Category: Architecture

Industrialization has had a profound impact on the world we live in and has positively contributed to the development of architecture since its start in the 17th century. Many consider the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in 1769 to have marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution as he greatly improved their efficiency and made their usage more widespread. The steam engine provided Britain with an industrial power as factories, fabrics and railroads could be anywhere. Before the industrialization era, many architects claimed fine workmanship to be the most important thing throughout architecture. This essay will first state which architects embraced the industrialization and new technology and who rejected it, then the essay will examine the way industrialization affected the heavy industry and therefore positively contributed to the development of architecture by using prominent buildings as examples. Finally, a counterargument will be made and the negative impacts of industrialization on the development of architecture will be discussed.

Many architects acknowledged the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, some embraced the new technology, and some rejected it. Frank Lloyd Wright is one of the architects that embraced technology and appreciated its positive contributions towards the development of architecture. This is shown as he said: “Wright embraced new materials and technology, viewing the machine not as a threat to the architect’s creativity but rather as a tool to assist him in his task of creating harmonious, integrated and original works” (Wright, 1908, cited in Sykes, 2007, p.95). Wright’s architecture is example of his acceptance of industrialization as he uses bold lines and less ornamentation in his buildings. In addition, Le Corbusier also embraced new technology: “He welcomed the development of new materials in the laboratory, where they could be tested and proved prior to practical adoption and regretted that all traditional materials and construction methods could not be replaced” (Hearn, 1996, cited in Smith, 2012, p.100). This portrays Le Corbusier’s embracement of new technology and the machinery that was created during the Industrial Revolution, as he wants to replace every single one of the traditional materials and constructions methods and instead use the new technology. Although two major architects embraced technology, John Ruskin is one of the few that rejected it. Hearn stated: “Ruskin generally disapproved of machine production of building elements, favoring the minute variations introduced by the human hand”. This view clearly shows that Ruskin is ignorant to the impact the modern machinery would have post industrialization and all throughout it.

One of the ways in which industrialization has positively contributed to the development of architecture was through the evolution of the heavy industry. This created a lot of new building equipment and materials, such as cast iron, steel, and glass and assisted both architects and engineers in devising and constructing structures that were until then, unimaginable in function, form, and size. The new materials were used by architects in conjunction with the machinery made through heavy industry to create buildings, such as the Crystal Palace (1850) and the Rand McNally (1890).

During the Industrial Revolution, the heavy industry made a multitude of machines that in turn progressively made factory jobs less physically demanding than in previous years. Although the evolution of the heavy industry mass produced many building components faster than man could do by hand, the quality of the materials was not improved as architects hoped. As a result of the mass production, details in components had to be simplified for the machinery to make it and therefore turned out less ornamented than the product made by hand. Ornamentation, in turn became less likeable in architecture, as Loos (1908, cited in Sykes 2007, p.105) said: “Ornament means wasted labor and therefore wasted health. That was always the case”.

The high production of iron and glass during the industrial period was shown to have a profound influence on British architecture. This is shown through the creation of the glass and cast-iron structure, the Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton (1851). The Crystal Palace, like Gothic Revival and the Arts and Crafts Movement, was seen to be a new type of design for that period and had many breakthroughs regarding construction and overall design. This project is deemed to be a direct result of the great technological advancements in relation to materials and machinery that were made through the heavy industry, during the Industrial Revolution. The structure itself was made off site and then put together on site (Merin, 2013). The use of pre-made materials and the new machinery allowed a fast-paced build time and a lower cost overall. Prior to industrialization, this fast-paced building would have been unimaginable but due to the evolution of the heavy industry, something this large scale was made possible.

The Crystal Palace was a step forward from traditional architecture and highlights how industrialization has positively contributed to the development of architecture. In addition to being an example of a new style of architecture, the structural system of the building can still be seen in buildings today. After the demolition of the Crystal Palace due to a fire in 1936, newer architects and designers acknowledged the problems that caused it and knew to avoid them via experimentation. This building, even after its demolition, positively contributed to architecture as it encouraged people to begin thinking about distinctive design, shapes and forms in regards to architectural construction (‘Impact of the Industrial Revolution on British Architecture’, 2018). The evolution of low-cost structures stemmed from this building and designers began to experiment with materials other than brick and stone. The effectiveness of industrialization is proudly shown through the Crystal Palace as it was a fast-paced build, lightweight in construction, an innovative design and the structural techniques paved the way for the development of architecture, post industrialization.

Prior to industrialization, building materials were restricted to a few man-made materials, along with those available in nature: timber, stone, lime, mortar, concrete. Therefore, structure was limited by the capabilities of natural materials; the Industrial Revolution changed this situation drastically. During the beginning of the industrialization period, worldwide production of iron soared from 825,000 tons to 40 million tons, almost 50 times as much and it was available in 3 different forms: cast iron, wrought iron and the strongest, steel. “Steel is considered as one of the most innovative construction developments in history, allowing architects to create structures with heights, flexibility and freedom never seen before” (Walsh, 2020).

The first ever all-steel framed building was the Rand McNally in Chicago, it was erected in 1890, designed by Burnham and Root. “This revolutionary building featured more than 3,700 tons of steel. The material was used in the form of beams, channels, rails, angles, and the newly introduced Z-bar steel columns” (Finnigan et al., n.d., p.115). The use of steel in this building meant that as the height of the building increased, the increase in base support of it would be a lot lower than what would be required for masonry walls. As a result of this, the intrusion of the structures usable interior space was significantly reduced. This revolutionary building that shows how industrialization positively contributed to the development of architecture as steel steadily rose to prominence after this building was created. It became the go to material for architects and due to industrialization steel began to allow architects to imagine buildings that previously would have been impossible. The Rand McNally Building portrayed a brand-new era of efficiency in building systems and the construction of them, therefore showing how industrialization positively contributed to the development of architecture. However, the labor hours associated with the extra making of these pieces of steel used in the construction of the building drove up the overall cost of the buildings making.

Although industrialization has positively contributed to the development of architecture, it has also had negative impacts. Due to the increase in industrial workers, a common feature in industrial towns and cities was the construction of very poorly built and low-cost housing, which was intended for the working-class people. The wealthy factory owners built inexpensive homes for their workers but also used the homes as a way to make more profit. These homes were commonly called back-to-back terraces due to the fact that they were built side-by-side and connected to each other; the only part of the house that was not connected to another was the front. Made with the cheapest material possible and they lacked the basic features every house need, such as windows and proper ventilation. Most of the homes that were live din by these working-class people were also built without running water or basic sanitation. Because of all this, many of the people were unable to properly bather and therefore were very unhygienic.

Overall, industrialization has positively contributed to the development of architecture as shown through the impact it had on well renowned architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier. Additionally, industrialization has been shown to positively affect the evolution of the heavy industry and assist in the mass production of materials such as cast iron, glass, and steel. The production of these materials positively contributed to the development of architecture through the iron and glass building, the Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton, and the steel Rand McNally, designed by Burnham and Root. Although there are some negative impacts of industrialization that affected architecture, overall, industrialization has positively contributed to the development of architecture.

The term “Architectural ethnography” consists of two words “architectural” and “ethnography”. In the dictionary, the noun “architecture” is defined as “a physical enclosure that protects and supports human life and activities”, while “ethnography” is about the “representation of a society and culture of a specific ethnic group based on fieldwork”. Powell further explained “ethnography” in his article Viewing Places: Students as Visual Ethnographers as “a process of inquiry that involves the description and interpretation of the cultural and social practice of people, “the written representation of culture” that emerges from a lengthy period of in-depth study, and often, residence in, a particular setting.”

