Category: Art 2722

Introduction

For many decades, artists have conveyed their opinions and advocated for their rights through their creations. The artist this paper presents is Ana Mendieta, a Cuban-American woman known for her outstanding installations and performances. One of the major themes her work is related to is the body in art. Mendieta used her body to advocate for womens rights, address objectification, and outline the connection between the female body and nature. At the same time, her art related to the Second Wave of the feminist movement and was created within its political context. This paper argues that the theme of the body in art is crucial for delivering messages related to political and societal issues.

Ana Mendietas Art

Ana Mendieta was a notable woman known for her performances aimed at highlighting the issues that were important to her. She was a Cuban-born American artist famous for her Earth art, practices of Santeria, and installations (Baker, 2016). The primary themes of her works included femininity, the questions of exile and nationality, and the aspects of Latin American cultures (Wanderley, 2017).

One of the techniques Mendieta used in her art is delivering her message through her body. For instance, she used the reprint of her body in video and photos and took pictures of her naked body in outdoor locations (DeWitte, Larmann, & Shields, 2018). Moreover, Mendieta utilized materials associated with the Earth, such as flowers or rocks, to fill in the silhouette of her body. It is possible to say that the body and its connection with nature was a large part of the womans art, as she used it to represent strength and nourishment.

Photography was one of the primary means Mendieta used for conveying her ideas. For her, it could be a way to ensure that her creative actions would be preserved and understood in the future (Wanderley, 2017). Moreover, she took pictures of her performances, aiming at recording them for the coming generations. It is possible to say that Mendieta chose photography as a mean of conveying her ideas because it could actualize the meaning of her art at any time.

It is possible to say that the artist wanted to affect not only society of her time, but also the people that would analyze her art in the later decades. It was significant for her to reflect on the struggles women had in her works and tell future generations about them.

It is possible to say that Mendieta selected the theme used in her works to convey her perspectives and advocate for her values. The woman lived during the Second Wave of feminism, which affected her viewpoints and inspired her art. McKenzie (2016) reports that, at that time, feminists tried to reclaim the female body from being perceived as a fetishized passive object in the patriarchal view.

Mendieta placed her body in natural environments because she wanted to align women and nature in her works (McKenzie, 2016). As a result, the artists works were considered essentializing; they revealed a connection with societys matriarchal past. One of the primary ideas Mendietas art implied was that if one day patriarchy began, it could also come to an end (McKenzie, 2016). It is possible to say that the woman used her body to advocate for all womens ones.

It is evident that Mendietas works were created in the time when making art was associated with political engagement. At that period, artists advocated for their rights and personal freedoms through creative interventions, including the ones that involved the body (Wanderley, 2017). Installations and performances were common because they allowed creative people to convey their ideas in ways that many people could understand. Moreover, many individuals at that time participated in promoting womens rights, trying to challenge the social roles imposed on the gender and eliminate objectification of female bodies.

Mendieta highlighted the significance of womens bodies and their connection with nature, noting that her works allow her to reestablish the bonds binding her with the Universe (Wanderley, 2017, p. 320). Her art can also be seen as a sign that she refused to attach herself with any identity, including ethnic and national ones. Thus, in a way, Mendietas works were aimed at reflecting the political and societal aspects of the artists life and society at that time.

Conclusion

Ana Mendieta is one of the most notable artists of her time. One of the significant themes she presented was the significance of the body in art. Mendietas works reveal that the woman strived to address the issues that challenged society of her time, including those related to feminism, womens rights, and the perceptions of the female body. The artists creations involved the use of reprints of her body, pictures in outdoor locations, installations, and performances. Her works implied that womens bodies are closely related to nature. This paper revealed that this theme in art is significant for addressing the issues of political and societal contexts, as it allows creative individuals to express their ideas through their bodies.

References

DeWitte, D., Larmann, R. M., & Shields, M. K. (2018). Gateways to art (3rd ed.). London, England: Thames & Hudson.

Baker, E. A. (2016). To be magic: The art of Ana Mendieta through an ecofeminist lens. Web.

McKenzie, L. (2016). Women in unity: Re-imaging the female body in art. eTropic, 15(1), 123-141.

Wanderley, O. D. C. L. (2017). Neither here nor there: Traces of the feminine in the photoperformances of Ana Mendieta. Comunicação e Sociedade, 32, 319-330.

Environmental problems concern society, and this issue is reflected in various ideas, such as science fiction books or films. The movie Snowpiercer, directed by Bong Joon-ho, represents the world of the future, where, in an attempt to stop global warming, humanity has frozen the planet. The last people were forced to hide on the train, which non-stop traveled around the world  a circle in a year. Even though the film is fiction, some of its ideas make one think about modern society.

The film makes one look critically at the gap between rich and poor. According to the plot, people on the train are distributed into classes  in the first, comfortable cars, rich people are located, and in the later ones  the poor population is gathered. The comfort of the first group is achieved by depriving the last cars. In this way, the plot reflects how prosperous countries and corporations in the modern world use the labor of developing, poorer countries.

The film also contains ideas of sustainability that could be useful to society. In particular, the train is served autonomously; for example, glaciers are melted by the engine, and as a result, water flows through all cars. Moreover, the sustainability ideas are reflected in support of the aquatic ecosystem  the number of fish is controlled for an ideal balance so that the system does not die. Such an idea should manifest itself in a respectful attitude towards nature and a decrease in consumerism in the real world.

