice to an extreme extent. He wanted the girls to give up everything that made them who they were. This is shown when he tells Miss Temple, “Madam, I have a Master to serve whose kingdom is not of this world: my mission is to mortify in these girls the lusts of the flesh; to teach them to clothe themselves with shamefacedness and sobriety, not with braided hair and costly apparel…” (Bronte, 64). This quote is important because it shows how Mr. Brocklehurst thinks the girls should act according to his religious ideologies. These ideologies help teach Jane what not to do in her journey of finding her religious ideology. Because of Mr. Brocklehurst, Jane learns of self-sacrificing but she also learns the correct amount in order to not turn it into suffering. Mr. Brocklehurst’s ideology was a very negative view of religion but Jane learned the most out of it that she could.

St. John Rivers: The Dilemma of Duty versus Desire

The final view of religion that Jane was exposed to in her life is the view of St. John Rivers. St. John’s religious ideology is very conservative and somewhat similar to Mr. Brocklehurst’s; unlike Mr. Brocklehurst, St. John doesn’t take his ideology to the extremes. St. John’s ideology taught him to not care for worldly possessions or personal connections; he only loves his religion. St. John believes that human hearts should only serve God and not be distracted by unnecessary things. This is seen when Jane is describing St. John, “St. John was a good man; but I began to feel he had spoken truth of himself when he said he was hard and cold. The humanities and amenities of life had no attraction for him…he would never rest; nor approve of others resting round him” (Bronte, 392). This quote is important because it shows how deeply St. John’s religion affects his life. St. John relinquishes his worldly happiness in order to be completely committed to his religion; this, in turn, makes him seem cold and stern to others around him. St. John seems to have a “measured egoism” when it comes to the Christian religion and his role in it. A “measured egoism” is an “ethically responsible self-concern which might foster communal solidarity and material abundance” (Blumberg). This simply means that St. John also does a lot of self-sacrificing because it is what his ideology says is right. He gives up everything that is earthly in order to follow his religious views. This ideology pushes Jane to the final step of finding her own.

Jane’s Religious Journey: From Influence to Independence

St. John’s view of religion showed Jane that she doesn’t need to self-sacrifice and get rid of all her worldly possessions and happiness in order to have a good religious ideology and be a good Christian. St. John gave her the final push that she needed in order to create and follow her own view of religion. He taught her determination, to do a good job, to not have doubts, and how to live a good religious life. St. John tries to teach her how to leave her emotions and true feelings in order to be a good missionary but this is when Jane learns that she can’t and that she doesn’t want to leave them behind. Because of St. John, Jane learns that she wants the freedom to feel the emotions she has and to love whoever she loves. Jane decides that this is how she’ll respect and follow God: by finding a religious path to follow that is true to herself. Jane learns all this when St. John tries to make her his wife. He tells her, “God and nature intended you for a missionary’s wife. It is not personal, but mental endowments they have given you: you are formed for labor, not for love… I claim you- not for my pleasure, but for my Sovereign’s service” (Bronte, 402). This quote is important because this shows how St. John thinks that Jane doesn’t have a choice in the matter, he thinks that it’s her religious duty to become his wife. This is a very important time for Jane because she realizes that this isn’t the life that she wants. All her life, Jane hasn’t had many choices of her own but choosing Mr. Rochester was one of them. This is significant because the “complications of self-sacrifice were especially dangerous for women who were afforded fewer choices in life and often pressured or coerced into sacrifice” (Blumberg 34). This quote easily describes Jane and her life. Jane’s life has been filled with choices being made for her and her own self-sacrifices. St. John makes her realize that she can choose a life filled with religion and love; that she doesn’t have to get rid of one or the other.

Conclusion: Jane Eyre’s Resolution of Faith and Freedom

In conclusion, Charlotte Bronte used the three religious figures of Helen Burns, Mr. Brocklehurst, and St. John to show Jane’s own journey to find her religious ideology. Jane struggled to find this ideology because of her own self-sacrificing and she was influenced into keeping her worldly possessions and happiness. Helen taught Jane how to endure the hardships of life. Mr. Brocklehurst taught Jane that self-sacrificing and giving up worldly possessions to the extreme is cruel and will only bring suffering. He taught Jane how to moderately control herself when it comes to this. St. John taught Jane that, instead of giving up her love and happiness, she can have a good relationship and faith in God while also being happy. St. John taught her a good balance so that she doesn’t fall off the path of her religious journey. Jane’s religious ideology is to have faith and strength in God but to also follow her own path of love and happiness. She finds a good balance between them when she goes back to Mr. Rochester at the end of the novel and she’s happy.

In My Name is Asher Lev by Chaim Potok, the main character, Asher, is born a Hasidic Jew with devoted religious parents. Since childhood, he was placed in a difficult situation where he was torn between following his religious views or pursuing his passion for art. Being a Hasidic Jew means abiding by the Torah and adhering to the lifestyle it suggests. Jews are strictly prohibited from drawing figures, yet Asher still became absorbed in the artistic realm. Despite the contradictions Asher was faced with, he learned to persevere in his fascination with art, which ultimately outweighed his religious expectations.

Asher’s early years consisted of an abundance of drawings ranging from sketches of his mother to draw the world as a dreadful place. As years passed, he slowly became a fanatic of artistry; however, drawing was frowned upon and served as an opposition to his religion. Asher’s craze of art gradually became extreme when he unconsciously drew in a Chumash and “was frightened at the picture [he] had drawn” of the Rebbe. (Potok 124) A Chumash is one of the five books of the Torah and drawing in one is seen as a “desecration of the Name of God” as it disrespects their beliefs entirely. (Potok 123). Additionally, the Rebbe is recognized as the charismatic leader of a Hasidic sect, drawing him unsympathetically is regarded as profane. Asher’s carelessness in the situation depicted how art served as an obstacle to his studies and more importantly, his religion. Subsequently, prior to Asher having his bar mitzvah, the Rebbe called him into his office. At the end of their confrontation, Asher discovers he has been assigned to a Jewish mentor named Jacob Kahn who is specifically there to guide Asher in his artwork. In spite of this, Asher’s father, Aryeh, was never too fond of the idea of his son fulfilling his dreams of becoming an artist. The continuous disagreements between Asher and his father resulted in the distance, yet Asher “[didn’t] want there to be trouble

In My Name is Asher Lev by Chaim Potok, the main character, Asher, is born a Hasidic Jew with devoted religious parents. Since childhood, he was placed in a difficult situation where he was torn between following his religious views or pursuing his passion for art. Being a Hasidic Jew means abiding by the Torah and adhering to the lifestyle it suggests. Jews are strictly prohibited from drawing figures, yet Asher still became absorbed in the artistic realm. Despite the contradictions Asher was faced with, he learned to persevere in his fascination with art, which ultimately outweighed his religious expectations.

