Category: Architecture

Architecture is constantly associated with its functional purpose, physical appearance and its amenity. However, maintains a much more inadvertent role which surpasses far beyond the physical and material world in which we live and enters the intangible realm of our existential memory. ’A mental meditation between the world and our consciousness’ . Successful architecture is displayed in the completeness, credibility and the unquestioned prestige of experience. Memory is involved indisputably throughout this, between the space and experiencing person lies an architectural resonance that I believe should be exposed and percieved by everyone.

In this essay I plan to discuss the importance of creating and preserving memories through architecture with several case studies. Memory within architecture can be interpreted in many forms with regards to time, a place or a feeling; all of which are crucial in terms of emotional gages amongst us all and therefore critical in contemporary design.

Site of memory

The Yinzhou Museum – Known as the Ningbo Museum [Figure 1] was designed by Wang Shu and completed in 2008 holds many exhibitions on the history of Ningbo City . “Originally in this area there were about thirty beautiful villages and they demolished every village” , A quote from Wang Shu informing us of how he not only knew but had acknowledged the existence and beauty of what buildings had been lost. Ironically the museum of ‘Ningbo’s history’ would in turn erase a part of Ningbo’s history… Wang Shu was faced with this dilemma and set to tackle it in a perpetuated manner.

Wang Shu explains, ‘Everywhere there are materials, beautiful materials’ with regards to the debris left after the demolition of the traditional Chinese towns. It would simply come naturally for an architect to reuse these materials to save money and time, but also in order to sustain the character of the area through a captivating brick façade. Despite being 3 storeys high in such a low surrounding landscape, almost situated in ‘inappropriate’ context [Figure 1], the museum still manages to create an exceptional response to the site by using the recycled bricks and clay tiles [Figure 1.1] in a traditional wa pan technique (multiple elements compacted together) reviving the culture and allegiance of the locals.

However, this is contemporary architecture and although there is a need to convey the past for memory redemption there is a need to be cerebral and relevant. Wang Shu pairs old with new in an act of juxtaposition by contrasting the valuable reused materials directly with structural concrete. He manages to create a uniquely modern building which questions how contemporary design should be. The outcome is devastatingly powerful and reflects Ningbo’s history very modestly despite its brutalist form. An ‘Artificial Mountain’ and an exquisite example of how keeping memory within modern design through the means of reclaimed materials can be successful.

Historic to symbolic

he purposeful timing of a building’s construction is another successful and important way in which memory can be re-established. Located in Ahmedabad, India, lies Mohandas Gandhi’s memorial museum [Figure 2] which was built in 1963 as a tribute to his political movements. Gandhi played a critical role in India’s history as he fought as a freedom fighter against the British rule through non-violent, peaceful protest methods and proved successful when India reclaimed her independence in 1947 . Despite Gandhi’s acts of reconciliation, he was killed 1 year after gaining independence.

Experiencing a world-historical turning point was a time of despair and allegiance in India; having a newly elected president, Jawaharlal Nehru and Gandhi’s death. The sub-continent was in a state to be pushed forward both politically and architecturally. Le Corbusier did just this, providing India with a number of contemporary buildings during the 1950s such as Neelam theatre, Capitol Complex, Villa de Madame Manorama Sarabhai [Figure 2.1]; revolutionizing and reinventing the way which architecture was perceived at this time. This period of architectural growth influenced many architects including Charles Correa who was appointed to design Gandhi’s memorial museum and s now renowned as ‘India’s greatest architect’ .

The museum impeccably reflects Gandhi’s minimalistic teachings as the spatial organisation of the site portrays a traditional, domestic style whilst combining a modest human scale and the use of raw local materials. The museum epitomizes and embodies everything Gandhi protested for and provides an exemplary reminder of India’s freedom movement . Memory withers away in our modern society and we cannot rely on history to preserve the past. Which is why the timing of this construction which was so critical [Figure 2.2] as the development of India’s architectural practises were on the rise, Gandhi’s beliefs and teachings were due commendation and there was a need to reconcile India and the world through Gandhi’s modernist principles of minimalism. The museum was timed seamlessly; connecting memory, history and beliefs still to this day.

Moral absence

In current day issues, preserving memory through beauty and experience are often considered to be quaint and have become some-what insignificant with the existing progressive development of practices for building production. The idea of ‘preserving memory’ within a lot of contemporary architecture has been either forgotten or unaddressed. For example, the John Nash Crescent (A Grade I Listed building) in London has recently gone under demolition to house 73 new ‘luxury’ flats.