The film makes a strong impression  many stories and moments are surprising, often in unpleasant ways. The disclosure of the idea of the trains founder to maintain a certain number of people there, to which the films entire plot led, is most dramatic. Although I do not find the films story realistic, its ideas still represent the truth. The plot makes one think about human nature, the importance of preserving the planet, and other critical issues.

Work Cited

Snowpiercer. Directed by Bong Joon-ho, The Weinstein Company, 2013.

This painting has a shape based on a combination of different geometric shapes. It can be noted that a combination of various straight and broken lines is used. It should be noted that this picture can be described based on the expressive theory of evaluation, due to the peculiarities of its cubism style (Frank, 2018). Although the depicted shapes, lines, and color spots are stationary, they are perceived dynamically due to the movement of the gaze. Thus, time and motion are manifested in the picture due to the fact that the viewer is trying to consider various details scattered throughout the picture. Speaking of color, it is worth saying that the painting uses a fairly bright range, combining shades of green, red, blue and yellow. Moreover, Pablo Picasso leaves a small amount of space in the painting, occupying it with all the details depicting a woman and her surroundings.

Objects, text, their size and shape, color and texture  they all have a weight that must be taken into account in the balance so that the final result looks organic. There is a radial balance in which all objects are arranged in a circle in this picture. Due to Cubism, Picasso focuses the viewers emphasis on light, which is reflected in the use of contrast techniques. In this picture, the importance of various details of the environment is emphasized by various shades and combinations of colors. Furthermore, in this picture, the scale and proportions are violated since, visually, it strives for diversity through the use of various techniques of cubism. The emphasis and subordination of objects in the picture are manifested through a combination of colors, where the use of warm shades brings the subject to the foreground, and cold tones are pushed to the background.

This painting was painted in 1932 during the period of Picassos work associated with Cubism. It depicts Marie-Theresa Walter, who served as one of the main muses of the artist (Masterworks Fine Art, 2021). In this work, my attention was drawn to how a skillful combination of colors and shapes creates a feeling of softness of a womans body and the hardness of the objects surrounding her. In my opinion, the subject matter of the work is to create an image of a woman and demonstrate that painting is no longer the only way to display artistic images in their usual perception. This work affects me in the sense that it allowed me to see how it is possible to display the characteristics of various objects and people without resorting to realism.

This type of portrait painting is characterized by the use of free space behind the person depicted. Furthermore, the background shades are often dark, which allows the artist to emphasize the color, brightness, and liveliness of a womans skin. Exposed to the conditions of realism, the artist uses clear lines that correspond to the contour of the body and clothing items. This picture should be viewed from the contextual theory of evaluation, as this is followed by several factors related to realism (Frank, 2018). Dutch-Flemish painting of the XVII century reflected in such detail the contemporary historical era that today it is possible to restore family life, leisure, interior, and fashion from artists paintings. Moreover, in this picture, it should be noted the skillful use of light and shadow in order to convey the shape of clothing. Another essential factor that gives this picture time and motion is an accurate image of the face, according to which the viewer can recreate the psychological and emotional state of a woman.

Based on the features of this picture, its scale and proportions should be highlighted. Through the use of those techniques, a stately, aristocratic image of a woman who feels like a real one is transmitted. In the transfer of characteristic qualities, it is essential to be able to analyze, highlighting the main thing in the general mass. In this picture, there is a clear emphasis and subordination of all the details of the face and clothes aimed at conveying the character of a woman. Furthermore, in this case, the artist resorts to the pronounced use of contrast between the shades of the background, clothing and skin of a woman in order to most clearly outline the brightness and liveliness for a more detailed transfer of each detail of the person being imitated. It should be noted that this picture has a symmetrical balance, which makes the womans face the main object of the viewers attention. In this way, the unity and integrity of the picture are maintained, and variety is manifested by crossing out various details of clothing and accessories.

Jan Anthonis van Ravesteyn has shown himself to be a talented portraitist, the creator of both individual and group portraits. Due to the exceptional The 17th century was recognized as the Golden Age of Dutch Painting because of the remarkable quality of the work created, and its painters had a profound effect on the visual arts across Europe (The Art Story, 2021). In this work, I was attracted by the special use of light and shadow, and background shades and clothes to emphasize the face. All this contributes to a more accurate psychological and emotional state transmission. In my opinion, the subject matter of this picture is to convey the status and aristocracy of a woman. This work affects me in the aspect that it demonstrates how alive the person in the picture can feel and how easily the viewers can relate to the character of the person depicted.

References

Frank, P. (2018). Prebles artforms (12th ed.). Pearson.

Masterworks Fine Art. (2021). Marie-Thérèse walter. Masterworks Fine Art Gallery.

The Art Story. (2021). Dutch Golden Age painting movement overview.

Introduction

Studying the orchestral score is the very first stage of the conductors training before rehearsal. Merely reading the score without analyzing the parts does not cover the entire range of artistic meanings embedded in the composition. In the process of preparing, the conductor should pay serious attention to the content and interpretation of the melody, be able to identify the principal elements and forms of the score of the work. This essay will consider the process of research and assimilation of the score by the conductor.