Asher’s early years consisted of an abundance of drawings ranging from sketches of his mother to draw the world as a dreadful place. As years passed, he slowly became a fanatic of artistry; however, drawing was frowned upon and served as an opposition to his religion. Asher’s craze of art gradually became extreme when he unconsciously drew in a Chumash and “was frightened at the picture [he] had drawn” of the Rebbe. (Potok 124) A Chumash is one of the five books of the Torah and drawing in one is seen as a “desecration of the Name of God” as it disrespects their beliefs entirely. (Potok 123). Additionally, the Rebbe is recognized as the charismatic leader of a Hasidic sect, drawing him unsympathetically is regarded as profane. Asher’s carelessness in the situation depicted how art served as an obstacle to his studies and more importantly, his religion. Subsequently, prior to Asher having his bar mitzvah, the Rebbe called him into his office. At the end of their confrontation, Asher discovers he has been assigned to a Jewish mentor named Jacob Kahn who is specifically there to guide Asher in his artwork. In spite of this, Asher’s father, Aryeh, was never too fond of the idea of his son fulfilling his dreams of becoming an artist. The continuous disagreements between Asher and his father resulted in the distance, yet Asher “[didn’t] want there to be trouble between [them]” because he still had a part of him that had the desire to please his father. (Potok 196) Aryeh had a difficult time grasping the Rebbe’s decision; Aryeh spent his life traveling for the Rebbe and being a dedicated Hasidic Jew, and now he suddenly witnesses his son spending his life painting. When Asher became associated with Jacob Kahn, it was the ultimate shift of him unintentionally drifting from his religion and taking a step towards art. Asher showed a sense of spirituality through the actions he chose to do. His faith and worship of his religion were slowly becoming to fade when his obsession with art got intense.

It had become apparent that Asher favored art more.

My Name Is Red by Orhan Pamuk showcases the miniaturist tradition, in Istanbul during the 16th century Ottoman Empire, which navigates the fine line between Western and Eastern art, and that of art and religion. The novel also touches on societal problems that stem from the beginning of westernization starting from the Ottoman art style. The novel is about the Sultan`s commission of a secret illustrated book to honor the thousandth anniversary of the Hegira, prepared in the Western style, while also encompassing a murder (or two) and a love story too.

The characters in the novel cannot reach a consensus on whether some or all art is sinful by nature. Miniaturists, follow tradition as illustrated by the tree, ‘I don’t want to be a tree, I want to be its meaning’ (MNR 0). This statement singe-handily defines the biggest issue in the 16th century Ottoman Empire, the conflict between traditional and Western approaches to art. On one hand, Ottoman artists who were Muslims would depict their paintings in a self-effacing context where they would attempt to illustrate what Allah envisions and desires. In which they sought ‘the act of seeking out Allah’s memories and seeing the world as He sees the world’ (MNR 96). On the other hand, Frankish and Venetian masters would, in their paintings, portray reality, which included the use of perspective that prioritized the human point of view over a divine one. Since Ottoman art was not depicted from the artist’s point of view but Allah`s, miniaturists were not supposed to leave any trace of themselves behind, as then the viewers would assume their perspective of the world and not Allah`s. Therefore, the emphasis was put on the narrative of the piece rather than its actual form. Master Osman, the head of the workshop, reaffirms this by saying ‘meaning precedes form in the world of our art,’ indicating the purpose of the miniatures is not to portray the form of the tree accurately but to be able to convey the essence of being a tree (MNR 61). The miniaturists fear that the influence of western art will contaminate the purity of Ottoman paintings. Nonetheless, Enishte, the overseer of the secret book, remarks that ‘nothing is pure’ when talking about miniaturists` strict adherence to tradition(MNR 160). He instead implies that no art can ever be ‘pure’ as it is the combination of many different styles, such as Persian and East Asian, in the case of Ottoman art. For Enishte, the combination of these contradictory techniques is what makes a masterpiece, not a painting where the viewer cannot distinguish the artists.

In My Name Is Red, the old miniature masters blind themselves to reach the ideal condition for creating pure art. Only by losing their sight can they be free from the temptations of this world. Blindness helped artists to bypass and transcend the mortal world and permitted their art to approach the eternal truth. Thus, artists with sight saw their ability to perceive the physical realm, as a dangerous ability that will at any moment incite their art into the temptations of the mortal world. However, this self-imposed fate is not the goal of all miniaturists. For example, Black is resistant to the idea of blinding himself, because he wants to live the rest of his life seeing Shekure`s face, indicating his attachment to the pleasures of the mortal world. Besides, many of the miniaturists are obsessed with achieving individuality in their paintings as can be seen in Olive. Furthermore, he is obsessed with depicting his face in all of its uniqueness. He even goes on to criticize those ‘who tried to depict the world the way God saw it, and to conceal their individuality and so they never signed their names’ (MNR 400). Olive, at the end of the book, tries to make a Western-style portrait of himself only to find out that without skill, the style is only a mere imitation. In response to Black`s scorn of his desire to ‘practice genuine artistry,’ Olive concludes that the appropriation of Western realism by the miniaturists will be almost the same but not quite as good as the original (MNR 401). Olive`s attempts to modernize and achieve an individual style only result in a loss of authenticity since there is no tradition.

On the contrary, those who thought they were following the right path and not being tempted by Western techniques faced another challenge, greed. Greed fills people with unrealistic desires that are often not met and result in their demise. We see this with the opening of the book being a murder. Elegant was lured and murdered by Olive for the sake of the promise of money. In Venice, greed has led to the production of counterfeit coins which has created massive inflation in Istanbul. Enishte explains the situation to Black on his return to Istanbul by saying that a miniaturist who took up a brush without the care and diligence to read the text he was illustrating was motivated by nothing more than greed,’ (MNR 0). This is facilitated by the fact that leaders of the 16th century exchanged ideas and formed alliances by trading illustrated manuscripts. Moreover, these manuscripts were taken as a representation of the power and glory of the ruler and their nation, therefore, when a city would fall to new rulers, they would not destroy the workshops but instead, the new ruler became the new patron and the best manuscripts would be taken to their treasury for adjustments and to be finished (Tanindi). For miniaturists, this meant that they could make money on the side by working on commissioned manuscripts from patrons other than the sultan such as wealthy merchants. Muslim artists in the 16th century had concluded that art through its ‘beauty’ should summon people ‘toward life’s abundance, toward compassion, toward respect for the colors of the realm which God created, and toward reflection and faith,’ (MNR 0). Yet, the manuscripts that they were commissioned to paint were to fulfill the desires of humans and not the remembrance of Allah.