The Park Crescent was originally completed in 1821 and designed by Architect John Nash [Figure 3] who was one of the most influential architects of the 18th and 19th century . His work was unprecedented whilst upholding a timeless appeal with Park Crescent being one of his most highly regarded projects [Figure 3.1]. Locals have been strongly against the reconstruction as a 3D proposal of the scheme was released [Figure 3.2] presenting no reflection on the classical regency architecture which was there once before.

The overwhelming number of people against the demolition meant the architects had to produce a revised proposal [Figure 3.3] which again did not satisfy the locals; “It Is too wide, too deep and too tall to be an accurate historical depiction of the original Nash Plans” . People with no architectural knowledge can recognise that the design has no qualities which respond to the site’s resonance or the memory of an admired architects work. The project continues despite the public outcry as many who were once against the scheme have been ‘mollified by offers of “very substantial” cash compensation’ . This not only brings about the destruction of historic work but also raises the question in the way which issues in contemporary architecture are dealt with unjustly. This has consequently left us in a time where the memory of famous works can be completely disregarded by the means of material compensation and poor acknowledgement in architectural practices.

Acceptance of the incongruous

Throughout these architectural practices there will always be a need for acceptance of new, contemporary and controversial design. Throughout the late 19th century, unprecedented architecture was beginning to become a “common” occurrence and appreciating the benefits and purpose of “incongruous” architecture became somewhat of the norm. However, this act of acceptance becomes more difficult to pursue when the content of the building holds sensitive, historic values.

Specifically, war memorials are faced with this issue as they traditionally uphold very conventional, respectful designs to only ever convey empathy for its visitors. In controversy, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington D.C. was built [Figure 4]. There were 58,220 U.S military fatalities and over 2 million from Vietnam . The War damaged the world; designing the place of remembrance was imperative for recovery.

In a time where people would have preferred design similar to the Lincoln Memorial [Figure 4.1], Maya Lin’s contentious design [Figure 4.2] was what won the competition – chosen by ‘8 distinguished artists and architects’ in 1981 . When the winner of the competition was announced and the design was exposed, many were expecting a typical, monumental design that exemplified honour and glory for the veterans whilst alleviating the guilt that survivors experienced, just as war memorials do. Instead they were greeted with two harsh granite walls: “‘a black gash of shame’, ‘a scar’, ‘an open grave’” . It was received brutally.

Maya Lin quotes – “It faces up to death in a way our culture, and memorials, [don’t] tend to do.” . The use of highly reflective black granite allows the visitors to see themselves emulated from within the wall, directly connecting people in this place of darkness of insufferable loss. Her honesty and intuitive exploration of remembrance architecture pushed memorial design away from its traditional forms. The memorial is now highly credited, and difficulty lies in remembering how controversial the proposal once was. For a design to exemplify such vehemence amongst all must be deemed successful and is why the acceptance of unique architecture – which may not be deemed appropriate with its current societal trends – will benefit and expand our architectural knowledge and approach towards modern design. Maya Lin was thinking ahead of her time, bringing us closer together through the exposure of real memory and educating us towards the worlds true ephemerality (the concept of things being transitory, existing only briefly) .

Conclusion

As discussed, architecture does not simply provide pure functional purpose or physical shelter but holds a sense of joy, identity and place amongst communities and individuals. There is not [yet] a straightforward architectural pattern that establishes what causes these impressions, but there are undoubtedly elements that modern architects have presented in contemporary architecture; we are heading in the right direction.

Wang Shu chose the use of reclaimed materials which demonstrated a dynamic technique of involving the past with the future, Charles Correa maintained Gandhi’s beliefs and principles through prudent architectural design and impeccable timing within India’s history and Maya Lin provided the wounded world with a disputatious memorial, changing and developing the entire category of memorial architecture that we see today.

It is clear that the significance of memory has been valued seriously in these case studies and is where I feel contemporary architecture should progress to be more so. When absent, we have seen the public outcry it can cause yet also how quickly the public abandon their morals through cash settlements (Park Crescent). Which raises the question, what is the level of importance of preserving memory within certain architecture? It may be hard to consider why the conservation of historical buildings should be kept for memory purpose, especially once they cease to meet their original function. So how we come to address architecture that is built further and further back into history, is at our dispense.

The importance of memory will always remain meticulous, but the value is becoming lost in our modern society. It has proven meaningful and is what gives our cities and communities character and uniqueness. Preservation of architecture that retains historic value provides economic, environmental, educational and cultural benefits all that connect intimately to the living memory of involved communities, and to one another.