Main body

For any conductor, it is essential to create the right atmosphere during the rehearsal so that the team members can use the rehearsal time rationally. To achieve this, the conductor, as a group leader, may choose the repertoire for future performance. Studies show that conductors often use the advice of their colleagues to select a composition¹. The correct primary analysis of musical composition should include a retrospective note. The conductor needs to understand the era in which the composer lived, the important moments of his work, and the history of his composition.

A more severe study involves working directly with the score. It can be studied in a variety of ways, from listening to a recording to performing on a piano. Because of their instrumental specialty, conductors tend to prefer this instrument because it can convey the fullest range of sounds, both polyphonic and homophonic. Personal sympathies and professional experience determine the difference in the methods used by a particular conductor.

Besides, at this stage, the conductor clarifies the orchestras composition and determines the means of expressiveness of the piece. He defines such details as form, tempo, rhythm, and some peculiarities of the presentation of musical material. The optimal variant for the research is a studying block by block, even if it takes a lot of time². Such an analysis makes it possible to understand the dramaturgy of the work better.

Having made a detailed melodic analysis of the work, the conductor completes the work by displaying strokes. The strokes in the score are a way of performing the sounds that define the character of the sound. Also, many conductors on the draft of their score tend to take notes that make it easier to understand³. The realization of all the conductors artistic ideas is possible only if all the stages of score research are correctly followed.

It is quite natural that in the process of in-depth work on the work, the conductor has new ideas that have the potential to change the original performance plan. Therefore, the research of the score is completed with the broadest possible reflection on the work done. In this process, various associations are inevitably born, analogies that develop creative imagination and artistic imagination, help to feel and understand the job better.

Conclusion

To sum up, it is essential to note that the process of preparing a conductor for the performance of a musical composition begins with the study of the score. It is imperative to go through all the stages mentioned above in the survey to fully understand how a melody is constructed. In this case, the conductor will be able to control the course of the future rehearsal, and his attention will be focused not on the issues of following the music plan, but on the orchestra management. All this together will allow him to draw up a correct work plan and conduct a rehearsal with the orchestra in a productive manner.

Bibliography

Bell, Eamonn Patrick, and Laurent Pugin. Approaches to Handwritten Conductor Annotation Extraction in Musical Scores. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Digital Libraries for Musicology, New York, 2016, 33-36. New York, NY: ACM, 2016.

Chandler, Martin. The Information Searching Behaviour of Music Directors. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 14, no. 2 (2019): 85-99.

Sharp, Timothy W. Precision Conducting: Seven Disciplines for Excellence in Conducting. London: Roger Dean Publishing Company, 2003.

Footnotes

1. Martin Chandler, The Information Searching Behaviour of Music Directors, Evidence-Based Library and Information Practice 14, no. 2 (2019): 95.
2. Timothy W. Sharp, Precision Conducting: Seven Disciplines for Excellence in Conducting (London: Roger Dean Publishing Company, 2003), 19.
3. Eamonn Patrick Bell and Pugin Laurent, Approaches to handwritten conductor annotation extraction in musical scores, in Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Digital Libraries for Musicology, New York, 2016, (New York, NY: ACM, 2016), 33.

The world of art of the 16th or 17th century differed from the contemporary one and was characterized by absolute male domination. Only a few female artists managed to succeed and gain fame in art until the 19th century. Nevertheless, there is a woman whose outstanding artistic performance brought her fame already in the 17th century. Her name is Artemisia Gentileschi, and she is an Italian Baroque artist who was not treated as an important contributor to the history of art until 1970 when art researchers reconsidered her position in art and society.

Thus, the researchers stated that Artemisia Gentileschi is the first woman in the history of western art to make a significant and undeniably important contribution to the art of her time (Buckley, 2013, p. 832). Gentileschi is a follower of the naturalistic tradition developed by Caravaggio. She managed to bring it to a new level. Nevertheless, her name and artistic heritage are currently studied to feministic tradition. This essay analyzes some major works by Artemisia Gentileschi in the feministic context.

Evaluation of Work of Artemisia Gentileschi

Artemisia Gentileschi was a rebel in her artistic career and opposed the accepted taboos of Counter-Reformation taboos. Thus, the first painting that introduced her to the artistic world, Susanna and the Elders, was a challenge. At that time, female artists were expected to paint portraits and still life, and the plot developed by Gentileschi was not acceptable (Poggioli, 2016). Artemisia Gentileschi was eager to break archaic traditions of art typical of that period, which resulted in a valuable contribution to artistic heritage.

Some of her paintings are characterized by cruelty and violence. For example, the one titled Judith Slaying Holofernes depicts a biblical scene where Judith is beheading Holofernes. The focus of the painting is on the courage and beauty of a woman. Some of her works are autobiographic. For example, apart from self-portraits, Gentileschi has a work Lucretia, which depicts an image of a woman from classical mythology who was raped.

Artemisia Gentileschi as an Early Feminist

It can be supposed that the life and artistic career of Artemisia Gentileschi was significantly influenced by her rape at the age of 17 (Buckley, 2013). Her pieces of art created during and after the trial over her abuser are treated as symbols of revenge against the man who raped her (Poggioli, 2016, para. 14).