Architecture ethnography, defined by Monoyo Kaijima, is about the traditional ethnography study with an add-on layer of drawings that are of, for, among, and around architecture. The drawings are not typical architectural drawings, instead, always from the perspective of the people who use and transform the buildings. In 2017,

This new methodology is extended from many ethnographic studies carried on in Japan in the 20th century when the country was under rapid urbanization and modernization with the fear of the gradual extinction of the old livelihoods. From the end of the 1990s, Kajima started a series of research regarding individuals about buildings and cities, using a similar ethnographical approach. Eventually, she defined her way of working (which is investigating architecture and human life by talking with people and later interpreting this fragmented information into drawings) as “Architectural Ethnography” during the survey of the Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami. In 2017, an exhibition named as “Architectural Ethnography: Atelier Bow-Wow” was hosted at Graduate School of Design, Harvard University.

As outlined above, architecture ethnography is a combination of ethnography study with drawings as a way of expression.

An example of an ethnographic study on the topic related to my graduation studio could be Alazar Ejigu’s research on condominium housing in Addis Ababa. In 2019, he conducted a four-month participant observation of condominium living, at different times of the day, and in different representative locations. To document his findings, he often would take short notes several times during the daytime, and write down detailed diaries in the evening. It had proved that this way of working brought the fragmented information together and then naturally revealed the form behind it. Thus, most of the analysis was already made during the field study. There are a few strategies he made to improve his ethnographic study. First, he moved into the condominium unit with his family, which reduced the suspicions of the residents. Then he put himself in a position of “passive observation”, by sitting for hours in the common yard. He was gradually recognized and trusted.

An example of drawings in the field of architectural ethnography could be the book series: A Little Bit of Beijing, by Tongji University, which is the illustration of research on three characteristic places in the city. There are four types of drawings involved correlating with a larger and a smaller scale. The urban surroundings are first shown in a panoramic axonometric drawing, functioning as a 3d map. Then, a specific location will be elaborated by architectural sketches (are defined as axonometric drawings of a single building in this context), comics (inspired by the American artist Chris Ware), and full-page illustrations (in a way of artistic reprocessing of the scene atmosphere). Photographs are also interspersed in the book.

In this essay, I will be talking about Architecture and power and how it has altered and transformed over centuries. I will compare and contrast my examples, evaluate how there are differences in architecture, and look at its artistic approach. I will be exploring the development of different examples throughout the Romanesque Architecture and the Early Italian Renaissance. I will reflect upon the motives and values of past cultures in creating their art using historical context.

Romanesque architecture was the first unique method to spread through Europe following the demise of the Roman Empire. Romanesque architecture is a medieval European architectural style distinguished by semi-circular arches. ‘The history of the word ‘Romanesque’ as cited in the Oxford English Dictionary makes plain that the notion of hybridity has been at the term’s core from its origins. Early uses of the word did not apply to art but instead to language’ (Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia) Romanesque architecture was a follow-up of Roman styles and Roman brick. Stone-building procedures were missing in most parts of Europe. Thick walls, round arches, strong piers, groin vaults, wide towers, and symmetrical plans are all characteristics of Romanesque architecture. The art of the period was portrayed by a dynamic style in both painting and sculpture. From the sixth to the eleventh centuries, the Romanesque style was popular. It evolved into the Gothic style in the 12th century. ‘the monastery integrated the existing rocks and Romanesque stone walls’ (Joachim Kupper, History and Drama, P.158)

The Pisa Cathedral, a Medieval Roman Catholic house of worship devoted to the belief of the Virgin Mary, is an example of Romanesque architecture. It is famous for its bell tower, the Leaning Tower of Pisa. It was produced using engraved marble to establish geometric patterns. The cathedral buildings were constructed in three countries. It was started during the Romanesque era and finished during the Gothic era. It is one of the most striking churches in Italy and has a strongly marked uniqueness. Its plan is similar to that of other early basilican churches. It has long rows of columns linked by arches, double aisles, and a timber-roofed nave. Romanesque churches were constructed with rounded arches, thick walls, and buttresses to withstand the weight of the structure.

The cathedral was built outside Pisa’s early medieval walls. This was done to demonstrate that Pisa was not afraid of being targeted. Pope Gelasius II, who belonged to the Caetani dynasty, which was influential in both Pisa and Rome, built the cathedral in 1188. This shows the significance of their power and what they aimed to achieve.

Mosaic, marble, and several bronze pieces from the spoils of war, such as a griffin captured in Palermo in 1061, were used in the rich exterior decoration. This was later built on the roof’s eastern side. The high arches which are used show Islamic and southern Italian influences. There is also the recall of similarities with structures from Armenia like the blind arches with lozenge shapes. Master Rainaldo built the facade of grey and white marble which was decorated with colored marble inserts. The granite Corinthian columns that run between the nave and the apse are from Palermo’s mosque. These are Pisan spoils that were held in 1063 after a successful joint assault on the Muslims in the city with the Normans.

The size of the building was used to intimidate and show authority and abundance. The size and the materials used for the design of the building represent wealth as expensive materials were utilized and this indicates power through the abundant amount of money used. The structure of the building displays power and shows that the empire has great control which is a good impression as it illustrates the success of the empire as they had numerous buildings similar to this. Most of the buildings were accessible to the public which gave people an opportunity to experience the strength and influence of the empire.

During the Romanesque period church buildings such as this as well as art and sculpture were all used for the objective of spreading the Christian Gospel. During that period, there was a large interest in religion in Europe as large numbers of people would travel on pilgrimages to visit sites of saints and martyrs. The routes that were taken to the more famous holy places such as Santiago became very well-toured and this required larger buildings to hold a large number of crowds. People considered that sacred ruins could do wonders. The architecture of these sacred cathedrals and churches attracted more people to visit as the art and structure of the exterior and interior had a unique style and showed power.

Propaganda was used in Romanesque architecture for emperors and residents to publicize their prominence. These forms of propaganda also assisted in unifying the empire, promoting Roman peace, making civilizations stronger, and informing Roman citizens of current happenings.

Romans are well-known for their use of propaganda efficiently to keep their civilization empire fiercer. One method of propaganda that was used well in Romanesque architecture was that most of the buildings were open to the public. This made the civilian public safe as they might have thought that they would be kept safe in the buildings and protected. This method also boosted the city’s morale as people thought they were much safer.

A form of propaganda used in Romanesque architecture was by Louis the Pious (778 – 20 June 840). He was Charlemagne’s successor, reining from 813 – 840 AD on sesquioxides, which is essentially Roman in design. (Contreni, John. ‘Louis I’. Encyclopedia Britannica, 16 Jun. 2020) He used propaganda through coins. This was the simplest, most efficient way of creating propaganda. Placing a monarch on the symbol of wealth portrayed the power of the emperor and this made citizens have more confidence and belief in their ruler. (Jowett, Propaganda through the Ages, P.54)

Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the era amongst the early 14th and early 16th centuries in different regions and It came after the Gothic period. ‘The renaissance of architecture in Italy extended over more than four hundred years from 1420 to c 1820.’ (R. A. Cordingley, The Royal Society of Arts pg. 52). It demonstrated a conscious recovery and advancement of a variety of features of ancient Greek and Roman ideas as well as material culture, particularly symmetry and classical orders.

Renaissance architects noticed a harmony between human proportions and buildings. This concern for proportion caused clear and easily comprehended space and mass, differentiating Renaissance architecture and style from the more complicated Gothic architecture. The buildings involved the application of classical orders and mathematically accurate ratios of height and width combined with a desire for symmetry. Various buildings were built as symmetrical shapes such as square and rectangular.

During this period there was a huge advancement in architecture due to improvements in engineering technology. Architects denied the Gothic structure and their designs of cathedrals. They preferred the use of simple arches and lines which were used by the ancients. This phase extends over a few centuries, leading to a rise of art and innovation that still impacts the world up until this very day.

An example of the Early Italian Renaissance architecture is the Palazzo Pitti which was built during 1458-66 by Luca Fanelli and possibly Brunelleschi. ‘The Palazzo Pitti was the center of courtly life in grand-ducal Florence.’ (Leon Satkowski,

Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians pg. 336) The palazzo is given a severe and powerful atmosphere by the rusticated stonework.