The manuscripts not only became the desired income of miniaturists but also pried at the religious workings of acceptable art. For instance, Enishte believes that ‘every picture serves to tell a story’ and thereupon all images, including taboo ones like sex-themed visual imagery, were to be represented. In his eyes, the miniatures were to be inclusive of the ‘Sultan`s entire world…the joys and fears of the realm’ and all (MNR 25). Despite prohibitions against pictorial representation of human beings and animals, they did not consider images, including sex-themed visual imagery, to violate Islamic doctrine. Rather their representations were following the cultural interpretations of Islam advanced by their royal patrons (Eko). This led to one of the most prominent recurring themes being love and sex. This point is illustrated in the text when Black creates his miniature of the tale of Husrev and Shirin, whose love story was the subject of many miniatures, with his name and Shekure’s written underneath each character. At the same time, the tolerance of the patrons when it came to images is also reflective of society. The Ottomans defied many of the taboos of Islamic art as they produce miniatures of the life of Prophet Muhammad, which included images of the prophet. The Sultans` would commission these works without the public knowing, similar to how the public would never know about the secret book in My Name Is Red. The desires of the Sultans were rationalized by the miniaturists concluding that it wasn`t necessarily a sin to make or possess the art as long as it was not on display. Sultans and others used the same reasoning to justify other taboos such as gambling, drinking, eunuchs, homosexuality, and womanizing in private (Facts and). All these are present in My Name Is Red. The hidden miniatures would become more and more intricate and realistic, evoking a response beyond the stories they illustrate. The fear of crossing the limit into blasphemous art without being aware of it is a question Olive presents to Enishte before killing him. To which Enishte replies, ‘Why did they all believe that painting would bar them from the gates of Heaven?’ (MNR 0). The sad reality is that these commissioned pieces unless given to other rulers and powers are put in Sultan`s treasury or people`s collections, where they collect dust. Pessimism is instilled so deeply into the hearts of the miniaturists that their plight, against the wishes of the Sultan and Western realism changing their style, is seen as self-fulfilling. However, this fear is not unfounded, at the end of the book Shekure describes the disappearance of miniatures recounting the restrictions put in place by the next Sultan due to a dream he had of the Prophet. In the dream, the Prophet told him that if he ‘allowed his subjects to be awed by pictures and, worse yet, by objects that mimicked Mankind and thus competed with Allah`s creations, the sovereign would be diverging from divine will, ‘ (MNR 0).

The impurity, the compromises, and the contradictions of the objective of art reflect society as it truly is. Life is a result of human interactions which is always already messy. The miniaturists realized rather quickly their tradition of painting through a godly viewpoint is flawed due to the moral ambiguity of the practice. Miniaturists claim that the purpose and intention of art are for them to be seen through a narrative that transcends the physical realm. The meaning that they seek doesn’t exist when they keep peeling away the layers of acceptability and compromising their faith. As meaning cannot escape its context, questions needed to be asked and answered at some point.

Introduction:

Michelangelo Buonarroti, the renowned Italian artist of the Renaissance period, is known for his profound influence on art and his deep connection to religion. Throughout his career, Michelangelo’s religious beliefs played a significant role in shaping his artistic endeavors. This critical essay aims to explore the relationship between Michelangelo and religion, examining how his faith influenced his artistic expression and examining the critical reception of his religious works.

Body:

Religious Themes in Michelangelo’s Art:

Michelangelo’s art is permeated with religious themes, reflecting his deep spirituality and devotion to Christianity. One of his most iconic works, the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome, depicts various biblical scenes, including the creation of Adam and the Last Judgment. Through his meticulous brushwork and attention to detail, Michelangelo sought to capture the grandeur and sacredness of these religious narratives, evoking awe and contemplation in the viewer.

Interpretation and Controversies:

Michelangelo’s religious works have been subject to various interpretations and controversies over the centuries. For instance, the depiction of nude figures in the Sistine Chapel ceiling raised eyebrows among some religious leaders, who perceived it as inappropriate. However, Michelangelo defended his artistic choices by asserting that the human form, as a divine creation, should be celebrated in all its glory. This clash between artistic freedom and religious expectations highlights the tension that often exists between art and religious beliefs.

Humanism and Spirituality:

Michelangelo’s art reflects a synthesis of humanism and spirituality. While deeply rooted in religious traditions, his works also celebrate the inherent beauty and potential of humanity. The sculpture of David, for example, portrays the biblical hero as a symbol of human strength and virtue, embodying the idealized human form. Through this portrayal, Michelangelo emphasizes the divine spark within humanity and the potential for greatness.

Criticism and Reception:

Michelangelo’s religious art received both acclaim and criticism during his lifetime and beyond. Some praised his ability to convey profound religious themes with unmatched skill and passion, while others questioned the appropriateness of his artistic choices. The complexity and depth of his religious works continue to invite critical examination and interpretation, sparking discussions about the intersection of art, spirituality, and religious norms.

Legacy and Influence:

Michelangelo’s contributions to religious art left an indelible mark on subsequent generations of artists. His innovative use of perspective, anatomical accuracy, and emotional intensity set new standards in artistic expression. Many artists, both past and present, continue to draw inspiration from his religious works, recognizing his ability to convey the divine through human artistry.

Conclusion:

Michelangelo’s relationship with religion and his artistic exploration of religious themes exemplify the profound impact of faith on artistic expression. Through his skillful depictions of biblical narratives and his celebration of the human form, Michelangelo created a legacy that continues to resonate with viewers and art enthusiasts. While his religious works faced criticism and controversy, they also inspired awe and admiration, challenging conventional notions of religious art. Michelangelo’s fusion of spirituality, humanism, and artistic genius solidifies his place as a critical figure in the history of art and religious expression.

Introduction

At only first glance, this artwork of Andres Serrano is seen to be very provocative and blasphemous. This controversial artwork is a photograph of a 13-inch crucifix being submerged into a yellow liquid, which is implied to be urine as the title would suggest, and it is most likely to be his own. For many, the Piss Christ became a symbol of the secular assault and hatred against the Christian faith as it is said to be an act of dishonoring their Lord. Many viewers were outraged when Serrano was funded by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), which is in turn funded by the taxpayers, for that particular artwork. In fact, Serrano received $15,000 from the NEA in 1987 and the artwork was exhibited in some art galleries. Serrano received several death threats after the “Piss Christ” work, and it was widely condemned, maligned, and censored by authorities. On the other hand, some claim that the art world was being attacked by Christians who had rarely seen art as having importance. There was a campaign to ban the artwork from acceptable art as it may inspire other artists to push the limit even further. What was their main idea and motivation for Serrano? That question was actually being asked to him and he responded by saying that “Piss Christ” was meant not meant to be merely provocative, but an act of devotion. The message that he tried to convey is he, a Christian artist, is making a religious artwork based on his relationship with Christ and The Church (Moore, 2017). The crucifix is a tarnished symbol that has lost its meaning. In simple words, it is a symbol of the crucifixion of a man who was tortured and left to die for several hours until all of his bodily fluid come out of him. The urine is not what Serrano did to Christ, rather it is what Christians did to Christ over centuries of commercialization of religion to make money. People may agree or disagree with him, but how can anyone find his artwork as merely obscenity and disrespectful? By perceiving it from the right angle, maybe there is a moral value that could be seen and could be regarded as good Christian art. The question that remains is; to what extent is art relevant in religion?