Moreover, this sad event had an impact on her perception of a woman who appears to be powerful and strong in her paintings. Thus, her famous work Judith Slaying Holofernes depicts females who demonstrate superiority over a man. Also, her paintings of that period involved the topics of defiance and freedom. On the whole, both her paintings that depict the tendencies of female empowerment and her success as a female painter made Gentileschi a feminist inspirer some centuries after her death. Nevertheless, at times of their creation, her works of art were not associated with feminist ideas.

Conclusion

To summarize, it should be mentioned that Artemisia Gentileschis heritage can be treated in different ways. On the whole, most of the researchers conclude that her works open a new direction in painting and introduce women into the artistic world. As the first woman accepted in the academy of design, she became an example to follow for other female painters. Apart from her contribution to the history of art, Artemisia Gentileschi is considered to be a great female artist who stimulated the development of the feminist movement.

References

Buckley, P. (2013). Artemisia Gentileschi, 15931653. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(8), 832-833. 

Poggioli, S. (2016). Long seen as victim, 17th century Italian painter emerges as feminist icon. 

Summary

The chapter Narciso Ibañez-Serrador, Horrormeister by Antonio Lazaro-Reboll is a detailed analysis of Ibañez-Serradors horror production specifically for television. The author focuses on two films by Serrador  La residencia / The Finishing School and ¿Quién puede matar a un niño? / Who Can Kill a Child? The author starts by highlighting a research gap in the current journalistic approaches to the works by Serrador by noting that the available literature offers a general overview of this filmmakers television career and cinematic output. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to fill this gap and address Serradors key role in the history of Spanish horror movies by highlighting how he created the right atmosphere for this film genre to become popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

The author focuses on three major threads in this chapter. The first one discusses the relationship of Serradors horror genre production specifically for television and film or simply international horror traditions. The second thread focuses on how Serradors works became the guise through which critics would start addressing other issues surrounding the cultural status and together with the quality of Spanish television and cinema. This pretext led to critical notions including cultural esteem, respectability, quality TV and cinema, institutional policies, television and film criticism, and taste and distaste regarding industrial production. Finally, the chapter considers how Alfred Hitchcock, who is termed as the master of suspense par excellence, became a model through which Serrador would use to introduce himself to Spanish television and audiences. Lazaro-Reboll also explores how Hitchcock became the decisive yardstick through which critics reviewed Serradors works of film. The chapter ends with 22 notes, which the author uses to expound some of the issues mentioned in his writing.

Strengths

One of the strengths of this chapter is how the author condenses information in the first paragraph to give the reader an overview of what to be expected. While the opening paragraph is not titled abstract as it should, it gives a concise summary of the entire chapter. As such, by going through this section, the reader could grasp the main ideas and thus decide whether to continue reading the rest of the chapter. Additionally, the author opens by indicating a gap in the current literature concerning Ibañez-Serradors works and specifically his contribution to the development and popularization of horror movies in Spanish cinema. In academic terms, this approach would be termed as identifying gaps in research. Lazaro-Reboll also gives a statement of purpose by stating clearly what he intends to do in the chapter. He says,

This chapter provides a detailed analysis of Ibañez-Serradors horror production made for television and his two forays into film, La residencia / The Finishing School and ¿Quién puede matar a un niño? and appraises how the directors work legitimated a popular taste in horror which was formative for generations of Spanish television audiences (Lazaro-Reboll 97).

Additionally, the paper is divided into different sub-sections with each part labeled with a clear heading for the reader to follow through what the author is writing about. The chapter is also written in simple language that can be understood by a wide variety of audiences. Anyone interested in knowing the history of Spanish horror movies and the role that Ibañez-Serrador played in the popularization of this genre can read and understand this chapter. The author also uses numerous references to support his claims. This aspect improves the credibility of the arguments made and the general outlook of the chapter. Different horror movies are also referenced as proof of the authors claims.

Another strength of this chapter is the correct presentation of ideas especially when analyzing the movie ¿Quién puede matar a un niño? / Who Can Kill a Child? Lazaro-Reboll gives a precise synopsis of the movie by highlighting major events that occurred. For instance, in the movie, children have become violent and killed all adults on the island. The author captures all the details surrounding this event. For instance, in one of the lines he says, Tom witnesses a girl bludgeoning an old man to death and the macabre game the children play with the corpse (Lazaro-Reboll 117). Anyone who has watched the movie will attest that this narration is a true account of the events happening in the film. The author also gives a detailed account of the scene where Tom kills children before he is shot by a Spanish policeman on boat patrol. Lazaro-Reboll explores the controversies created by this film after it was released and gives primary references on how Ibañez-Serrador responded to such criticisms. Therefore, the chapter is easy to read and being supported with numerous primary references, it comes out as credible writing.

Weaknesses

The first noticeable weakness of this chapter is the extensive use of the Spanish language. For a start, the title is written in Spanish  Narciso Ibañez-Serrador, Horrormeister: Historias Para No Dormir (1966-8), La residencia (1969) and ¿Quién puede matar a un niño? (1976). Additionally, the subtopics are also written in Spanish. Therefore, a reader who does not understand this language might not understand fully the information that the author intends to put across.