My passion for architecture stems from my childhood when I was recognized as being able to express my thoughts through art. [review- needs to be stronger] This evolved into an ambition to use this forte to develop a career around it, one which would enable me to apply my innovativeness to improving people’s lives and addressing emerging issues in society.

While a link may be hard to see, architecture is not an industry that escapes without a share of the blame for today’s issues. ‘Why We Build’ by R. Moore taught me that historically we build and design for money, power, and politics. However, if we have a genuine desire to address prominent post-modern societal issues: global warming, disease, and poverty to name a few, our driving principles in this industry must also change.

Architecture should evolve in line with the environment. Today, nearly 40% of carbon emission in the USA is a product of the built environment, contributing to global warming. This in itself warrants a change in mindset in designing, to avoid further ecological impacts. Some shifts can already be observed, for instance, the introduction of new concepts such as autonomous buildings and carbon neutral construction merge innovation and technology to create cities that can coexist with the natural world. However, there is a need for a more focused global emphasis on finding sustainable and affordable solutions. The goal is to make sure the effects of what we install outlive the people who create them- in a positive way.

The global pandemic has reformed how people live, work and relax, all of which give ‘purpose’ to architectural design. In a world where standing too close may prove deadly, it challenges the utilization of existing physical space. In 1933, the Finnish architect and designer H. A. H. Aalto built the Paimio Sanatorium for tuberculosis. For him, architecture aided the cure. Bright, airy, light rooms filled the sanatorium, using sunlight to kill the tuberculosis bacteria. This was the essence of post-war modern architecture, to capitalize on the use of space to combat disease as a major societal issue. In the 21st century, however, space is no longer the remedy. Being homebound has made people realize the value of their own limited space for reasons of safety. Communication feels safer through plexiglass. The spatial limitation is now a comfort.

The implicit influence of politics on architecture is once again another example of an issue where the lower and less privileged class have been suffering at the hands of policymakers, ignorant of their real needs. Safety and inclusiveness have been marginalized whilst the focus has been on ticking boxes, on the agenda of social housing. This mentality has cost lives and there is no better living example than Grenfell tower where 72 lives were lost within hours. 40,000 people still live in high-rise buildings, often with poor design considerations around health and safety.

Architecture, like any other discipline, is constantly evolving. To keep abreast of the changes, as my passion grew during my secondary academic years, I developed an interest in reading newsletters from websites like Archdaily and Deezen. In addition, during the lockdown and summer period, I participated in an online tutorial offered by the architecture firm Halliday Fraser Munroe on how basic architectural software works and how to respond to a brief. By partaking in this, I was exposed to many of the key expertise required to create a building such as purpose, budget, location, and materials. I also learned the importance of managing time expectations in creating and designing.

My academic creative curriculum has solidified my interest in architecture as a career of choice. Not only did it offer me the opportunity to realize my potential, but it also allowed me to improve my creative skills massively, enabling me to now compete for one of the best architectural universities in the USA. A-Levels in both graphic design and physics have given me an insight into some of the key areas to be considered while designing a building, from aesthetics to materials, taking into account the visual attitude of mainstream media. Combining these skills gives me a deep appreciation of the key aspects needed for the successful execution of a project, often involving intricate planning and balancing of conflicting priorities. For example, when creating a product in graphics, I consider factors such as audience, appeal, and content to use features such as typography, shape, and color by the intended effect that I desire to evoke within the reader. I have also learned to improve my time management to ensure deadlines were met.

My aspiration is to become a leading female, ethnic minority architect in the USA, and break the mold in an industry that I believe is still largely male-dominated. I am very strongly driven by making a positive contribution to society as an architect and I firmly believe that having a degree from a prestigious institution like yours will definitely put me on a strong footing to achieving that purpose. I have researched your faculty and read several reviews by former students and I am fascinated by how much your institution has to offer to help me realize my full potential.

The architecture of a mosque is strongly shaped by the regional traditions of the time and place where it was built. As a result, the style, layout, and decoration can vary greatly. Nevertheless, because of the common function of the mosque as a place of congregational prayer, certain architectural features appear in mosques all over the world.

Mosques must have a large prayer hall that is joined by an open courtyard, called a Sahn. Within these courtyards, fountains are usually built for both a welcome in hot lands and are important for the ablutions (ritual cleansing of the body) done before prayer.

This is the most fundamental necessity featured in all mosque architecture.

The first place of worship for Muslims was the home of the Prophet Muhammad. He inspired the earliest type of mosque, called the hypostyle mosque. This type spread widely throughout Islamic lands. The mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia- Great Mosque of Kairouan, Umayyad, Abbasid, Hegira 221 / AD 836, is an archetypal example of the hypostyle mosque. It is a large, rectangular building made from stone and is supported by columns throughout the halls. This mosque does have a very large Sahn, or courtyard as well. The mosque was also built on a former Byzantine site, that had allowed the use of repurposed materials, such as the columns of the building. It was a decision that was made practical for the Islamic conquest of this Byzantine land.