I. Art in Religion across time

Sometime in the 17th century, important art or the only art that mattered was religious art. After that, there were very few contemporary art pieces that were considered both art and religion. Do religion and contemporary art not make a good match? Or is it still used for religious purposes just like during the renaissance ages? Indeed, religion and art have been inseparable for millennia. The relationship between religion and art dates back to the dawn of civilization. This can be proven by the discovery of “the lion man” or the Loewenmensch Figurine in German Caves in 1939.

Carbon dating puts the production of the half-lion, half-human sculpture as far back as 38,000 BC (Museum, 2013), which is about 35,000 years before the existence of Hinduism, the oldest surviving religion in the world. In fact, Lion Man is the oldest known evidence for religious beliefs which suggested that believing and belonging have a deep history crucial to human societies long centuries ago (Cook, 2017).

The ancient Sumerian Cuneiform is also one of the first forms of artistic representations of religion, as the writing was largely used to document the Sumerian belief system and the detailing of religious records. For instance, the Cuneiform was used to document Xerxes I’s inscription at Van (present-day Turkey) which glorification of Ahura Mazda, the most supreme deity in Zoroastrianism. Sumerians were also the first to use art in religious manuscripts, as was in the Epic Gilgamesh, the first literary work in the world (Waters, 2014).

It wasn’t perhaps until the emergence of Hinduism that art began to be used to beautify religion. This can perhaps be proven by the production of the Epic poem Mahabharata which often came with artistic renditions and depictions of the events and epics detailed in the poem. Like Sumerians, Zoroastrians, and Ancient Egyptians, Hindus used art to tell stories, as well as adding a degree of beautification to the artworks to increase the interest and regard for said stories. The Epic of Mahabharata is one of the most revered religious scriptures in the world and is largely attributed to the authorship of Vyāsa, an apparition of the god Vishnu (Das, 2018). The vivid depiction and epics detailed in Hinduism Art also helped distinguish between different apparitions of a certain God (i.e. Vishnu’s pure form, and his apparitions as Vyāsa and Rama from the Epic of Ramayana).

II. Art in contemporary religions

Perhaps influenced by ancient religions such as Hinduism and the Sumerian religions, the use of certain techniques to depict divinity began to be used by certain contemporary religions. Early Christian Art, for example, lacked the technique and skill in the art that was already mastered by Hindu artists. It was not until the adoption of Christianity by Roman Emperor Constantine the Great that Christian Art began to reach new heights in the use of mosaic art, which became a staple in churches and cathedrals to this day. Mosaics, explored in the Western Roman capital of Ravenna, can perhaps be credited with the large iconography later associated with Christian art. A comparison of pre-iconography early Christian art, and the iconographic artworks that followed the emergence of mosaic art.

Fig 8: Mosaic art of the Virgin Mary and the Infant Jesus

Fig 7: Pre-Constantine Early Christian art did not focus on specific figures such as the Virgin Mary and/or Jesus Christ

It can also be noted that the technique and production quality of the artworks have starkly increased, and some techniques to show divinity can be seen, such as the golden circle, or halo; behind the heads of the Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus, which would become one of the key features of religious iconography as the years progressed. It is also a technique that stood the test of time, being used by prominent Renaissance artists such as Leonardo da Vinci as well as modern artists.

Iconography became prominent in several other religions including Hinduism and Buddhism. Iconography also exists in Shia Islam, whereby the rest of Islam otherwise opposed it strongly, and associated it with idolatry. Paintings in Sunni Islam used halos as divination as well, but rather to hide the faces of the images in question, rather than to highlight certain characters as done in Christian art. In Shia Islam, however, iconography is not as frowned upon as it is in Sunni Islam. Most famously, a portrait of Hazrat Ali or Sayidina Ali r.a. was popularly painted to describe the physical appearance of the divine character in Shia Islam. This was completely against aniconism which is firmly applied in Islam.

Fig 9: An illustration of the Mi’raj done by Sunni artists from the Ottoman Empire. The figure in the center, of the Prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h, has his face veiled

Fig 9 & 10: Images of Hazrat Ali, or Sayidina Ali r.a as drawn and depicted by Shi’ite artists. The Shi’ite artists made no effort to hide the face of Ali and used divination methods such as the halo to glorify his image

Sunni Islam believers prohibit iconography as they associate it with the imitation of God’s creation, as stated in several hadith, which includes one which was compiled by Muhammad al-Bukhari, where Aisha (the wife of the Prophet) narrated:

“I bought a cushion having on it pictures (of animals). When Allah’s Apostle saw it, he stood at the door and did not enter. I noticed the sign of disapproval on his face and said, ‘O Allah’s Apostle! I repent to Allah and His Apostle. What sin have I committed?’ Allah’s Apostle said. ‘What is this cushion?’ I said, ‘I have bought it for you so that you may sit on it and recline on it.’ Allah’s Apostle said, ‘The makers of these pictures will be punished on the Day of Resurrection, and it will be said to them, ‘Give life to what you have created (i.e., these pictures).’ ‘ The Prophet added, ‘The Angels of (Mercy) do not enter a house in which there are pictures (of animals).’

· Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:34:318, 7:62:110

There is also a concern amongst Muslims that iconography can lead to idolatry. Idolatry is described as the association of God with any other deity or being and is considered the greatest of all sins in Islam. To avoid the worship of Muhammad p.b.u.h, Muhammad himself had prohibited pictures of himself and his sahaba from being painted to avoid them being placed in a divine position, or on equal footing with Allah. The concern does have its basis, though, as the continued use of Iconography indirectly and inadvertently gave birth to iconoclasm.

III. Criticism of Iconography and subsequent decline of Religious Arts

Iconography, especially in Christianity, did come with its own set of criticisms. Most famously was perhaps the criticism of the representation of Jesus’s physical traits. In most mainstream representations, Jesus is shown as having white skin, blue eyes, and blondish brown hair; very akin to a Caucasian. There are some who argued that considering the region that Jesus and his disciples were born in, and the fact that he was a Hebrew, he was likely to have had curly hair, and darker skin. One of the most famous of these arguments was made by social reformist Malcolm X, in the 1950s, as documented in his autobiography said that “the Honourable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that the images of Jesus placed on prison walls and churches around the world are not historically correct, because history teaches us that Jesus was born in a region where people had color… I’m simply proving to you that Jesus was not (white)”. His claim was then supported with an excerpt from the Holy Bible, in Revelations 1:14 which said:

Revelation 1:14-16 King James Version (KJV)

• 14 His head and his hairs were white like wool, as white as snow; and his eyes were as a flame of fire;
• 15 And his feet like unto fine brass, as if they burned in a furnace; and his voice as the sound of many glasses of water.
• 16 And he had in his right hand seven stars: and out of his mouth went a sharp two-edged sword: and his countenance was as the sun shineth in his strength.