The main purpose of communication is to pass information, and if this goal is not achieved, communication cannot be said to have taken place. In this case, Lazaro-Reboll does not communicate clearly to his non-Spanish speaking audience. Second, while the author uses numerous references within the text, he does not provide a list of references at the end of the chapter. Therefore, if the reader wants to confirm a certain claim made in the text, it becomes difficult to trace the source that has been used to support such an argument. Third, the images used in chapter are in blurred black and white color, which is not appealing to the eyes. They may not add any meaning to the text, which negates the purpose of their usage in the first place.

Conclusion

In the chapter, Narciso Ibañez-Serrador, Horrormeister, Antonio Lazaro-Reboll, the author, gives a detailed account of how Narciso Ibañez-Serrador contributed significantly to the development and popularization of horror movies in Spanish cinema. However, the journalistic approach towards this matter tend to generalize Serradors achievements, and thus the author seeks to fill this gap in the available literature. Two movies  La residencia and ¿Quién puede matar a un niño? are used to show how Serrador shaped the course of Spanish horror film industry. The chapters strengths lie in the usage of simple language and organization of different subsections to allow an uninterrupted flow of ideas. However, the author overuses the Spanish language, which might not be ideal for English-speaking audiences.

Works Cited

Lazaro-Reboll, Antonio. Narciso Ibañez-Serrador, Horrormeister. Spanish Horror Film. Edinburgh University Press, 2012, pp. 97-126.

Who Can Kill a Child? Directed by Narciso Ibañez-Serrador, performances by Lewis Fiander and Prunella Ransome, Penta Films, 1976.

Art has been instrumental in human development since it contributed to the improvement of cognitive skills. Art has also provided a way for humans to express their thoughts, experiences, and feelings. Storytelling was one of the first forms of art evident in humans and formed a foundation for the development of writing and literature. Hence, examples of early writing are crucial to our understanding of human development and the evolution of writing as a form of expression and communication. The present paper will focus on early writing samples in an attempt to analyze the topics, similarities, and differences evident in them.

First, the samples will be analyzed for their content, and comments on the purpose of writing in each society will be provided. Then, the similarities and differences in letter and symbol form and context will be described. Based on this part of the paper, thoughts on the pattern of development of writing will be offered. There are five examples of early writing presented in the book that come from various geographical and cultural backgrounds: Sumerian, Egyptian, Harappan, Shang Dynasty, and Greek.

Each of the examples focuses on different topics and subjects with little thematic similarity between the samples. First of all, the piece of Sumerian writing is focused on an encounter between the lord of Aratta and a messenger from the lord of Kulaba. The focus of the meeting was on the message inscribed on a clay tablet, which the messenger passed to the lord (Pollard et al. 78). The primary theme of the passage is literacy, as it is said that the messenger was incapable of transmitting the message orally, forcing the lord to inscribe it on a clay tablet. The second sample of writing documents the Egyptian mouth-opening ritual.

Both parts of the passage appear to be a monologue that describes the actions and connects them with the symbolic meaning behind the ritual. The theme of religion is thus at the center of the passage since it mentions Egyptian gods, including Horus, Seth, and Thoth (Pollard et al. 79). The mixture of procedural details and chants makes the passage particularly compelling and establishes its connection to the religion and culture of Ancient Egypt.

Harappan Seal Stones, the Shang Dynasty Oracle Bone, and Greek writing samples were also included in the images, and the content of writing in each example differs significantly. Harappan seal stones depict people and animals and appear to be a collection of visual stories about religious or political events. On the first stone, there is a group of human figures surrounding an animal, which is challenging to identify.

The animal in the second picture appears to be a unicorn, whose image is surrounded by symbols, including an incense burner (Stamp Seal). In the third picture, the author depicted a person sat in a crouched position with symbols inscribed above them. The fourth picture appears to represent a person on a horse, although it is hard to identify the contents any further. The overall theme of these stamp seals seems to be the religious and cultural beliefs of the people of Harappa.

The Shang Dynasty Oracle Bone, which has been partially translated, provides historical details about local events of the time. The passage informs that, despite the kings assurance of peace, there were alarming news about an invasion of borders by hostile neighbors (Pollard et al. 80). The themes of the passage are thus peace, war, and politics in general. Finally, the example of early Greek writing documents wheat collection from local farmers and is therefore focused on agriculture in the community.

The differences in the content of the five samples can be used to analyze how the purpose of writing varied from one society to another. Based on the overview, it is evident that in some cultures, the writing focused mainly on documenting the history and re-telling the events that took place. In the example of Sumerian writing, the description of a seemingly minor event is given in great detail. In the Chinese sample, however, the writing is factual and provides limited explanations.

This suggests that, although both societies used writing for historical purposes, Sumerian writers also aimed to explore the artistic potential of writing, thus providing more linguistically complex explanations and descriptions. Chinese writers, on the contrary, centered their attention on the facts and used writing to report on events. The cultural purpose of writing is also evident in Egyptian and Harrapan samples. Although these examples of writing differ a lot in their form and content, they both focus on documenting religious and cultural ideas.

Still, Egyptian writing also served the purpose of passing on the tradition to future generations, since the procedures of the ritual were recorded in detail. The last example provided in the book suggests that Greek people used writing for more mundane purposes, such as keeping track of commodities. This distinguishes the Greek sample of writing from other examples provided.