The hypostyle plan was used widely in Islamic lands before the introduction of the four-iwan plan as Iwan, Ctesiphon, Iraq, c. 560. In the eleventh century in Iran, the hypostyle mosques started to be converted into four-iwan mosques, and as the name indicates this had made it into a vaulted space that opens on four sides to a courtyard. The iwan was developed in the pre-Islamic time of Iran, where it was used in monumental and imperial architecture.

In many mosques around the world, there are always fountains or wash centers have been built and are used before every prayer in the mosque. This is found to be in an open courtyard, called a Sahn. Another essential element of a mosque’s architecture is a mihrab, also called a niche in the wall that indicates the direction of Mecca, towards which all Muslims pray. Another aspect of mosque architecture is a Minaret, these are towers attached to a mosque from which the call to prayer is announced.

One feature of a mosque that is not fully necessary, is called a Qubba or a dome.

It is not a ritual requirement like the mihrab, though a dome does possess significance within the mosque as a symbolic representation of the reach of heaven. Also, the interior decoration of a dome is often used with geometric motifs to create breathtaking patterns. All these features are very common and can be easily recognized.

Throughout the Byzantine period, the classical tradition can be seen throughout its history and end development but was mostly recognized in its early stages. One of the most obvious contexts was seen in its architecture. The longitudinal plan used in many early Christian churches drew from the shape and design of many classical buildings. In Byzantine architecture, a similar use can be seen in these Christian churches.

Images were used in Byzantine worship as symbols of the faith and aspects of their beliefs. Some religious figures however were deemed iconography and were frowned upon as time went on. Iconoclasm sought to destroy such images in fear that they were being respected on their own and forgotten in the grand scheme of the religion.

Iconoclasm is the social belief in the importance of the destruction of icons and other images or monuments, most frequently for religious or political reasons.

They feared that the people would begin to worship these images, rather than the actual holy person being depicted in the bible. The religion started to move away from devotional images and representations towards more decorative and identity-less designs. Although iconoclasm did not last long in Byzantine art, it reached a peak in Islamic art and became the style that has been used to this day.

Not long after, a powerful reaction against iconoclasm set in and a new line of emperors brought back the tradition of lavish religious art and architecture that continued the making of images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and Saints. Most mosaics had a subtle blend of Hellenistic styles and more abstract ideas because of the Byzantine period.

In 1204, Latin Crusaders sacked Constantinople bringing an end to the Middle Byzantine era. It remained in Byzantine hands until it was also captured by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 and revived the work of murals and icon paintings once again.

The Greeks thought of their Gods as having indistinguishable requirements from individuals, they trusted that the Gods required someplace to live on Earth. Sanctuaries were worked as the divine beings’ natural homes. The essential structure of sanctuaries was created from the imperial lobbies of the Mycenaean Age. A Mycenaean royal residence comprised of several structures regularly more than one story high, assembled around a focal patio. It was brilliantly painted, both all around. In every castle, there was an expansive corridor called a megaron, where the ruler held court and directed state business. Little survives from the megaron at Mycenae. This remaking depends on the remaining parts from different royal residences, which would have been comparative.

The Romans took and obtained a great deal of things from Greek culture. For instance, they took the Greek Gods and renamed them. They additionally took the styles of Greek sanctuaries, however, they transformed them into a few. The sanctuary was rectangular, with a gabled rooftop, with a frontal staircase offering access to its high stage.

They utilized primarily the Corinthian style, yet they likewise made blends, for example, the Corinthian-Ionic style. The Romans likewise included a great deal of subtleties and adornments in their sanctuaries. The Romans additionally made what turned into the basic round, domed sanctuary. The primary sanctuary of a Roman city was the Capitolium. The Pantheon, the renowned sanctuary in Rome, was an example of a portion of the cutting-edge basilicas and houses of worship.

The Classical Period Temples turned out to be a lot bigger and progressively intricate. Parthenon, a standout amongst the most renowned structures at any point, was made during that period. The Greeks held numerous religious celebrations to pay tribute to their divine beings. The motivation behind celebrations was to satisfy the divine beings and persuade them to meet the general population’s desires. For example, influencing the yields to develop or triumph over war. Notwithstanding religious occasions, athletic rivalries and showy exhibitions occurred at celebrations as well.