In 1458 the construction of the original seven bay palace was started by Luca Pitti, however, in 1469, he suffered a huge loss in financial as well as political power. He died in 1472 and the construction ceased when the palace was near construction and his family was forced to sell the palace to the Medici family. The Medicis had expanded the palace by adding a large courtyard and enlarging the square in the front. Another important addition was the formation of the Vasari corridor that attached the palace with the Uffizi, church, and Palazzo Vecchio granting the members of the family to move throughout the city without confronting the public.

The Palazzo Pitti was used as a symbol of the Medici’s power and It flourished as a huge treasure house as later generations gathered paintings, jewelry, plates, and lavish goods. Currently, the Pitti Palace houses some of the most significant museums in Florence. On the first floor of the palace is the Palatine Gallery, including a large compilation of 16th and 17th-century paintings (including works by Raphael), and the Royal Apartments, including furnishings from a remodeling done in the 19th century.

The structure has a severe aspect, constructed with enormous, intense, and rustic stone blocks. It is believed that the effect of this was possibly inspired by ancient Etruscan walls. The severe and powerful part is reinforced by the three-times-repeated sequence of the seven arch-headed apertures which are similar to that of a Roman aqueduct. This initial layout has resisted the test of time. The repetitive formula of the facade was repeated throughout the successive additions to the palazzo. Its influence can be witnessed in various 16th-century replications and 19th-century revivals. The procedure used to assemble the building is comparable to that applied for other Florentine palaces. This includes Large stones at the base and finer and more sophisticated stones at the top. In the lower part of the facade are two seemingly bizarre, sculpted stones, a long one and a short one. It is said that it was Luca Pitti who wanted to fix the stones next to each other to represent his prominence over the smallness of his enemies. It is also believed that for the same desire to compete with the powerful Florentine families, he instructed that a courtyard be built. It had to be so huge that it would have been able to content Palazzo Strozzi. The architecture of the courtyard held a lot of significance as it was one of the key aspects of the palace. The courtyard was used to host many memorable events such as the naval battle fought which took place between twenty Turkish and Christian ships. For this occasion, it was almost filled with two meters of water. The wedding of Ferdinand I de’ Medici and Christine of Lorena had also taken place and celebrated here which is an occasion that would go down in history for the ostentation of the festivals.

There were a lot of things that portrayed the significance of power that was used in Renaissance architecture. One of these was that the buildings in Florence voiced a new sense of light, simplicity, and openness that displayed the enlightenment and clarity of mind glorified by the attitude of humanism. Another significant power that was used in Renaissance architecture is the features of the buildings which included the use of classical orders and mathematically detailed ratios of height and width combined with a want for symmetry, proportion, and harmony.

Renaissance architecture started by them observing back at Romans and Greeks for inspiration when designing buildings. Much of Renaissance architecture class was taken from Ancient Rome and Greece and then transformed to fit their existing lifestyle. This represents that Renaissance architects did their research and knew which time to look back at. They had figured out that if they used ideas from Romans and Greeks they might have similar power to them or even better as Romans and Greeks had already shown the power that they were capable of.

In Renaissance architecture, there were also some very important characteristics just like any other time in history. Each different empire in history had its characteristics to show its uniqueness and why they were different from any other. The Italian Renaissance was the rebirth of traditional values in art that influenced artistic thought for the next 500 years. The key fundamentals that shaped the art of the Italian Renaissance were naturalism, classical humanism, perspective drawing, and the growth of oil painting. These key elements show the significance of Renaissance architecture by conveying a message through their art.

Propaganda is interaction with a political, religious, or personal agenda. In the case of the governing families of Italy’s regions, this was accomplished by having artistic work produced that displayed their accomplishments and virtues. This was frequently accomplished through symbolic references to figures from traditional antiquity and Christianity. ‘Venice was also a city that glories in fine appearances and outward show’ (Art and Pageantry in Renaissance Venice, Edward Muir pg.18)

Although centuries of scholars have attempted to clarify the meanings and symbols associated with Italian Renaissance art and architecture, their very presence demonstrates the era’s power structures and supply of fortune. The incredible act of appointing an artist to design a building, sculpture, or painting indicated the patron’s sense of taste, knowledge, financial status, and aspiration. The evidence found both inside and outside these works sheds light on the hierarchies and morals that manipulated the warring city-states of 15th and 16th-century Italy. Substantial patronage also altered the reputation of artists in society. Early Renaissance texts showed, according to art historian Michael Baxandall, that people believed good materials made good art. Artists started to gain recognition, and higher fees were charged for their unique styles and techniques. ‘is identified as a form of art on the border between painting, architecture and technique’, (Back Matter, Gennaio-Marzo 2002)

‘The vast majority of works in the Renaissance were created to communicate some sort of message,’ (Alina Cohen, 2018). Occasionally that message was quite specifically about the strength of the patrons. Research indicates that architecture in the Renaissance phase impeded money, religion, and art.

The bigger the work, the more it costs. Paintings were less pricey than tapestries, which were less expensive than sculptures. Architecture compelled the most substantial financial investment. The Catholic Church’s right through the Renaissance would preach regarding the importance of humility while rewarding the rich and commissioning complex, luxurious art, and architecture. Yet it is tougher to reject that its money contributed to awe-inspiring cultural innovations and artifacts.

There are many differences between Romanesque Architecture and Renaissance Architecture, as they developed over the period. Upon examination of the two time periods, one can easily recognize the huge number of variations and break apart from old ways that happened during the period. The architecture in the Romanesque architecture period played a major part in many of the schemes in Renaissance architecture.

The similarities are common between the two styles, but the main variances separate the two forms, one difference in Romanesque architecture is that Romanesque buildings have circular arches and they have blunt towers. On the other hand, in Renaissance architecture, the evenness, proportion, and geometry of buildings were very crucial to Renaissance architects.

Romanesque architecture can be portrayed as a style of architecture that utilizes semi-circular arches in its construction. Science, literature, and painting all mirrored Renaissance art. As a regional characteristic and various materials, the Romanesque style can be recognized all over Europe. Many castles were constructed during that period, but churches far outnumbered them.

”Renaissance’ is used as a purely style term or to cover a chronological period’, (Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Georgia Clarke pg.169). Renaissance architecture embraced differentiating features of classical Roman architecture. Nevertheless, the forms and functions of buildings had altered over time, as had the composition of cities, which is demonstrated in the mixture of classical and 16th-century forms. Facades, columns, arches, vaults, domes, windows, and walls were all foundational architectural components used in 16th-century buildings, which combined classical Roman technique with Renaissance aesthetics. ‘research focused on medieval and Renaissance Venice, resulting in books and articles on Romanesque’, (Contributors, AA Files, No.70, pg.176). While one of the most significant aspects of Renaissance architectural philosophy was learning and mastering the specifics of the ancient Romans, the style often became more decorative and attractive, with the extensive use of statuary, domes, and ceilings. On the other hand, Romanesque architecture buildings have barrel vaults and their building have huge pillars inside them. In the Romanesque time, their buildings also had a minimal design on the exterior of the building but most of them had. massive, framed structures.

Overall, there is a huge importance and significance of architecture and it has had a big impact throughout the different eras. It has played a very big part in conveying religious as well as political motives and spreading religion all over different cities. It has been used to portray the wealth of the powerful and not only did they use it to represent themselves, but they also used this to increase the control that they had over the empire. The motives and values of architecture in different periods have many similarities between them, however, they can only be analyzed within their historical context as they change over time. This is evident from my examples which show that in the Romanesque period architecture and art were used to spread the Christian gospel and it was also used to promote many political motives. During the Renaissance period architecture and art were used to show the significance and power of the rich, it displayed the amount of money that they had and revealed their strengths and status to the people. The wealthy families utilized this as a way to compete with their rivals as the architecture and art demonstrated their possession of power and they also used this to influence the opinions of the community. Architecture is not just a simple building but has a deeper meaning, it can be seen as the art that is adorned and it has a huge contribution to power and pleasure.