While the content and themes of writing samples provide excellent ideas on the differences between societies, it is also necessary to consider the form and context of each piece. Symbols representing syllables and signs were used in most of the examples, thus highlighting linguistic differences that existed across cultures. The shape of symbols in each case is different, with Chinese and Egyptian symbols being more complex and well-developed than Greek writing.

The complexity of inscriptions suggests that these examples of writing were taken from various points of literacy development of their respective societies. Chinese and Egyptian writing is also similar in terms of structure, with both cultures using well-organized vertical lines to represent the text. Harappan seal stones are unique both in terms of their content and purpose and due to the form of the writing. While images are also used in Egyptian writing, Harappan images are more complex and depict scenes rather than symbolizing a particular concept or event.

Another significant point of comparison of the five examples is the objects used for inscriptions. Although clay was used in two of the five samples, the rest of them used varied objects and materials. For example, Harappan people used stone, whereas Chinese inscriptions appeared on a bone. Still, in all of these cases, writing was inscribed on specific, independent objects, such as tablets. This was likely because writing was intended to pass messages from one location to the other, as described in the Sumerian sample. Egyptian writing is unique since it was inscribed on pyramid walls rather than on objects that could be moved around freely. This feature is also likely to be connected to the purpose of the piece, which was to pass on the tradition and provide instructions.

The similarities and differences identified above do not provide a clear answer as to whether the writing spread through borrowing versus independent development, mainly because the samples fulfilled different purposes. However, there are definitely some trends that point to the independent evolution of writing. The dissimilarity of writing forms is one argument in favor of the independent development theory. The visual and structural differences that are evident in the examples of Egyptian, Harappan, Chinese, and Greek writing indicate that these cultures likely developed writing without the influence of one another.

The same suggestion can be made based on the differences in materials. Although clay was arguably the best material for message tablets due to its availability and ease of inscription, it was only used in two of the five examples. If writing had spread through borrowing, different societies would likely use the same writing tools and materials, and the writing itself would have been visually similar.

On the whole, the examples of early writing provided in the book differ a lot in terms of their intended purpose, content, and the technique of writing used. Two of the samples appear to be concerned with reporting events, whereas other examples provide instructions, record commodities, and project cultural symbols. The visual form of writing and the objects and materials used are also dissimilar in most cases. These differences provide evidence in favor of the theory that societies developed writing independently rather than through borrowing. Nevertheless, it is also crucial to acknowledge that the range of writing samples is not sufficient to provide a definite answer. Comparing writing samples with the same purpose and from the same time period could offer more insight into the question.

Works Cited

Pollard, Elizabeth, et al. Worlds Together, Worlds Apart. Concise ed., vol. 1, W. W. Norton & Company, 2015.

Stamp Seal and Modern Impression: Unicorn and Incense burner (?). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2020. Web.

Art pieces relating to the period 1607 AD  1865 AD can be found in the exhibitions of the Kimbell Art Museum, located in Fort Worth, Texas. In this context, particular attention should be paid to the descriptions and analysis of the pieces of French sculpture exhibited in American museums that accentuate tendencies in depicting the nobility of the 18th century. From this perspective, the purpose of this report is to discuss Jean-Antoine Houdons Portrait of Aymard-Jean de Nicolay, Premier Président de la Chambre des Comptes (1779).

The bust of Aymard-Jean de Nicolay was carved in marble by Houdon during the Age of Enlightenment in France, also the same period as the American Revolutionary War. Today, Portrait of Aymard-Jean de Nicolay is one of the prominent artifacts of French cultural and art heritage stored in the collection of Kimbell Art Museum (see Fig. 1). Later, traditional elements of French portrait sculpture such as this were emulated by American sculptors in their representations of famous and influential political figures.

It is important to note that Aymard-Jean de Nicolay was a representative of the noblesse de robe, with his family being responsible for performing certain administrative and judicial functions since the early 16th century. While being referred to as Marquis de Goussainville, Nicolay also performed duties as the First President of the Chambre des Comptes and registered the laws. This influential person was seen as a perfect member of the French nobility; as such, he was interested in having a portrait sculpture only made by the very best sculptor of that period, Houdon.

Houdon was famous for his unique approach to depicting men of nobility with a particular focus on many details in their appearance. As a result, even though carved in marble, his portraits of political or authority figures look realistic in terms of the eyes, hair, and facial expression. Indeed, in Portrait of Aymard-Jean de Nicolay, the viewers attention quickly becomes focused on Nicolays face and eyes because Houdon was among the first sculptors who used a specific technique for carving eyes. Starting with carving the iris, the sculptor then creates a hole for the pupil, while leaving the protruding fragment of marble overhanging the iris. As a result, both eyes look sparkling, as if holding a certain expression.

In viewing Portrait of Aymard-Jean de Nicolay, it is possible to see what facial expression Nicolay had during his life, and this approach to treating eyes in sculpture adds to creating a realistic effect. The eyes of Nicolay seem to attract the viewers attention in comparison to observing rather empty eyes typical of more traditional portrait sculptures. The elements of Nicolays dress are also worthy of examination, especially when looking at the bust in comparison with the elements of clothes worn by influential figures in America in the 18th century.