The early Greek engineering, from around 3000 BC to 700 BC, utilized chiefly the post and lintel, or post and shaft, framework. Their principal building material was marble. Exemplary Greek engineering is comprised of three unique requests that are mostly found in their sanctuaries: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Every one of the three had similar segments yet had distinctive kinds of subtleties. The requests are known for the most part by their section style. The Corinthian request was not as broadly utilized as Doric and Ionic. It was fancier than the others and had significantly more detail. The Greeks just utilized one request on one structure, they never blended. The fundamental sanctuary pursued these equivalent principles.

Greek Architecture was the venturing stone for a great part of the engineering we see today and can likewise be found in a portion of the present progressively normal structures. In the Victorian days, segments were for the most part found in the exteriors of homes. Indeed, even a thing as later as the U.S.A. capital hints at this extraordinary building technique.

Here are a few instances of the three kinds of segments and some antiquated structures as yet remaining. Doric is most broadly found in the Parthenon an old Greek structure used to love Athena their goddess whom they accepted to be their supporter of divinity. Ionic in a structure as yet remaining is most broadly utilized in the Athena Nike sanctuary in Greece. Corinthian however was not utilized much by the Greeks and is most broadly found in the sanctuary of their most noteworthy sharpened god Zeus in Athens, Greece.

The Roman Coliseum is additionally a genuine case of Greek segments since when the Romans toppled the Greeks in their victory to have the best of each progress they embraced the Greek type of Architecture in the stadiums that they fabricated. The Colosseum happens to exhibit every one of the three of Greece’s segment styles.

The Parthenon was worked in Acropolis, in 447 BC to supplant the current sanctuary which was annihilated by the intrusion of the Persians in 480 B.C. The work started compelled of Pericles to demonstrate the riches and life of Athens’s influence (The Parthenon.) The development of the Parthenon cost the Athenian treasury 469 silver gifts. One silver ability was sufficient to work in a stand amongst the most progressive warships of their time (The Parthenon.) The Parthenon was additionally worked with an incredible statue of Athena their supporter divinity. As the entire city of Athens was named after her.

Engineering was additionally utilized in the city beneath the Acropolis inside less excellent things like homes. These homes can go from the biggest for the well-off officials to the modest normal person’s residences. This novel style of structure homes was intended to keep its tenants cool in the late spring and warm in the winter.

The straightforward homes for the poor were normally close to three rooms and the cooking was done outside in a flame pit. There was no lighting for the poor since they couldn’t bear the cost of it like the rich so they would get up at first light and hit the sack at nightfall (Found: Ancient Greece.)

An upscale home however would have lighting and comprise of two stories with different rooms. The house would be fixated on an open yard with modifications to respect Hestia their goddess of home and hearth. A large portion of the family time was spent on the patio this being so because rich homes split into people’s with nor being permitted in the other’s quarters. The vast majority of the general population that lived in these sumptuous homes were government authorities (Found: Ancient Greece.)

The compositional structure of the Greeks government structures like the Agora which has a substantial open territory for gatherings is additionally encompassed by structures a significant number of which are sanctuaries, including ones worked to Zeus, Hephaestus, and Apollo. A portion of the structures were government structures like the Mint, where coins were made, or like the Strategeion, where the 10 military pioneers of Athens called the Strategoi met to talk about military stratagems.

Country’s capital like the Greeks and Romans did. There are likewise the Greek theaters one devoted to Dionysus their divine force of wine and joy and the other smaller one committed to Herodes Atticus with an old family bound to the start of Athens. These auditoriums were utilized frequently and for various plays running from show to satire. When a year however out of appreciation for the god Dionysus in the bigger auditorium of the two, they would have an amicable challenge of who could make the best play and had the best execution in the divine beings’ respect. Their venues were built in a one-of-a-kind route burrowed from the side of the mountain into a half-cone shape with the phase at the base. This technique for structure empowered the Greeks to have the capacity to situate more individuals. The performance centers were structured along these lines so that regardless of whether you were sitting at the highest point of the cone and the most distant far from the stage you would in any case ready to hear the entertainers in front of an audience.

Any building structure is worked through a progression of ventures from slicing the chunks to cutting the plans. First, the work goes into the stone quarry and is cut into mammoth sections with bow saws and etches. At that point, these gigantic stones would then be transported to the building site where they would be cut down to a rough design for the artists to refine. When all the fine subtleties were worked out and the artists were finished with what they accepted was flawlessness. The wooden cranes would then lift the huge stones into a spot where the stone would remain until the structure disintegrated or got crushed.