“Why Ecological Urbanism? Why now?” The book discusses two important issues that can impact our environment. The first issue is rapid population growth and natural resource scarcity which are the major problems that we and our environment face. Generally, the ratio of population growth in many cities is so dramatic that conventional methods of planning are unable to respond to their rapid rates of transformation. The purpose of this article is to find some ways and methodologies according to Ecological Urbanism that might be useful for these conditions.

The second issue is scale. Most of the sustainable architectural projects have been limited in scope and have not impletion on the infrastructure of the cities and towns. Furthermore, most of the sustainable projects just focused on simple technologies to recycle waste and produce energy with poor quality.

They did not consider all issues that would happen in the future, for instance, while climate change sustainable architecture, and green technologies have become more topical issues surrounding the sustainability of the city are much less developed. After that, the book illustrates three narratives regarding fundamental questions of sustainability that were published a while ago by the Guardian newspaper in the United Kingdom.

This book aims to discuss the question: why ecological urbanism how do architects and landscape architects reflect ecology in their future projects in terms of engineering and construction to obtain a more energy-efficient environment the design provides the synthetic key to connect ecology with urbanism that is not in contradiction with its environment. This means that an ecological approach is necessarily needed as an imaginative and practical method for addressing existing as well as new cities.

The book brings together practitioners theorists economists engineers artists policymakers scientists and public health specialists intending to provide a multilayered diverse understanding of ecological urbanism and what it might be in the future. The promise is nothing short of new ethics and aesthetics of the urban. Meanwhile, ecological urbanism is a necessary contribution to reassessing conventional urban development. this book is also part of an ongoing series of research projects at Harvard University that search different approaches between ecology and architecture landscape architecture planning and urbanism because it comprises the question of democracy social justice and governance. Furthermore, the other aim of the book is to provide a framework that through the conjoining of ecology and urbanism can provide the knowledge techniques and clues of what the urban can be in the years to come. Moreover, this book is part of an ongoing series of research projects at Harvard University School of Design that explore alternative and radical approaches between ecology and architecture landscape architecture planning and urbanism. Similarly, Chris Reed has argued about ecological urbanism. He believed that the ecological aspect is a more complex and provocative idea for how cities are made and how they can change and reshape themselves through time. However, it has an important role in urban planning and city systems. He suggested four stages in design practices that might help understand ecology and natural systems. Plus that may emerge specifically in response to various environmental changes such as global warming, sea-level rise, etc.

Several novel structural solutions have distinguished the history of Western architecture from 1850 to 1950. This is the period of architecture and there are several periods associated with it, including the first fifty years from 1850 to 1900(iron-frame age), the second fifty years from 1900 to 1950 (steel-frame age and reinforced concrete), art nouveau, and art deco. The modern aesthetic is a distinguishing aspect of modernist architecture (also known as the ‘modern look’). The materials appearing in this age are iron, glass, steel, and reinforced concrete, therefore the focus of this essay will be a detailed analysis of the influence of these materials on architecture during the period 1850-1950.

The stream of architectural growth in the contemporary time has, in a sense, flowed under the surface in the aesthetically unrecognized employment of iron, steel, glass, and reinforced concrete. The effects of these great materials are immense, but with the inclusion of more and more engineering in the build process, architecture lost one of its most potent advancement features. Architectural styles are the result of materials, therefore the rising availability of new construction materials encouraged the creation of equally innovative building techniques, durability, quality, and design of buildings throughout the Industrial Revolution.

World history was changed by the Industrial Revolution because it implemented the usage of materials and shapes previously unknown to mankind. By this time, hand-crafted products had gone out of style, and mass production was introduced using steam-powered machinery. Steel was one of the most revolutionary products that became possible for mass production. The influential artist of the 13th century Roger Bacon maintains in chapter one of his ‘Compendium Philosophies’ that the young generation is the oldest one and that recent ones should outperform their forefathers in intelligence since they receive all of the past’s labors. Furthermore, he asserts in his ‘Opus Tertium’ that ‘experimental science is the queen of the sciences and the objective of all speculation’ (Fletcher, 53) and this is true not only for the people but for the materials as well, which enter different periods despite the mass production by machinery instead of hand-craft. With the expanding usage of those materials, new structures appeared modern for this time, beautiful, elegant, stylish, simple, lavish, and forms that society easily accepted and adapted to. Such representation can be found in the first fifty years (1850), such as the skyscrapers and in particular the Chicago School, famous around the world for Chicago’s architecture. The steel-frame construction, advocated by this school, was the first technology to be used on commercial buildings. The architects in this school produced an aesthetic that evolved with advances in European Modernism. Steel-frame construction with masonry cladding (typically terracotta) is a distinguishing characteristic of the Chicago School. The metal frame walls of the building have been used as a screen or curtain that protects the building’s interior from the outside elements. The building’s walls are therefore merely an architectural device. The windows were designed in a manner that facilitates incoming light as well as ventilation throughout the building. Typically, these windows are placed in regular grid patterns throughout the building and they are large while remaining modestly embellished from the outside. The general shape of the construction of the building is similar to that of a classic column, which means there are no typical Greek columns. Its lowest levels serve as the base podium, and its facade is unique from the rest of the structures. Its middle levels serve as the shaft of the column. Finally, the upper levels serve as the capital, with a cornice crowning the building and showing some basic embellishments. Sometimes neoclassical characteristics are occasionally employed in Chicago School skyscrapers. Steel-frame structures are used in the Chicago School skyscrapers, allowing for greater height. To avert disasters like the 1871 Chicago Fire, the structural steel was designed to be fire-resistant. The structures are built of masonry, for example, Terra Cotta, leaving little room for ornamentation and permitting large windows to be placed on the surface. The Chicago School has proven with time that it was built to last and the innovations it brought can still be observed even in modern buildings.

A structure so different and unique and also based on modern-for-the-time materials is the Eiffel Tower in the capital city of France – Paris. Monsieur Eiffel Le Temps’ newly constructed ‘Eiffel Tower’ was initially protested against in 1887. It took two years, two months and five days to be built from scratch (26.01.1887 – 31.03.1889). The Eiffel Tower represents the city of Paris both as a landmark, recognized throughout the world, and as a monument that exhibits exemplary properties and functions of materials. There are two types of material in The Tower: pure iron and puddled iron, which have been processed specifically to be more durable while remaining less rigid than steel. An arched frame must be constructed from cast iron. Because cast iron is brittle, the alternative, post-and-beam construction, is not possible. This is why this material allows the structure of the Eiffel Tower – the curvature of the uprights, monumental arches to link the columns, and the first floor a bulb-shaped design for the top. The Eiffel Tower is not the only demonstration of the structure and curves of the iron frame – masonry building supported by iron frame in, iron-and-glass Greenhouses in Belgium, iron-and-glass train station in and the Iron Bridge in (nevertheless it was built in the 18th century). An interesting and useful property of the iron frame is its resistance and durability. The Eiffel Tower survived during the Second Great War despite that the damage was only on the top of the tower and the only remaining parts of the tower were the legs of ‘The Iron Lady’. The materials that came to use in this period have shown extreme resistance to the test of time and many of them can still be seen (and used) today.