After visiting the Kimbell Art Museum, it is possible to analyze a variety of artworks that can impress viewers. The choice of Houdons Portrait of Aymard-Jean de Nicolay, Premier Président de la Chambre des Comptes for detailed discussion can be explained by the aspect of its focus on representing nobility in sculpture. In addition, another reason for analyzing this artwork here is the authors interest in Houdons unique and masterful technique of carving the eyes of individuals within portraits made out of marble.

Work Cited

Portrait of Aymard-Jean de Nicolay, Premier Président de la Chambre des Comptes. Kimbell Art Museum, 2019, Web.

Introduction

The modern take on many concepts of art from the past may revitalize outdated ideas with new colors. Artworks change alongside society, and Kehinde Wiley focuses on a single aspect of this shift: the globalization and homogenization of cultures. For this essay, the work Dogon Couple by Kehinde Wiley was selected for its unique take on mixing art conventions from various cultures. In this paper, Dogon Couple will be analyzed for its visual and design elements.

Visual Elements

Like many portraits of Western artists, Wileys Dogon Couple uses tones to create volume, yet the bright shades do not lead strictly to a single point on an image. While the lines of the backdrop are flowing and swirling in the predefined patterns, the black men and their clothes possess realistically chaotic lines that enhance their visual representation. Moreover, such an approach to portraying aligns well with the Western style. The bright colors of the background pattern and the mens clothes create a contrast of lighting between their skin and the textures. Moreover, this effect gives an illusion of volume and space.

Wiley has made an effort to depict mens physiques with great precision, defining a precise texture of an African American. Their shape is as realistic as possible, with no distortions for used emphasis. Such a technique makes this artwork a clear allusion to classical Western compositions yet also puts a contemporary spin on it. There are unusually bright colors associated with hip-hop culture that have a sharp texture, giving the centerpiece an additional flair in comparison with traditional portraits (Wiley). The artists ability to combine clashing values from various styles into a single composition makes Dogon Couple genuinely unique.

Design Principles

This artwork provides its viewers with a static pose of the portrayed people, yet a web of swirling elements that create a stunning contrast in terms of moving parts. The emphasis of this painting is clear, as the two black men in the center are highly realistic in comparison with the background. These people provide a wide variety of forms, colors, and movements that are unified under a single idea of mixed cultures. With a clear focus on correct proportions, each person can be easily mistaken for a photographic image.

There is a particular rhythm that is both flowing and alternating hidden behind the black men. The background pattern deserves an additional examination due to its complexity. Repeated elements and forms are present, yet they do not blend into a single design. Instead, the details are mixed into subgroups that contain the same pattern within each corner of the painting. The selection of ornaments adds a layer of complexity to the composition, as its origins lie in traditional African decorations that are imported from Southeast Asia (Wiley). The lines of the backdrop help viewers remain focused on the center of the painting through repetitive connections that do not distract from the primary composition.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Wiley has created a unique mix of Western and African artistic styles that convey a more profound message regarding cultural appropriation. Despite such a clashing concept, each visual detail appears to be in a place where it complements other elements with surprising precision. The author has achieved such harmony through contrasting colors that create an illusion of volume and lighting, as well as patterns that do not distract from the central point. The design principles express the artists idea of the globalized world through realism and mixed art techniques, yet the balance remains on the two black individuals put in the middle of the swirling African patterns.

Work Cited

Wiley, Kehinde. Dogon Couple. Painting. 2008. Harn Museum, Gainesville, Florida. Harn Museum of Art.

Art Nouveau is a style that arose in the second half of the 19th century and united different branches of advanced art under common stylistic principles. This is not only a painting style; it is manifested in design, fashion, and architecture. When someone talks about the Art Nouveau style, listeners most often imagine the delicate entrances to the Paris Metro or paintings by Gustav Klimt and Muchas posters of soft women covered in flowers and ornaments. However, this style influenced the aesthetics of the entire 20th century, and its influence can be traced to contemporary art and design. Art Nouveau is a style that never died and remains relevant to this day.

Art Nouveau is an ornamental style of art that emerged in its purest form and became popular in America and Europe from the 1890s to the 1910s. In French, Art Nouveau is translated as new art, as the style attempted to modernize design, moving away from the outdated canons that dominated most of the 19th century. The floral elements of the Arts and Crafts movement leader William Morris inspired the decorativeness of the movement. He turned to floral ornaments as a counterweight to industrializations inhuman and mechanized aspects (Li, 2018). Another source of inspiration was Japonism, a movement that borrowed and adapted Japanese traditional arts decorative repertoire and style (Farré, 2021). Popular plant and animal images, such as bamboo, wisteria, sakura, carp, etc., were brought from Japanese art and culture. Special attention deserves the influence of Japanese stained glass windows on creating plastic and natural forms in design and architecture (Farré, 2021). Moreover, Art Nouveau artists turned to the natural world, combined with the analyticity of biological knowledge. For example, decorator Henri Bergé applied botanical designs to thin glassware, combining physical precision and artistic subtlety.