Distinctive kinds of materials that the Greeks may have utilized comprised wood, marble, limestone, earthenware chunks, and additionally stone. Work for these substantial materials could extend from 1,000-2,500 slaves and everyday citizens to 500 stone carvers and 15 ace planners. Work conditions for this work typically fluctuated, taking into account whether they were slaves, stone carvers, or an ace modeler. Slaves generally didn’t have life excellent and didn’t have a decision of what work they needed or whether they worked or not being obliged to what each errand their ace set before them. The artists regularly had a simpler time and were allowed to travel every which way, yet very little happier in living and wages. At that point, there were the tip-top engineers who were the primary originators who were off and getting paid higher wages than the remainder of the laborers.

Introduction

The Modernism movement began in the 20th Century. It is seen as being a more logical approach to the purpose of the building as well as using new materials (History.com, 2019) ,(UKEssays.com, 2019).

I aim, to investigate into the Architectural response of the Great Depression. As well as comparing what Architecture was like prior to The Great Depressions and the Architectural response because of it. As well as understanding how such large skyscrapers such as the Empire State and Chrysler Building were able to be built within such a dark period.

The Great Depression happened between 1929-1930 when the stock market crashed. This was the worst every economic downfall in America causing 15 million people jobless by 1933. Compared to the start of the twenties when everyone from the rich to the average citizen were buying stocks making the stock market rapidly grow. But because of the large number of redundancies in 1929, not as many people had the spare money to buy stocks creating inflation in stock prices is worth more than they actually were.

Historiographical Views of Depression-Era Architecture

“Architecture does not appear to enter into the main arguments of most historians who deal with the Great Depression. Of course, this is understandable. If you look just at the raw numbers, they tell you that much less was being built during the Great Depression than was being built during the 1920s. In his thorough study of American from 1929 to 1945, David Kennedy barely mentions architecture, lumping the building industry in with other moribund indicators of the economy like auto sales.[1] Robert S. McElvaine’s discussion of architecture and building in his book, The Great Depression, is also narrow. Like Kennedy, McElvaine emphasizes the limitations of building-related measures like the Federal Housing Authority and the Wagner-Stegall Housing Act.[2] But it would be hard to discuss the New Deal without talking about the work programs. While literature published at the time highlights the architectural achievements of the public agencies, [3] more recent literature fails to go into such detail. In his nearly 1,000-page book, Kennedy tells us only that the Works Progress Administration (WPA) spent $11 billion, put 8.5 million Americans to work, and built roads, parks, and “many public buildings.”[4] In his look at North Carolina during the New Deal, Douglas Abrams says that “from 1935 to 1940, North Carolina WPA projects touched the lives of virtually all citizens in the state,” and he summaries this work in just one sentence: “The Public Works Division constructed schools, housing for teachers called teacherages, armories, stadiums, swimming pools, gyms, and community halls.”[5] McElvaine’s discussion of the Public Works Administration (PWA) architecture is equally short. In Making a New Deal, Lizabeth Cohen looks at the building-related agencies like the WPA, but she examines only how the work and the relief changed the people. None of these scholarly works goes into any substantive detail about how the buildings themselves, or how the social and governmental changes brought about by the Depression may have changed the forms and styles of the buildings. I argue that a closer look at the buildings, and the building trends from the Great Depression and the New Deal, can be helpful in understanding the larger social and economic issues.”(Cmhpf.org, 2019).

References

1. History.com.(2019).Great Depression History.[online]Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/great-depression/great-depression-history [Accessed 22 May 2019].
2. UKEssays. November 2018. Great Depression Impact on US. [online]. Available from: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/how-the-great-depression-affected-us-history-essay.php?vref=1 [Accessed 23 May 2019].
3. Cmhpf.org. (2019). cmhpf.org. [online] Available at: http://www.cmhpf.org/CharlotteArchInGreatDepression.htm#_edn1 [Accessed 24 May 2019].

An example of such a structure would be Stonehenge in Southern England. Its purpose however still remains a mystery. Excavations are being done to find out various possible functions of these structures. However, it is believed to have multiple purposes and is estimated to have been built over many years. Stonehenge is enclosed in a large circle with a diameter of approximately 320 feet defined by a ditch. The circle has an opening characterized by a street that was once lined by menhirs and is dissected by a straight line. The center of the circle had a stone (alter stone) which may have had some spiritual significance to the people at the time. It was enclosed by stones and five menhir structures lined in a circular manner looking like a dolmen. The structures on the outer circles looked like that of a vertical beam supporting a horizontal beam. Similar structures were also present in the shape of a horseshoe around the altar in its inner area in a fashion that it opens to the sun during the summer solstice. The “heel stone” was one particular menhir that stood solo enclosed by a circular ditch, oriented to the sun. The sun could be seen rising over the heel stone during the summer solstice.