A product that was created for the Great Exhibition and an example of the structure of iron is the Crystal Palace, which was built in 1859 and destroyed in 1936 by fire. Unlike the Eiffel Tower, the materials that make up the Crystal Palace are not only cast iron, there is also a plate glass structure. This combination of cast iron and plate glass structure is not only unique and amazing, but it is very stylish, simple, and beautiful. In 1832, Chance Brothers introduced sheet glass manufacturing to Britain. This allowed them to produce large sheets of cheap, yet durable glass. Their use in the Crystal Palace allowed it to have the largest area of glass of any building prior. Visitors marveled at the quality and the structure of the palace (the walls and the ceilings), which provides 100% natural light, without any interior lighting. This time the building was well-accepted by the people, unlike the Eiffel Tower. In the Crystal Palace, the whole structure’s size and shape are determined by the glass panels’ dimensions. It was designed to fit the limitations of the manufacturer, again proof that with the new materials comes the new structure of the building, and step by step people changed the public’s perspective and opinion about the modern architecture and its innovative quirks and features.

Structures are made up of designs that are the souls of their creations. A design is an idea that is organized and planned to create an object. Therefore, design is part of the structure of a building, and moving through into the new period proves that materials affect not only a building’s structural integrity but also the design features (interior-exterior) as a whole. The aesthetic movement is called Art Nouveau. This period is between the 19th and 20th centuries and is mostly adopted in Europe and the U.S. The inspiration through the period came from the world of nature and this gave rise to unique styles of architecture, interior design, art, furniture, and glasswork. The unique style of the architecture is best characterized by this period in the sculptures, the organic shapes, arches, stunning ornaments, and curving lines. These decorative elements from the interior and exterior of the building are made out of glass and iron. Such examples are mosaic work, stained, and other decorations. The architects who are the symbols and groundbreakers of this aesthetic movement are Antoni Gauda­, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Hector Guimard (the man behind curved glass), Charles Rennie Mackintosh (famous with Glasgow School of Art), Victor Horta, and many others.

One of the most well-renowned buildings in Europe is the unfinished masterpiece of Antonio Gauda­ which is ‘La Sagrada Familia’, also known as the Holy Family Church in Barcelona, Spain. The interesting part of the structure of this building is the columns, which do not have the typical straight structure, meaning they are not perpendicular to the floor and the ceiling. These columns form the whole structure of the enormous church. The undulating lines of the stone facade make the basilica appear to be melting in the light (another interpretation of nature), while the towers are covered with vividly colored mosaics that resemble fruit bowls. The apse has seven chapels and elegant staircases on both sides that lead to the stands on the outer middle ships and part of the walls there were designed by stained glass windows. Antonio Gaudi used this type of interior to provide the goddess colorful effect from the sunlight in the interior.

The Art Nouveau period was influenced by another designer and architect – Hector Guimar and his entrances to the underground in the capital city of France, Paris. He is famous for the curves from glass and canopies from iron. An example of his work is his second remaining underground station entrance, with a glass roof – Porte Dauphine. This entrance looks like a dragonfly, because of the curving glass roof and the light the gentle iron, and the structure of the metal is colored. This is a perfect interpretation of a botanical subject. It looks like a plant coming from the ground, which is ready to branch out. The design of both the church and the entrances to the subway depends not only on the natural ornaments but also on the materials from which they are used. Without these materials, both structure and design could not have existed.

Moving forward in time follows the second half of the period, which is between around 1900 and 195060. Then follows the modern aesthetic period, which is famous for the simplest unadorned geometric forms and the fact that needless materials are removed (including traditional decoration). This transition means that the architectural language transfers to mainstream architecture is finally accepted by society in the world. This achievement is thanks to the German design school, Bauhaus, which operated during the interwar period. The architecture, the industrial design, the visual art, the graphic design, and the interior design were all part of the Bauhaus construction process. The director and the founder of the school, Walter Gropius designed the second campus of Bauhaus. The walls are ordinary, in the colors white and grey, and glass, which plays the role of a screen on the wall, sometimes of two floors (different height levels). The balconies of the building show new and impressive construction from sheet metal structures. They symbolize cantilevering, which adds to the illusion of architectural weightlessness. A huge part of the Bauhaus architecture is reinforced concrete, which permits the development of a new structure and form of the building. This is mainly observed in the thin shell and provides ease to the building. A reinforced concrete frame is the main characteristic of the school.

In the period between 1850 and 1950 architecture underwent a fundamental transformation. With the advent of the new generation, new ideas, new knowledge, discoveries and new structures of the building appeared. Materials played a great role in defining the unique styling of the era. Despite the initial rejection of style, design, and thinking by people around the world, it is accepted, recognizable, in parts preserved, and even still used to this day.

After the independence, a lot of intellectual individuals pursued their studies overseas and developed as architects and engineers after they back to Malaysia. As a result, the philosophy and approach that they brought back no longer created local identity. Hence, our nation’s development is going ‘internationalism’ (Tahir, et al., 2010). The influence of modern architecture is entrenched in their mind and not easy to replace with the way of thinking about the local environment, climate, materials, and technique. In the face of internationalism, how is modern architecture able to assist in preserving Malaysian architecture? Modern architecture is defined as a new architectural style that emerged in the early years of the 20th century (McFadden, 2018). According to the principle, modern architecture promotes the concept of truth and justice in the materials used instead of ornamenting or plastering with other artificial materials (Arora, 2018). For instance, concrete, steel, glass, and wood are the most prominent materials used in modern architecture. Moreover, the other principle of modern architecture is simplicity to the core as simple is always sophisticated and a great ornament of art (Arora, 2018). The modern movement had come out of three “traditions” of modern architecture. First, the pure machine approach to architecture which is structural in emphasis, skin and bones in expression, and the less-is-more dictums of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Second, tradition came from Le Corbusier who argued that houses are machines for living in, and the whole of architecture must present on intellectual beauty of platonic forms. Lastly, the one by Frank Lloyd Wright argues for an organic architecture steeped in regional climatic and cultural responses complete with a serious system of ornamentation (Rasdi, 2005).

Before the influence of modern architecture, Malaysia’s vernacular architecture’s identity reflects the local environment, climate, materials, and technique of construction. There are many factors reflecting the identity of architecture, such as nationhood which is related to the contributions made in the Malaysian architecture development after independence, the society which is the relationship between the architecture and built environment in conjunction with existing communities, climate which affects the usage of materials and cultural in which the building formation reflected the regional culture context. However, the idea and role of architectural identity in society have been widely discussed by prominent architectural scholars on the local and global scene. Being a process, identity cannot be prefabricated. ‘We develop our identity by tackling what we perceive to be our problems. Identity is not a self-conscious thing. We find our identity by understanding ourselves and our environment.’ (POWELL, 1983). Hence, the factors that affect the architectural identity will be the focus of this essay are climate and culture. These are the factors that reflect the local elements that are used to preserve Malaysian architecture.

How does climate affect Malaysian Architecture?

Preservation is not only a protection of cultural property through activities that minimize either chemical or physical deterioration and damage but also prevent the loss of informational content. The goal of preservation is to prolong the existence of cultural property. Therefore, the final appearance is no longer the prime factor but retaining the maximum amount of building fabric (Bjorneberg, 2018). Preserving Malaysian architecture is very important because the local architectural identity of any particular society is an important life container that reflects the cultural values and meanings among others that evolve (Nooraddin, 2012). One of the identities of architectural works which is natural identity, can be defined as the “spirit of the times” and “spirit of the place” (Rasdi, 2005). The idea of the spirit of the times is known as a direct response of the users and builders to the available technology and the economic considerations of that particular time (Rasdi, 2005). For instance, Chef Shukri’s house was not only assembled without nails but also raised high above the ground on timber posts and beams based on the Malay house. This technique of construction is as true to its times as well as the mud construction of traditional Egyptian architecture and the arched masonry construction of the Romans (Rasdi, 2005). On the other hand, the idea of the spirit of the place is known as the direct response of the builders to the climatic considerations, the geographic makeup of the land, and the culture of a particular society as well (Rasdi, 2005).