The excerpt, which detailed the physical traits of Jesus Christ, described him as someone with hair like wool, and feet like brass. This was a point of argument for some who said that Jesus had skin color comparable to brass, which is reddish brown. This was of course different from the skin color of the Caucasians and much different from the depiction of Jesus in iconographic art. Hence, this became a point of criticism towards iconographic art as nothing more than a political and social effort to subtly place the white man at the top of society, by associating religious figures such as Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary as white, whilst none of the figures, including Jesus’ disciples were people of color.

There is some truth in this, as demographically speaking, it would be the most reasonable judgment to say that Jesus had physical traits similar to the Hebrews who were from Nazareth (where Mary was from). It was noted in the Bible that Jesus is born in Bethlehem, but Mary, and later on Jesus, was from Nazareth. Both of these locations are 100 miles apart, but still in the same region, that being The Levant. People of the Levant had physical traits similar to Arabs and Jews, which had a complexion slightly darker than Caucasians, and had curly hair and brown eyes. This is contrary to mainstream depictions of Jesus which had physical traits similar to Caucasians. This is perhaps motivated by certain political figures to provide the association between God and the white population.

As seen in this painting by Galyna Shevchenko, Jesus had pale white skin, blue eyes, and long straight hair Malcolm X, who openly and vocally criticized the misrepresentation of Jesus in paintings claimed that the action had political leanings, and said that it was meant to reduce the esteem of persons of color all over the world. He claimed that the white man did so not only through Jesus, but also through his disciples, to subtly show superiority and closeness to God as opposed to other races. This was relatable perhaps to the racial climate of the time, where religion was used to keep the African American society in line and art was one of the tools used to ensure it. Malcolm stated that the white man promised them the “pie in the sky” for being “good negroes”, a term which insinuated a degree of inferiority towards the African American society, because, he went on to note, “the white man was having his pie here” (8). In short, iconographic art, especially Christian iconographic art was seen as a tool that was used by the white society of the time to suppress other races into thinking of them as the superior race.

Was Malcolm the first to comment on this? Criticism towards the representation of Jesus Christ in art existed for a long while and counterclaims to his race existed as early as during the emergence of Islam. Islam, believing Jesus as one of the prophets, claim that during the Mi’raj, the Prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h had seen Jesus during the Night Journey. Most accounts of this claim the Prophet Muhammad had described him as “a man with reddish complexion” while others state that Prophet Muhammad described him as “a man with brownish complexion”. (9)

A 2001 study conducted by Richard Neave produced a different look of Jesus, which combined the use of forensic anthropology and knowledge from the New Testament to produce the image. The result was very different from images of Jesus produced by renaissance artists across time. (10)

The shorter hair attributed to Jesus in the study is further supported by an excerpt from the New Testament where Paul the Apostle criticized the act of having long hair for men. The excerpt, from 1 Corinthians Chapter 1 Verses 14 through 16 (1:14-16) states:

• 14 Doth not even nature itself teach you, that, if a man has long hair, it is a shame unto him?
• 15 But if a woman has long hair, it is a glory to her: for her hair is given her for a covering.
• 16 But if any man seems to be contentious, we have no such custom, neither the churches of God.

Hence it can be seen that there is a lot of evidence to support the claims made by Malcolm, which could suggest the presence of manipulation of religion on behalf of certain figures. However, there exists a counterargument to this stance. The church may have used imagery similar to the local races in the area so that it would have an increased appeal to people. The view is that the race of Jesus does not matter and that his message reaching more people is the ultimate aim. This view is supported by the portrayal of Jesus as different races in iconographic art from different regions. For instance, in China, Jesus is painted as having a more Asian structure and slanted eyes, similar to the local demography in China. In Egypt, where the Coptic church exists, Jesus is portrayed in Coptic Art as being more akin to the locals in Egypt. Such is also the case in several other countries. The claim perhaps suggests that it just so happens that the western world has the most Christians and hence has the most popular rendition of Christ, the man with long light brown hair, blue eyes, and white skin.

Further support for the mainstream look of Jesus can also be attributed to the existence of the Shroud of Turin. The Shroud of Turin, although never formally endorsed or rejected by the Catholic Church, had been approved by two Popes, Pius XII and John Paul II as being in association with the devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus. The image from the Shroud of Turin, which is believed to be the shroud used to bury Jesus after the crucifixion, is in line with many of the renaissance paintings that were produced and opposed the other renditions produced of the face of Jesus Christ.

The decline of iconography began perhaps through the Baroque movement, which in itself was pioneered and engineered, ironically; by the Catholic church. This was done in response to the simplicity of Protestant architecture (11). It can be seen as an attempt to further the influence of the church on the art world, as had previously been done in the Renaissance Era. Iconography in the Renaissance Era was predominantly Christian, especially in Europe where the Renaissance age took place. This marked the end of the widespread and dominant use of iconography in the art world.

As time moved on, more and more art movements such as the aforementioned impressionism, expressionism as well as pop art. The latter became a means to scrutinize iconography and gave birth to the perversion of religious figures through manipulating iconography, marking the birth of iconoclasm.

IV. Wealthy patrons used Renaissance art for powers

Art during the Renaissance Ages hugely contributed to the development of the relationship between art and religion. Many works of Renaissance art depicted religious images, such as Jesus Christ and Virgin Mary, through the advancement in the technique of representing the human body realistically. Undoubtedly, several great artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Donatello arose in this era. Much of the art produced during the Renaissance was commissioned by the wealthy merchant families of Florence, most notably the Medici family (Editors, 2019). Their funds produced such masterpieces as Sandro Botticelli’s Birth of Venus and Donatello’s bronze David.

During the 13th and 14th centuries, religious art was used in a number of ways. Other than hoping to inspire greater devotion to religion, patrons of the art bought numerous amounts of art to create awe and respect towards their wealth. Perhaps this was the initial point where art and religion did not intersect. It cannot be denied that the religious art during this era helped many people in understanding the stories related to religion, but later on, the patrons began to use the greatness of these artworks to build up powers and compete among themselves. The Church became less of a holy symbol, and more of a machine to help ambitious men up the ladder of political power and influence (Murray, 1985). This can be proven when the Borgia and Sforza families, who presided over the Papal States and Milan, both contributed huge funds to the society but used art as propaganda (Cohen, 2018). Leonardo da Vinci worked for both where he created the famous The Last Supper for the Sforza family. Both families similarly hired artists to construct statuary and building in their honor.

Indeed, it’s hard to deny the patron’s money contributed to awe-inspiring cultural advances and the development of art. It is even harder to deny the hypocrisy of the Catholic Church, where they change the main purpose of religious art, or traditional art, to their personal political agenda. Above all, changes in patronage have meant wide changes in the nature and function of art, specifically religious art.

V. Impressionism: a break away from religious art

Sometime in the 1870s, a group of artists started the impressionism movement as a reaction against the rigid rules of traditional painting (Rathbone & Shackelford, 2001). As religious paintings tend to be controversial, this art movement wanted to break away from the traditional style of painting. The key artists in this movement were Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir. Impressionists aimed to capture the momentary or depict the essence of the subject by using distinctive brush strokes. Impressionist painters break the traditional style by introducing objects in everyday life rather than historical, religious, and classical painting.