The orientation of the structures on the ground were based on people’s observation of what was happening in the sky (the sun, moon, and the position of stars). What is noteworthy about these structures is the fact that the stones used were extracted from Western England, near Wales from where it was moved to this location. This may have been possible through animal power and rope and pulley systems. There are other such remains of hinge monuments existing in other places of the world as well. One such place is Southwestern England where similar remains were found. In Village des Bories, a village in Southern France a complete reconstruction was done based on how the village may have looked in the Stone Age. The shape of the structures were different here, in the shape of beehives and made from local stones. Such a shape was achieved when stones were corbelled or made into a triangular bracket. After the stones were corbelled, a large, heavy stone would be placed on top to close it as adhesive agents were absent as there was no cement at the time. Hence the strength of the walls were a result of the weight of the heavy stones. All domestic structures followed this trend. The use of both horizontal and vertical menhir structures as well as corbelled stones can be seen in the Prehistoric Temple complexes in Malta in Southern Europe. Corbelled stones went into the making of the temple walls which were marked by post and lintel structures (vertical and horizontal beam type structures). Its interior and exterior walls were made using large irregular blocks with rubbles filled in between the walls. A number of rooms were present in this large complex which were organized around an axis. The space outside the structures which were curved is called an “apse”. In the later architecture of churches, the apse is the place where altars were kept. These structures served as temples dedicated to a higher force or gods and goddesses who the people thought were controlling their life from out of the earth. Exterior decorations were not found on these temples as the main focus of the temple was inside. The interior decorations were used to distinguish one chamber from the other inside the temple. All the structures during this time can be thought of as influenced by cave architecture as all of these were built with the idea of hidden interior spaces. Even to this day, temples, tombs, and houses are fundamental to architecture. (McIntosh, 2016)

Rock-Cut architecture is the form of architecture built by excavating solid rock where it occurs naturally. Many caves were excavated for the purpose of residence, prayer, and for shelter by natural inhabitants. Buddhist monks had used such spaces for the same purpose after excavation. One colossal rock is carved to form the shape of a wooden temple or masonry to shape it into a monolithic rock-cut temple. It had walls and other areas that exhibited works of art and engineering which were chiseled out of that same rock.

What are the salient features of art and architecture during the Hellenistic period?

Explain its origin and impact on other cultures of the world (25)

The art and architecture of this era mainly focused on personal lives. The sculptures and paintings made, depicted the figures having personal feelings and showing emotions. During this era Idealism was present. Most of the sculptures made were sponsored by the elites, especially royal portraiture was very common. To mark the achievements and to identify a ruler, they were made to appear in coins, bronze, and ivory applications for furniture.

3d compositions were widely used involving swirling draperies. The artists started drawing the figures with vivid depictions of suffering and being disturbed through agitated expressions. There was a plight of an enemy, Galatians who they lost against the Greeks.

Nike of Samuel 3, Nike lighting on a warship from Greece made in marble is another is example of the artworks. In this artwork, the figure seems to be in motion and is depicted celebrating victory. His wings are flapping as the wind gushes. The wet drapery effect was used in which the effect of constructing in parallel curves is used.

The Venus day is an Aphrodite sculpture that focuses on eroticism and experimentation with slipping garments.

The cities of classical Greece portray a sense of democracy and a sense of community. But with the increasing rivalry between all the cities, Greece lost its image, expanded, and transformed. The classical cities of Greece were small whereas the Hellenistic cities were more focused towards public spaces. They also remained the centers of political activities and religious activities and other events. In the central city, there was a central marketplace. The shops and public judgment seats were in the marketplace in Bima.

Temples were located behind the marketplaces and basilicas were towards the north of the entrance colonnade.

In turkey, Priene was divided into religious, political, cultural, and commercial areas. The streets were planned from East to west. The north of the city was such that the architecture also focused on designing the spaces theatrically. They were built on a new monumental scale. They used stoa and the rest of the city used passive solar designs.

An example of this is the Temple of Horus which is located in Alexandria. Innovations were seen in this city and it had eight quatrefoils. The Egyptian influence could be seen in the capitals. Lily came into existence in the Hellenistic era even though it did not exist in Egyptian architecture.

The temple of Apollo at Didyma is another example that was never completed but its design is considered very dramatic. People had to go through a dark corridor to reach the bright courtyard where the shrines of the gods were placed. The building had a high platform, 64′ high and 10′ wide columns that made it even more dramatic. There were oracles where the prophecies were given to the kings.