Malaysia’s climate is dominated by the effect of two monsoons or ‘rainy seasons’ that affect different parts of Malaysia to varying degrees. From November to February, the east coast is affected by the north-east monsoon which results in heavy rainfall and strong winds while it is weaker during the southwest monsoon from April to September (Hyde, 2008). During the transition months between the monsoons which are March and October, the climate is characterized by light winds (Hyde, 2008). The weather in Kuala Lumpur is hot and humid all year with an average temperature of 23-32°C and 190mm rainfall (Miles, 2019). The hot and humid climate is uncomfortable and lacks variation when compared to the climate which is further away from the equator. Therefore, the climate could be a challenge in the perception of architecture when designing for passive cooling (Hyde, 2008). However, there are ways to maximize the natural ventilation. For example, ensure the north and south walls have large window openings and arrange the rooms to aid cross-ventilation. As it is virtual to make sure the cooling wind comes into the space, the orientation of the building is very important. Other than that, for the interior, the plans have to be open and free while the exterior which is the space between buildings has to be wide and access to wind. Therefore, the Malay house was designed with its isolated mass, raised platform, full-length windows, and high roof formed to ease the passage of air and shed off the heavy rainfalls.

The colonial and sino-eclectic heritage in Malaysia presents excellent examples of this type of natural identity. In the colonial and sino-eclectic architectural heritage, innovations and adaptation to the climate were developed in the high ceiling interiors, clerestory windows, and the use of internal courts. The colonial builders were aware of the phenomenon that masonry has a heat lag property that absorbs heat during the day and releases slowly at night. Thus, they experimented with the proportion of the interior space, placement, and size of air wells (Rasdi, 2005). The colonial heritage also provided Malaysia with its version of the Malay house with a louvered verandah and walls to replace the ornate scramble balustrade, the squat Palladian proportion to replace the high raised platforms, and the hipped roof with ventilation openings. It is a fortunate thing that the government of the day recognizes the importance of these heritage buildings but it is most unfortunate that the local architects do not appreciate their design solutions and go for more energy-active architecture of air-conditioning and electric lights. Hence, the local architects have to apply the knowledge that was learned from overseas to prolong the design that is suitable to our local climatic.

How Modern Architecture Preserves Malaysian Architecture Using Climatic Design

The climatic design of a building is a method that helps to reduce the building energy used for heating and cooling. It also aims to use natural energy resources to provide more comfort in buildings (Jahangiri, 2017). Therefore, the modern climatic design is all about doing the things right. Some people may get confused about climatic design and the particular design that is mainly the local vernacular style. The climatic design is all about responding to the contextual climate to achieve thermal comfort through the use of passive design elements such as sunshades, cavity walls, light shelves, overhangs, roof and wall insulation and even shading from large trees to block the sun (Lyee, 2015). Hence, the appearance not only looks traditional but also may look modern or high-tech depending on their designs.

A case study of modern climatic architecture was carried out – the Cempenai House was designed by WHBC architects and was completed in 2012. The house is designed with modernity by having an open floor plan that flows end to end through sliding doors. By having an open floor plan, the entire ventilation of the building is better compared to the traditional house. Besides that, there are openings all around the building that allow for cross ventilation as well. The main characteristic of this building is the egg-crate structure that is built of in-situ concrete as a sun-filtering device at a depth of 900mm and provides sufficient ventilation (ArchDaily, 2015). The structure is naturally allowing daylight to shine through with the resistance of radiation. As a modern architecture, the main construction material is concrete. It kept raw and ornamentation free for a clean visual presentation of material which is based on the principle of modern architecture that promotes the concept of truth and justice to material. It is one of the suitable materials for climatic design as it has a high thermal mass to absorb heat as an insulator. From the entry-level, the existing site slopes downwards to the back. Thus, the design takes advantage of the sloping terrain to keep the dampness and humidity out within a tropical environment. Lastly, there is another concept in this building which is the “Garden in the box” by integrates with the natural surroundings. Therefore, the pool assists in keeping the interior cool as well as the adjoining garden by blocking the sun as a shading. This is an evidence to show that not only large roof eaves can be the shading and keep the interior cool but it also can be done in a modern way. As a result, even though we are influenced by modern architecture, we are also able to develop our identity by tackling the tropical climate with the assistance of modern architecture. However, our architectural identity does not only rely on the climate but also the culture.

How does culture affect Malaysian Architecture?

Architectural identity can be described in many ways. It can be described as the identity of a particular architectural movement that is reflected in its particular way of forming buildings, spaces, and the social life it creates (Nooraddin, 2012). From a cultural point of view, architectural identity represents a living landscape with a common sense of place that is produced by the community’s accumulated efforts over time to contain meanings and ways of life (Nooraddin, 2012). Culture can be described as the totality of the values, beliefs, symbol systems, and schemas that are shared by a group of people who learn and transmit them through interaction (Yilmaz, 2006). People use their unique forms in the production of art, architecture, and environment and have their way and means of expressing their feelings or aspirations. To have more understanding of the built form and material environment operating as a sign in a cultural and social context, several case studies from the period of traditional era to the independent era were conducted.

During the traditional era, the Malaccan Sultanate’s palace was built. The palaces not only incorporated various beliefs of the sultans and reflected their way of life, but also adopted the style common to the various regions of the Peninsula such as Acheh, Sumatra, Java, and Riau (Ariffin, 2001). The main construction material of the palaces is wood from the local area. Based on the Malay culture, the palaces were constructed with dual functionality which is the residency of the sultanate and to accommodate the sultanate advisors as well as followers. Moreover, the space planning of the palace is arranged according to a hierarchical manner and represented in a linear syntax structure (Mohidin & Ismail, 2014). The spaces are divided into several areas with different functions such as places for the royal families and sultanate advisors as well as official gathering spaces to meet the commoners. These areas are separated by boundary walls and intermediate spaces like courtyards and open gardens. On the other hand, the interior spaces of the palace are also based on the subordinate organization. This can be shown from the arrangement of the spaces for assistants that surround the primary space and form one large assemblage that focuses on a main center (Sherwin, 1981). To symbolize the imperial power of the Malay sultan, the sultanate throne room was placed at the end of the long central axis (Sherwin, 1981).

According to Mohidin and Ismail (2014), this palace is structured as a human anthropological approach of ‘Head-Body-Foot’. From the aspect of the ‘head’ of this palace, it was said to have a roof that resembles a pyramid and has several layers of ‘body’ and ‘foot’ as the base of the building. The roof consists of the characteristics of Minangkabau influence and has seven layers of levels and a tip at each edge while the ‘body’ creates the façade of the building. In this palace, the walls are divided into three parts. First, the lining and colored louvers at the top of the window or door, the second is the window or door itself, and the last part is the part below the window. The castle is said to have 40 doors that were either able to serve as passage or just as wall panels. As local architecture, the second part of the wall which is the windows is designed on a large scale and each has a wooden shutter to maximize ventilation and block the direct sunlight. The next layer is the part under the window, which also serves as a fenestration (Sherwin, 1981). According to Sherwin (1981) and Shellabear (1975), the ‘foot’ which also forms the basis of this building has itself lifted from the ground level which also proves its regionalism influences. The column and beam system was said to be more articulated and lavishly decorated than a commoner’s dwellings. Using a rectangular plan, the palace was large in scale. In traditional times, the construction of this palace was considered amazing because the structure was of exceptional length and width.

However, during the British era, the architectural style was changed. This can be seen in the white-painted building that reflects the Neo-Baroque architectural style which presents extensive rustication. The building consists of a heavier base at ground level and exaggerated arched openings. The central structure of the building is raised taller resembling a tower-like element creating a lively rooftop silhouette (Mohidin & Ismail, 2014). Furthermore, elements like exaggerated keystones, segmental-arched pediments, columns with engaged blocks, and attached block-like rustication to window surrounds are also visible. Verandah on top of the ground floor arched opening can be seen at the entrance of the building. It comes from the Edwardian baroque style which is a mixture of French architecture in the 18th century and Sir Christopher Wren in England in the 17th century (Mohidin & Ismail, 2014). There are also stone railings attached to the edge of the roof. The windows are all topped with either arched blocks of stones or engaged pediments.