Wavy asymmetric lines at the heart of paintings and designs became the hallmarks of Art Nouveau. These lines sought to be as different as possible from the angular geometrics of industrial objects and to return a sense of naturalness. Art Nouveau images are filled with natural decorative elements woven into lines. The design used a free combination of iron, ceramics, glass, brick, etc. In the 1910s, the artistic community became crowded within Art Nouveau and was generally abandoned due to its narrowness and old-fashionedness. However, the style influenced the development of art; it always manifested itself in one way or another in individual elements and was periodically rehabilitated within other movements.

The Art Nouveau movement was successful and significantly impacted society because it challenged the academic system and old norms. Moreover, this style showed that mass media and crafts could be innovative, creative, and as sophisticated as academic art. This fits well with the start of mass production and cemented Art Nouveaus success in media, design, architecture, jewelry, and household items. The new design became popular, quickly replicated, and distributed as it caused aesthetic pleasure (Ngondonga, 2021). It can be said that Art Nouveau created and redefined the relationship between fine and decorative arts, creating contemporary ideas about design.

Art Nouveau showed how graphics and design can use emotionality, naturalness, and sexuality. Society was amazed and captivated by the idea that household or wardrobe items could be erotic and evoke an emotional response. Humanity needed a visually appealing design for mass-produced products. This opportunity was seized by the Czech artist Alfons Mucha, who painted a poster for the play Gismonda, depicting the sensual and enticing image of Sarah Bernhardt (Sence, 2016). Up to this point, the culture had not used imagery that was so sexy that it assured would-be marketers that sex sold well.

Mucha repeated his success in an advertisement for Job cigarettes, in which in the foreground is a seductive woman enjoying a cigarette and attractively biting her lower lip. The brand name receded into the background, woven into the elements of the background decor. This was an unusual decision, as it was believed that advertising should be practical and the product logo should be read immediately (Sence, 2016). However, Mucha combined the enjoyment of the visual beauty of fine art and the practicality of advertising, as the poster did not let go of the viewers attention and encouraged them to buy cigarettes. Advertising became an art for the masses, and Muchas posters were torn off the street and taken home (Sence, 2016). Art Nouveau helped to lift many of the prohibitions of censorship to introduce into mass culture sexual images that free the female body from traditional prohibitions.

Art Nouveau stylistics has returned to history many times, the most striking of which was the revival of the hippie culture of the 1960s. The poster art of this time became known as Art Nouveau on Acid and was used to decorate psychedelic rock concert posters (Vox, 2019). The flexible lines and floral patterns fit in perfectly with the aesthetic of the 60s generation and were modified with rich, flashy colors and more psychedelic and floating shapes. In addition, the original sensuality and sexuality of Art Nouveau also appealed to the hippie generation, who sought to draw attention to the problems of their contemporary world through the use of emotions.

Art Nouveau has dramatically influenced modern design because contemporary art uses and incorporates elements from all previously created styles. First, Art Nouveau produced a unique, recognizable set of ornaments, designed templates, fonts, and images, which are often used as decorative elements, copied or synthesized with other techniques to get a new vision. For example, there is a Japanese manga, Moon Child at the intersection of Art Nouveau styles and a manga created by artist Reiko Shimizu (Ngondonga, 2021). Any interior design magazine includes Art Nouveau apartments in their selections as this style never goes out of fashion entirely. In 2022, the online magazine Impressive Interior Design published a new piece of interiors in the Art Nouveau style, which indicates an undeniable undying interest in it (Art Nouveau interior design, 2022). Refined beauty and natural lines combined with practicality and functionality captivate people anytime.

Second, Art Nouveau left a more important mark on design  the philosophical perception of design as art for the masses. This is the idea that seeing and creating beauty in everything is vital, not just in sophisticated and elitist works of art. The functionality and practicality of things can and should be combined with beauty and sophistication (Ngondonga, 2021). Art Nouveau broke the line between fine and applied arts, making everyday objects and designing things another type of creative expression available to many people. Ideas in the field of advertising and design, based on a focus on the feelings of a potential buyer, became the basis of the philosophy of design and marketing. Modern design practices are built on emotional impact, sex sells, visual appeal, and practicality.

Art Nouveau was a revolutionary style that set itself and fulfilled an utterly new task  understanding the industrial revolution, the fruits of industrialism, and the emerging modern world order. This style was forced to combine the incongruous  using industrial materials to create graceful works inspired by nature. Art Nouveau became famous for its frequently used and recognizable decorative elements and a new design ethic  art for the masses (Ngondonga, 2021). He helped develop an approach to inclusive design for socially engaged, flexible, relevant, and effective design outcomes.

References

Farré, N. G. (2021). The adoption of Japanese imagery in Catalan Art Nouveau stained glass. Journal of Japonisme, 6(2), 95-158. Web.

Art Nouveau interior design with its style, decor and colors. Impressive Interior Design. (2022). Web.

Sence, S. (2016). Art Nouveaus influence. The News Record. Web.

Li, N. (2018). The interaction between artist and poster design taking the lithograph poster during Art Nouveau Movement in France as an Example. In 4th International Conference on Arts, Design and Contemporary Education (ICADCE 2018) (pp. 167-171). Atlantis Press. Web.

Vox. (2019). Where the 1960s psychedelic look came from [Video]. YouTube. Web.

Ngondonga, M. (2021). Art Nouveau design: Art and design for the people. 99designs. Web.