The artwork Poppy Field by Claude Monet was one of the famous impressionism arts where he brilliantly used brush strokes to create a blurry effect, adding to the dreamy and abstract mood. The technique of ever-changing light and vibrant colors used produces an ephemeral quality of the subject. This movement perhaps had become the primary influence of fauvism, famously known as wild beasts. Most importantly, the bold colorization of the Fauves had a large influence on expressionism style and numerous artists going forward (Isaak, 2017). Mainly, these painting styles give the artist more freedom in painting and break away from controversial religious art.

VI. Iconoclasm in religious arts

The image and iconography of Jesus are nowadays often used in controversial and insensitive fashion, often for comedic purposes.

· Iconoclasm, a destructive hatred of religious art, has recurred throughout the centuries whenever a reform movement led by fanatics attempts to remove anything visually appealing from a religion. It often does irreparable cultural damage by separating people from their traditions

As shown in the above images, the iconographic imagery of Jesus has spawned renditions of it made for comedic purposes, some by Christians, and some by non-Christians. This understandably creates offense to pious Christians who view it as a mockery of their Lord, whilst non-believers of Christianity do not see the sensitivity and view it as harmless comedy. Iconoclasm can be described as “the action of attacking or assertively rejecting cherished beliefs and institutions or established values and practices” (obtained from Google). Iconoclasm was perhaps most fiery during the Byzantine era when Leo III imposed a ban on religious imagery, which resulted in the removal of said imagery from churches and cathedrals. This was believed to have possibly stemmed from his desire to integrate Muslims and Jews, who were believers of aniconism into their society.

In the modern era, to “destroy” or “assertively reject” a religious image can mean beyond the physical destruction of the paintings, pictures, or artifacts, but the desecration, degradation, and devaluation of its holy status. This can be seen through the pictures above, where imagery of Jesus Christ, the most important figure in Christianity, is made into a joke or used to spread sentiments regarding the commercialization of religion. One could say that this is caused by iconography which enabled mass production, and hence an eased identification of religious characters like Christ, but modern iconoclasm is not restricted to just iconographic religious art.

One of the greatest controversies involving iconoclasm was done by the French media outlet Charlie Hebdo, which produced satirical magazines with the image of the Prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h. The production sparked a massive worldwide outrage amongst Muslims, and several terrorist attacks followed. The cover, which attacked Islamic Fundamentalism used iconoclasm toward Prophet Muhammad to spread their message. The cover is stated in French, “100 lashes if you don’t die laughing” which is perhaps a jab towards Sharia Law.

Comparing the outrages sparked by religions that use iconographic art and religions which are anachronistic, anachronistic religions are more intolerant towards the perversion of their divine characters. This is perhaps understandable because the visual representation of their religious figures is at all prohibited, much less a mockery of it. But the connection does exist, that iconography did indeed spawn iconoclasm, as the iconoclasm of iconographic figures occurs way more often, and modern iconoclasm, which involves desecrating and degrading religious figures, is in itself a distorted form of iconography. Iconoclasm, and the abuse of iconography for political reasons, is perhaps the reason for the decline in iconography in the modern era.

Conclusion

It is undoubtedly that visual arts play a very large relevance in religion. Throughout the eons, many religions have used art to tell stories, pay tribute, as well as use beacons for worshipping. Whether they be sculptures of idols, paintings of epics, images and mosaics of divine figures, or calligraphy, art has been impossible to detach from religion. Its relevance goes beyond the mere representation of certain characters, but a representation of the convictions and beliefs of the religion. For instance, the veil over the face of the Prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h describes the belief in aniconism in Islam, which opposes the idolatry of divine figures, as it is viewed as a form of association with God.

In other religions than Islam, the most popular form of art is undoubtedly iconography. Iconography has spawned its fair share of controversy, whether it be political or social, there are some strong claims about the invalidity of some uses of iconography. However, it cannot be denied that iconography is all the same and very relevant to the religions of this world, ancient or contemporary. In some religions like Hinduism, iconography is a core aspect of their religion, and the use of sculptured idols is pivotal in Pooja or the devotional worship of one or more deities.

To sum it up, arts is indeed a crucial mainstay in religion, whether it be in a positive or negative aspect. It is something we see every day and is a part of our lives as believers of religion. Whether it is the calligraphy of Allah’s name in mosques, mosaics of Jesus and the Virgin Mary in churches, Symbolism in synagogues, or idol sculptures of Vishnu in temples, visual arts play a large role in religion, and its relevance is tantamount to the very practicing of said religions.

ABSTRACT

An era of excellent intellectual fervor in the 1600s and 1700s resulted to the Protestant Reformation and the decline of civil and political power in the catholic Church throughout Europe. The growth of the social groups supporting science, democracy, political freedom and rational investigation was known as the Enlightenment during this time. Civil officials were challenged and the relations between the institutions of a nation and its people created fresh concepts. These ideas created a period of revolutions to overthrow the monarchy and establish democratically elected governments in the late 1700s.

Origins of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was a European academic motion that could be described from themid-17th to the beginning of the 18th decade. Though many items were decided, Enlightenment intellectuals did not have a prevalent perspective or an ideology. Moreover, the Enlightenment characterizes the creation of fresh science and argument-based methods that allow researchers and philosophers to find truths about the natural world and culture. These thinkers mainly operated outside the current religion and government energy systems.

Science and Reason

At the beginning of the 16th century the growth of the Renaissance in Florence in the Late Middle Ages brought certain thoughts from classical Greco-Roman philosophers into European culture. The Renaissance distributed across Europe. Thus, the Enlightenment Thoughtists regarded themselves the most contemporary and peaceful men in history, because of their emphasis on science and logic. It happened simultaneously with the Lighting, and many of its findings affected man’s study of human society. Galileo expressed the concept of the Earth during this era, and Sir Isaac Newton created his gravitational hypothesis.

Newton also researched calculus and many of his key concepts have been created. The fundamental research of calculus was probably perfected by his competitor, German physicist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, but Newton claims to have accomplished so. Calculus has been important because, as you will see later on, this concept of infinity that is fundamental to calculation brought about a lot of friction with ecclesiastical authorities. The finding of dinosaur fossils throughout the globe has also upset Christian politicians as their presence questioned the precise timing of the development of the globe.

These and many other science findings have informed young intellectuals that the natural world does not always match what was learned. Long-term European concepts about natural communities have also been questioned, because European scientists have carried ever more accurate data from the remainder of the globe. It became clear to the minds of the Enlightenment that many items which individuals generally thought were real of mankind were simply characteristics of European culture. These achievements resulted to fresh concepts on epistemology or wisdom research.