The Golden Ratio in Design and Architecture

Mathematics and Architecture are like two peas in a pod. In the past, Architecture has done great things for geometry. In measuring the land they lived on, it was people’s need to build their buildings that caused them to first investigate the theory of form and shape (Freiberger, 2019). Ancient Greeks studied Phi and applied it in building structures by calculating the relationship between the width and height of a building, the size of the portico, and the position of columns for support (Akhtaruzzaman and Shafie, 2011). The Golden Ratio and its presence in Design and Architecture became a foundation of our modern world.

In the book entitled The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi by Mario Livio, it was asserted that the fascination of the said Golden Ratio was not constricted to mathematicians as even primordial and contemporary architects have taken an interest and are contemplating its ubiquity. Thus, the different aspects of the Golden Ratio (ϕ) can be observed in both ancient and modern architecture as it has inspired several artists, to build structures close to perfection for distinctive purposes whether as an offering to the Gods or for the use of important people such as a significant person or even the administrative workforces.

Golden Ratio in the Pyramid of Khufu

A pyramid built for Pharaoh Khufu 4,707 years ago in an Egyptian civilization applied the golden ratio, according to popular belief. Although several specialists have measured the height and the side of the Khufu Pyramid, the average results were 230.478m at the side, and the average height is 146.726m. Get the average height and side and divide to calculate the ratio, the ratio becomes 1.5708 which is close to the golden ratio ϕ=1.61818. The table shown below shows the measurements of the pyramid from the year 1840 until 2012.

The surveyed dimensions of the Pyramid of Khufu became evidence that early civilizations used the concept of golden ratio in structure building.

Golden Ratio in the Parthenon

In the ancient Greek civilization, the Parthenon is one of the best-known buildings in terms of architectural design. This building was originally made to serve as a sign of dedication to the Goddess Athena. Proportions of the golden ratio can be visible along the structure and dimensions of the Parthenon.

This image illustrates the outside or the exterior of the building. In the photo, there are highlighted blue, yellow, and green lines that form rectangles. The longer parts are represented by the blue lines. The shorter parts are represented by the yellow lines. The green lines represent the entire width and the length. When the ratio of the lengths of the yellow segments and the blue segments are derived it can be equal to the ratio of the lengths between the green segments and the blue segments. If you get the ratio of the total width (31.814) and the longer part (19.69) it will result in 1.6157 close to the golden ratio.

Golden Ratio in Taj Mahal

Known as one of the famous UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the ivory-white colored Taj Mahal also employs the Golden Ratio, specifically the phi-based proportions that can be found in the foundational aspect of the exterior outline like the relation of the width of its arch to the width of the structure and the rectangular frame bordering the windows.

To prove the phi-based proportions, according to an article in the New World Encyclopedia, regarding the dimensions of the mausoleum, it was stated that the width of the arch is 115 feet, meanwhile, the width of the structure is 180 feet. Upon calculating the ratio, it was found that the ratio is 1.565 which is close to the value of Phi (ϕ) which is equivalent to 1.61818. In addition, measurements done by Indian architects: Richard Baraud and Ebba Kochh in 2006, had proven that the said structure equips golden rectangles, this was further supported by the study of Sanjay Surya who analyzed the proportion and symmetry of the dimensions of the Taj Mahal.

Golden Ratio in Notre Dame Cathedral

Notre Dame Cathedral is a famous Gothic church found in Paris, France which was constructed in the beginning of 1163 and completed around 1345. According to Frederick Macody Lund, a Norwegian historian who explored the geometry of various Gothic architecture, the design of this cathedral follows the concept of the golden ratio. A number of its main significant parts such as the columns and arcs exhibit an ideal proportion that approximately meets the golden ratio values.

There are four (4) golden ratios in Notre Dame Cathedral as depicted in the photo. Each of the units that yield a value of 1:0.168 is represented by the red and yellow line segments, namely, The Portal and the Rose Window, The Rose Window and Arcade, The Towers, and The Arcade level.

UN Secretariat Building and the Golden Ratio

One of the most notable and distinguishable paradigms of modern architecture equipping the Golden Ratio is the UN Secretariat Building located in New York, United States which was completed in the year 1961. According to a study, it was stated that the final blueprint of the said structure was based on Le Corbusier drawings which happen to be a Swiss-French architect and painter who had generated a proportional system which was named the Modulor, incorporating the Golden Ratio in the measurement of buildings.

To prove that the Golden Ratio is indeed applied to the dimension of the building, it was stated by Gary Meisner, author of the book “The Golden Ratio” and owner of GoldenNumber. Net, that the measurements of the dimensions of the structure were 1130 to 698, wherein once divided to determine the ratio would be equivalent to 1.618, which happens to be the Golden Ratio.

Conclusion

The Parthenon is one of the best-known buildings in terms of architectural design. It was the center of religious life in the Greeks, dedicated to the Goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered as their patron. Mostly a sculpture manifesting the Athenian Imperium at its full power and sovereignty. The Parthenon embodies an extraordinary number of architectural refinements, which combine to give a sculptural appearance to the building.

The application of the golden ratio to architecture has paved the way for architects to impart a sense of balance to a structure. It’s used as a basis for the definition of the beauty of architecture. Architecture is perceived as pleasing and beautiful if it follows the divine proportion. In the past, the Parthenon in Greece, the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, and Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris were structures that used the golden ratio (Salingaros Nikos, 2011). In the present time, the United Nations Headquarters in New York City, and the Museum of Modern Art in San Francisco are structures that use the golden ratio as well ( Bahadur and Thapa, 2018).

The Alhambra Palace is located in Granada, Spain. It was built by the Nasrid Dynasty in the 13th and 14th centuries when they had control of the Islamic territories in the south of Spain. In 1492, that area was conquered by the Christians. The monarchs leading that conquering were King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella – the same king and queen that financed Columbus’ exploration. After the King and Queen conquered Granada, many changes were made to the site to make it more suitable to their needs and their faith – Catholicism. In the 16th century, Charles V even built a Renaissance palace at the center of the site. Although there have been changes and damage dealt to the original site over the centuries, it still has many of the beautiful and distinct characteristics of Islamic architecture. The Alhambra Palace has a few interesting halls and courts within its fortified walls; among those are the Court of the Myrtle Trees, the Comares Tower, the Hall of Ambassadors, the Court of Lions, the Hall of Abencerrajes, and the Sala de las Dos Hermanas. The Court of Lions was commissioned by Muhammad V, and it was built in the late 1300s (or 14th century), although all of the parts mentioned above are important and can be seen as hallmark Islamic architecture, the Court of Lions(and its corresponding halls) in particular, can be used as an example to accurately identify and describe the different elements of Islamic architecture, including the decorative element known as muqarnas, the garden, the water, calligraphy, and other important architectural and design details found in the court.

The Court of Lions is a rectangular garden with a central fountain surrounded by twelve lions from which it gets its name. Some porches project out into the garden from two opposing sides. On the central fountain’s basin, there is inscribed poetry along with the lions; the script is characteristic of Islamic architecture, but the lions are not. Interestingly, they are believed to have come from the 11th-century palace of Banu Nagrallah, a Jewish ruler, and have significance for those of the Jewish faith in a religious aspect, but they also have significance for the one who took them from the palace as they represent their victory and power. From this fountain come four separate streams that divide the court into four parts. The court was originally a garden filled with orange trees and other flowering plants to provide a respite from the direct sunlight and the hot, dry climate. Surrounding the court are arcades that rest on slender columns; in some places, the columns are doubled up to add more support. The vaults in these arcades are known as muqarnas vaults – in which a three-dimensional, geometric form is repeated below itself multiple times to create a certain decorative look. On the long sides of the court are two chambers, the Hall of the Abencerrajes and the Sala de las Dos Hermanas – each with their distinct muqarnas vaults.

There are a few characteristics seen in the Court of Lions at the Alhambra Palace that are typical of Islamic Architecture. The poetry on the basin was done in calligraphy by Ibn Zamrak. Calligraphy is a big part of the decoration seen in Islamic architecture, as it acts as stained glass windows or paintings in Christian buildings did – to tell stories and teach lessons. In the case of the Court of Lions, the poetry on the fountain tells of the garden and its symbolic value; it also praises the patron of the court, Muhammad V. Other examples of calligraphy in Islamic Architecture can be seen in the Hagia Sophia(after it was converted into a mosque) and the Mosque of Suleyman. Another characteristic of the Court of Lions that points to it being Islamic architecture is the muqarnas vault. While the muqarnas vault has no real symbolic value, it has been used as a decorative element in many pieces of Islamic Architecture, including the Mosque of Suleyman that was mentioned above. Additionally, there is the fountain and the water channels. From the central fountain come four streams that split the court into four equal parts. The idea of a walled garden having a fountain in the center that is divided by four streams of water originated in Persia. That idea was inspired by the Qur’an in which paradise is described as a garden with four rivers – one of water, one of milk, one of wine, and one of honey. Comment by Tracy Tannehill:

The Court of Lions is a beautiful example of Islamic architecture found at the Alhambra Palace in Granada, Spain. It is one of the best-preserved sections of the palace after the area was conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella. It has many beautiful elements that have stood the test of time – the muqarnas vaults, the fountain and streams, and the calligraphy. I only wish that we could see the court when it was truly a paradise garden – filled to the brim with orange trees and other flowering plants, with the sound of water and the fragrant scents. It must have been magnificent then – when it was at its true potential. We get to see a glimpse into the past with the elements that are left, but what is missing could show us something entirely new.

“On my honor, as an Aggie, I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on this academic work.”

Architecture acts as a tool of power, symbolizing authority and politics. “Architecture influences people by making a concrete structure which is present in the material world” (Peter J. Wilston). This structure appears in a society, creating a physical base, and allowing people to form ideas. More so, this physical base allows people to further explore and think about ideas of the structure that may have existed. Architecture provides clear enclosed spaces with a distinction of outdoor and indoor spaces, allowing people to think about the structure and the overall architecture.

About power, architecture indicates and identifies power. An individual’s status can be indicated by their control over others. This means how others perceive them, their capacity for leadership, their power, their wealth, and other ways they are set apart from the general population. Architecture can demonstrate all these attributes, making it an important indicator of status. This is evident in the basilica in Roman cities. Basilicas in Rome showed evident concepts of Roman authority for people of the Roman Empire. Roman architecture is a prime example of power in architecture. Basilicas contained an enclosed space with apses points, and symmetry, and were regularly the centred building of public power. Basilicas symbolized the Roman law, power, authority of classical culture, literature, religion, tradition, and even the public life of the people. In addition to this, the organization and disposition of buildings also symbolized a sense of power. This reinforces the idea that architecture acts as a tool of power, symbolizing authority and politics. Most leaders used architecture as a form of intimidation and control through their built environment and used it as a visual testament to their strength and control of the people. An example of this includes The Arc de Triumphed or the St Peter’s Basilica. Architecture played an essential role in strengthening the empire and was vital to the success of Rome and the role of representing power. Even in a Western contemporary context, reminders of the culture and tradition of the Roman Empire are still located throughout the Western world cities.

Expanding on to the idea of architecture and power is, the leader’s relationship to the building. The leader controls the construction of the building which depicts the relationship between power and architecture as it shows how it can make an individual powerful (Molly Glenn 2003). Monumental architecture differs from vernacular architecture as it is generally used for public and political reasons. Monuments are built by leaders and are primarily buildings that are used for political purposes. Monuments are designed by the leader, who starts the building process, and is normally larger than other buildings. These monuments stand out from ordinary buildings, as they are built with the intent of making an impression. This means that monumental architecture is built by those with power, presenting evidence of the leader’s power. As Wilson stated “Monumental architecture embodies the leader’s ability to control and affect his followers. It shows his power and demonstrates his worth and capacity to have power.” Overall presenting the idea that architecture can act as a tool of power, symbolizing authority and even politics.

Known as the Renaissance, from the 14th to the 17th century europe experienced a cultural, artistic, political, and economic “rebirth”, revealing some of history’s greatest philosophers, artists, and architects rediscovering man’s knowledge of science and art. Looking specifically at Florence during the early 15th century, the city was discovering a new order of architecture and art influenced by the city’s culture, politics, and religion. Architectural works such as Brunelleschi’s Santa Maria degli Angeli and art pieces like Masaccio’s fresco the Holy Trinity show Florence’s Renaissance ideals and advancements in technology.

Filippo Brunelleschi played a major role in defining Florence during this time through his many innovative works, including his mysterious yet revolutionary rotunda of Santa Maria degli Angeli built in 1434 for the Camaldolese monastery. Brunelleschi’s design was revolutionary as it was the first example of a centralized plan during the Renaissance, breaking from the traditional form of a cross. The Oratories plan implements perfect symmetry and proportions through its circular and octagonal geometry. Consisting of eight chapels with deeply recessed apses, linked together by narrow corridors, the eight sides of the rotunda create a 16-sided perimeter on the exterior of the building. As eight piers support the octagonal dome, they also help divide the space acting as both form and function. The church’s design also emphasizes depth shown in its cut-out niches of the exterior wall and deeply recessed apses. Brunelleschi shows the influence of humanism characterizing the building by its harmonious form, mathematical proportion, and a unit of measurement based on the human scale creating a structure appealing to both emotion and reason. Another key element of the oratory is its prominent ancient Roman architectural influence shown through its centralized plan and pier construction resembling that of the Pantheon in Rome.

While the Renaissance period placed a large emphasis on the architecture of religious buildings, churches and basilicas in Florence were also established through the artwork inside. In Florence’s Santa Maria Novella sits Masaccio’s momentous fresco the Holy Trinity completed in 1425. Depicting the Holy Trinity, the fresco is known as the earliest work using Brunelleschi’s one-point perspective technique, advancing the accuracy and perfection artists could once achieve. Following the Renaissance style, the painting is laid out in almost perfect symmetry with an emphasis on its precise geometric proportions. The influence of Humanism at this time can be seen through the painting’s subject matter, as it is centered around the human individual and depicts God as a man rather than an abstract force or power. The painting’s more realistic and earthly surroundings rather than the heavenly realms also show humanism. In the painting’s setting, Masaccio outlines classic Roman architecture which can be seen in elements such as its columns, pilasters, coffered ceiling, barrel vault, ionic and Corinthian capitals, and fluting. It was also thought that Masaccio’s work may have been helped by Brunelleschi himself, to incorporate Roman architectural elements and linear perspective into the piece. Another key aspect of the fresco is its unprecedented use of depth and realism, which demonstrate humanism as well as Masaccio’s individualism.

When recognizing these two magnificent Renaissance works of Florence’s quattrocento, many similarities outline parallel ideas and similar formal organizations. Both works acquire clear acknowledgment of the humanism movement through their mathematical proportions and subject matter both relating to man. As well as having perfect symmetry the pieces also emphasize depth in the second and third dimensions. Both Masaccio’s fresco and Brunelleschi’s oratory also possess prominent classic Roman architectural elements such as key architectural elements in the fresco and the oratory’s centralized plan. Overall, Brunelleschi’s revolutionary centralized plan of Santa Maria degli Angeli and Masaccio’s cardinal implementation of Brunelleschi’s linear perspective technique in the Holy Trinity, make both individuals prominent pioneers of this Renaissance-era embodying both Humanism and Individualism.