Their reliance on evidence to determine the world’s truths also increased. The English writer John Locke created the most significant concept of epistemology from the Enlightenment. Locke has claimed that human beings evolve and analyze the feedback from their emotions, all of their thoughts. The mind can track the emotions and derive findings from them by implementing thought.

Intellectuals involved in a wide-ranging investigation into the essence of mankind and life in the Republic of Letters. Intelligent. The philosophers called themselves, a word they thought would encapsulate the whole essence of their job. The political and cultural organisations of the day were most known, often because they were working for them. As a scholar, propagandeur and statesman Voltaire was for a moment working in France, for example.

Whig Party began, Shaftesbury. They feel forced to overhaul the whole Western civilization as well as their own nations. As such, they could connect with like-minded intellectuals overseas and the philosophers felt that this internet of connection belonged to an International Republic of Literature. In theory, everyone could criticize others in the words constitution and often found conflict with one another’s concepts.

Most philosophers have concentrated their criticisms on culture and politics. While several of their works were published in simple treaties, their reviews were often made in commentary in books or in films. In an effort to show a reader or listener how absurd personalities are, the writers use irony and humor. This assisted the public to easily connect fictional stories with their own life.

Naturally, the individuals they spoiled did not generally value their signal, and many of the philosophers lived years in exile. Although several continental philosophers praised England, many of them lived in France as a free society. The Kingdom not only had created an increasingly intrusive and bothering government criticism of the Kingdom. When French state failed, it became more and more susceptible to the devastation of public disgust.

The majority of radical philosophers distributed their thoughts around the authorized book industry through the shadowy semi-secret underworld. All comics had to be authorized by censors at that moment in Paris. Publishers who have discovered prohibited data printing libraries could be punished by serious sanctions. Writers–for mocking the King and Catholic church, Diderot and Voltaire served some time jail.

Expansion of the Public Sphere

In the 18th centuries European culture saw the rise of the government domain, Germany philosopher Juergen Habermas claims. The public sphere, in the European community, is defined as one where people discuss and exchange opinions in popular fields, such as cafes and magazines, evolved beyond state influence. Habermas ‘ concept separates the fresh public sphere from the earlier existing representative culture of the individuals depicted by representatives of the framework of authority. Habermas ‘ view of a government domain is somewhat idealized, but it is helpful to show how social modifications stimulated the Enlightenment during the 17th and 18th decades. The development of a learning culture in which the thoughts of the philosophers could rapidly disperse was one of the decisive components for the achievement of the lightning.

In the 18th century, literacy grew extensively, so that more individuals could study philosophers ‘ novels. In addition, the learning habit of the general population has altered along with the rise in literacy. People often studied a couple of novels in the background repeatedly, and they were often read aloud to a small audience. With the progress of illumination, however, individuals started to purchase more novels from themselves, and instead of in one community they studied them individually.

In this era cafes and coffee houses were also read. In the 1650s, Oxford launched its first English tea shops, and in the 1680s its first French cafes opened. As such, they often contain distillation of certain concepts and critiques that the philosophers have created, but they have to be seen as coarse critique rather than as the satirical writings of Enlightenment intellectuals.

The Enlightenment and Religion

In some cases, the parishes reacted against Enlightenment authors and sometimes endorsing Enlightenment ideals or texts. The numerous religions of Europe also reacted with different authors of Enlightenment. In France, a swift condemnation came from King Louis XIV, who repealed the Nantes Edict, which the French government had tolerated by the Calvinistic Huguenot minority. In the eighteenth century the British government implemented legislation making Catholicism illegal in Ireland and England. Protestants and the territories of northern Europe underwent devastation against each other.

Sometimes researchers were severely banned, others were not, perhaps because science findings became common with the readership. The Catholic Church has shown that researchers must be attentive to what Galileo was released, a favourite of the papacy. For instance, Descartes hesitated to release his Le Monde in his life because it contested the conceptions of Aristotle and Aristotle’s work was essential to Catholic Church doctrine. After Descartes ‘ murder, Le Monde was only released in 1664.

However, most researchers no longer had mentions to God in the second quarter of the eighteenth century. Part of the cause for this shift was that certain intellectuals had started to regard the Christian God in a distinct manner from most Christians. This fresh faith scheme was known as deism. Deists thought God made the world, impregnating all people with morality and a feeling of his life.

In contrast to Christian denominations, deists however claimed that God was not involved in daily existence. On the option of no God, a claim that at that moment was very radical and often created exclusively publicly, was suggested only by a few Enlightenment intellectuals, including Thomas Jefferson. In his life, Jefferson held his Christian beliefs vague, but there were no supernatural verses in his Jefferson Bible. However, all these views are cases where the minds of Enlightenment tried to use justification to examine their spiritual beliefs.

Pietism is called the Protestant version of the novel, and Jansenism is called the opposite of the Catholic movement. In Germany, the UK, and the British settlements in North America, Pietism became common and included teaching to the Moravian brothers and Methodists. The latter was arranged by a group of teenage Anglican ministers under Charles and John Wesley and Charles Whitfield, drawing huge audiences of fans. Although important distinctions existed in Pietist and Jansenist theologies, a more private relationship with God–which often clearly separates the priests–was fundamental to both.

The empowered Christians initially felt sympathetic to and communicated in the research of the values of science and purpose championed by Enlightenment intellectuals. Those with the effects of deism often left no space for ideas such as guilt, damnation and salvation through the murder of Jesus Christ in their spiritual faith. This denial of supernatural aspects of religion could not be accept by the awakened Christians. The waking Christian movements had become strong adversaries of deism by the 19th decade.

Summary

Thinkers in the field of education have created fresh scientific and rational methods to study the earth. Communication between philosophers has established a’ democracy of correspondence in which thoughts have been exchanged and discussed throughout Europe. The main nations for Enlightenment intellectuals were Great Britain and France. The comparatively free and open society in Britain was valued by enlightenment intellectuals, but Paris was the focus of philosopher operation. In the 18th century Europe, the Enlightenment was assisted by the growth of a learning culture. The development of cafes and coffee houses gave more individuals an opportunity to debate the thoughts they were reading about. They were educated. The illumination is essential because many of the concepts developed during this era shape the foundation of a contemporary democratic capitalist society. The audience was often more interested in a slower ticket at the moment of the Enlightenment, however.

Many of these concepts from mainstream Christianity were at the moment questioned by the Enlightenment. This led to the development of many ancient philosophers and researchers in such a manner that the ecclesiastical officials would not be offended. Intendance of the intellectuals to revive their Christian societies corresponded with the wide-ranging awakenings of Pietism and Jansenism within Christianity.

Introduction:

The Middle Ages, often referred to as the Medieval period, witnessed a deep intertwining of religion and art. During this era, Christianity played a central role in the lives of people, influencing various aspects of society, including artistic expression. This analytical essay explores the significance of religion to art in the Middle Ages, examining how religious beliefs, themes, and patronage shaped the artistic production of the time.

Body:

Religious Devotion and Inspiration:

Religion was a pervasive force in the Middle Ages, and it deeply influenced artistic creation. The Church held immense power, and religious devotion was a central aspect of people’s lives. Artworks such as illuminated manuscripts, stained glass windows, and religious sculptures were created to inspire and reinforce religious faith. Artists drew inspiration from biblical narratives, saints, and religious rituals, using their skills to convey spiritual messages to the masses.

Depiction of Religious Themes and Iconography:

Religious themes dominated artistic representations in the Middle Ages. Artists depicted scenes from the life of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and saints, as well as biblical stories and parables. These artworks served to educate and inspire the faithful, illustrating important religious teachings and providing visual aids for worship and devotion. Religious iconography, such as the crucifixion, Madonna and Child, and Last Judgment, became prevalent symbols in medieval art, reinforcing the religious significance of these themes.

Symbolism and Allegory:

Religious art in the Middle Ages often employed symbolism and allegory to convey deeper spiritual meanings. Artists used visual symbols and metaphorical imagery to communicate theological concepts and moral teachings. For example, the use of halos to represent holiness, the depiction of animals symbolizing different virtues or vices, and the inclusion of specific colors with symbolic associations all contributed to the layered meanings embedded in religious artworks.

Church Patronage and Artistic Production:

The Church played a pivotal role in supporting and commissioning artistic works during the Middle Ages. Ecclesiastical institutions, such as monasteries, cathedrals, and abbeys, served as patrons of the arts, providing financial support and resources for artistic projects. The Church’s patronage ensured the proliferation of religious art and the preservation of cultural and religious heritage. Artists were often sponsored by religious orders, and their works were intended for religious spaces, reinforcing the Church’s authority and teachings.

Ritual and Worship:

Religious art in the Middle Ages served a practical purpose in facilitating worship and religious rituals. The use of elaborate altarpieces, processional crosses, and liturgical objects enhanced the ceremonial aspects of worship. These artworks created a visually immersive environment that helped believers engage with their faith and participate in religious rituals. The grandeur and beauty of religious art aimed to elevate the spiritual experience of the faithful and foster a sense of awe and reverence.

Conclusion:

Religion held immense significance in the Middle Ages, and its influence on art was profound. Religious devotion, themes, iconography, symbolism, and patronage shaped the artistic production of the time. The integration of religion into art served various purposes, including inspiring faith, educating the masses, reinforcing religious teachings, and facilitating worship. Through their artistic creations, medieval artists contributed to the spiritual and cultural fabric of society, leaving behind a rich legacy of religious art that continues to be appreciated and studied today. The importance of religion to art in the Middle Ages cannot be overstated, as it reflects the deep spiritual and cultural values of the period.

Television effects on religion

Most people argue that the presence of television as a medium of communication is the root cause of religious issues in media in a profound way. The aspect has perceived the reality about religion, and because of this, the religious values have been tampered with. Christianity radically shapes everything in one life. However, different media programs have changed religion by far and beyond. TV programs, for instance, those that air fundamentally secular programs have contributed significantly to the depleting of moral values.TV preachers are usually the starts are always attractive and affluent like movie stars. However, the worship of TV is not participatory, and the audience only sits at home observes but lacks communal worship experience like group singing, the liturgy of praying. The church is regarded as a whole place where people gather and worship with referenced. Still, there is no comparable sacred space while watching religious TV programs from the house, where one may be sitting in dirty or almost naked drinking beer during the sermon.

Pastors have become the center point of providing the worship that is conducive to televisions even when the service itself is not televised. The modern congregation wants to be entertained and amused since they are used to watching evangelist in TVs. The trend has dramatically affected the church since the usual sermons since the congregation wants rock music genres with computerized multimedia presentations in church. When considering these factors, do you think this is the creative way of reaching out to the people, or it’s a method of selling souls? The answer may not be obvious; however, considering the factors, it is evident that the region with television is more misleading than bringing people close to God.

The issue of religion being absent from mainstream entertainment has been declined by many people who still identify themselves as Christians, based on the study, 73% of Americans identify themselves as Christians. However, this number drops significantly when it comes to influences like media entertainment and other factors.Based on the article about Media portrayal of groups, Christianity has been a love or hate relationship with culture and especially media. , historical events technology and innovations has been perceived as the threat to Christianity when it comes to rinsing of Christianity. However, the Catholic Church was able to rise against the Spector of printing press, fearing the ability of the common person to read the bible by himself would undermine the authority of the church.

Portrayal of occupation

The mainstream media has, however, not been active in covering religious matters and dimensions to secular news. According to Hoover, this is because of the number of mistaken beliefs. The first mistake is that once society is more modern and advanced, it becomes more secular and less religious. The facts are widely believed in Americans’ intellectual life, despite the increased poll argument that most Americans are believers. In the traditional period, media was involved in the presentation of religion through journalism. However, the mass media era started with the development of the mass press, together with the development of new audiences with the development of new content. Before the beginning of the mass press, most press in Europe and other areas were partisan in one way or the other. However, the new economy of mass publication meant to be freed from patronage. The effect of media on religion is the central role played by media and the global rituals in public events.

Another aspect is that religions are a private matter, and therefore its s mostly outside the public discourse realm together with the journalist realm. Third, the region may make claims outside beyond the realm of what is known and concrete. Journalism only deals with the verification of sources; however, religion is unverified fundamentally. Religion is complex and difficult to cover in a brief media. Although religion is a controversial subject, therefore, without a particular objective, it is likely to offend someone.

Religious programming

In the United States and some other places across the western parts, religious programming has continued to be a trilling business. Some of the business includes selling and distributing books going against Christian values. Selling music produced by the secular artist in the name of the gospel. Although there were Christian broadcasting and radio programs as well as televisions, modern TV and radio evangelism does not emulate the traditional gospel. Despite the emphasis of evangelism, Christian TV programs attract more unbelievers who serve to reinforce the existing beliefs of the viewers. However, most of these television ministries have been criticized because of gaining tax advantage while imploring viewers

Conclusion

There is a need for the mainstream media to make more consistent while affirming the religious sources, instead of believing in the non-affirming and negative religious voices. Overlooking the mainstream media and affirming the sources, journalists can contribute as well as perpetuate the deal that the religious are identifies by definition, unlike mainstream media equality. When looking at the organizations represented explicitly by religious believers, there is a common profile of cultural; conservativeness that seeks to influence political debate. The idea is made possible through the biblical and Christian values that explicit the endorsement of the governmental services people.

Finally, the media need to be fair and accurate on how religious voices are presented. Favoring the evangelical voices of evangelical Christian as well as Roman Catholics is not appropriate, accurate, nor balancing. Therefore the mainstream media should eliminate the assumptions about religiosity, sexuality, values and other intersection within the voices and their influential presence in the news. Religious programs like Christian broadcasting and religious professionals are not well represented on us televisions. When they are shown, they look more saintly but with shallow characters with worst and vicious hypocrites hiding behind extreme evils. Such characters need to be evoked and all other criticism of the program that is against Christianity.