Athena battling Alkyoneos is another example that commemorates the battle that the Ionians won over the Galatians, hence, it holds an emotional and powerful significance. The building has violent movements and swirling draperies with a vivid depiction of suffering.

The Hellenistic influence could be seen in the capitals. Lily came into existence in the Hellenistic era even though it did not exist in Egyptian architecture. They started making statues of Greek gods as well. The temples being built in different places was also because of the impact they had on other regions. In turkey, Priene was divided into religious, political, cultural, and commercial areas. The streets were planned from East to the west which was also a result of Hellenistic influence.

Green and eco-friendly Architecture.

‘We are nature – all changes to the habitat have an impact on us.’ (Sustainable design, 2007).

People who were brought up in the early 30s and studied architecture could not imagine that the technologies would rapidly develop, and many possibilities could be opened in the architectural world by the end of the 20th Century. As the knowledge of humans is developing every year and new technologies with new digital processes are being invented, I think it’s very important and essential to use it at its best. In addition, the internet has been invented in the 1980s – which also helped to share information within seconds across the world, where architectural ideas could be shared and rethanked. For example, Peter Eisenman has mentioned that – ‘People can cut the elements that are no longer useful or have the same iconic value. For example, to build the post office today with a neo-classical façade would be silly.’ – At which I do agree partly with his statement. This is because it wouldn’t have its functionality, but only the look. Yes, every nation does value its architectural constructions and it has its own identity. However, we are in the modern world that requires functionality and sustainability that help us to think about the environment and look after the planet, so we could pass on our abilities and knowledge to our future generations.

Why do we live and survive? Regeneration and the continuation of humanity is the process that is embedded in our DNA and survival is the first aspect of our lives. Architecture is a matter that is still to be discovered and understand what Architecture means to us.

Is it the value? Is this really raised from the environmental crisis? Is this a new idea or strategy upon which efficiency and survival are promised? Could it be the primary goal of architecture?

I am interested in modernism and actively looking at new developments of new technologies at present. Architecture is the subject that I am intended to discover and understand myself; see how sustainable design affects architecture.

Architecture should contain façade, entrance, division, visual quality, and many aspects raised by the most ambitious architects of all time defining the buildings. Nevertheless, in the modern world, this element can be excluded. Does that still change the building making it a simple building and not being architecture? I don’t think so. In my opinion architecture, it’s not only the look but also functionality and ethically and correctly structured building. My thoughts might insult the Greatest Architects of all time such as Vitruvius or Palladio. However, I think that the modern world is leading towards new ideas and craving for new inventions to be found in terms of any kind of sciences to minimize the workload, expenses, and many other factors that might affect the working process. It’s the same as the old cars, that were exclusively looking good and appreciated by many; but with the introduction of new technologies, modern cars were introduced. Many businesses didn’t risk of investing in such a business, because of the high risks of inflation and the possibility of becoming bankrupt. Yet, new cars were better, much more efficient with comfort, and have used digital technologies, that reduced the costs of repairs and fuel. This example can be applied in the same way to the buildings. The building could be the most efficient and eco-friendly.

A wave of enthusiasm for ‘green’ or ecological architecture is rolling around the world.

Green architecture is becoming more popular every year. Architects and designers are implementing the most incredible projects that yesterday seemed to be fiction, while world celebrities are striving to acquire homes that will allow them to follow the principles of environmental friendliness.

Today, here is the time of a crazy rhythm of life, the inhabitants of megalopolises are yearning for nature and striving to ‘get’ at least a piece of it in all available places, and even on rooftops, garages, and everywhere where there is a flat roof, which allows you to arrange in a modern city oasis.

Ecological architecture is not just a new-fashioned tradition and a tribute to time. If you think globally, then ecological architecture is a new way of life and thinking, the opposite of what is generally accepted. For several centuries, man has been using nature as he pleases. The peak of this trend, perhaps, happened in Russia, when the Soviet authorities changed the river beds for convenience and planted the fields with crops that were unacceptable for climate and soil. In the twenty-first century, the world community understood the value of nature and took it for its preservation, fortunately, with the mind.

Following the principles of ‘green’ construction can reduce energy consumption in the operation of the building by at least 25% (perhaps up to 50-80%), and water consumption – by 30%. But more impressive results are possible. In Germany, houses with zero energy consumption, zero CO2 emissions, and zero waste are already being built – these are the so-called houses of three zeros (3 ‘0’ homes).

The ecological approach in architecture

Ecology is not in vain included in the context of our understanding of the relationship between our home, housing, and nature. The word ‘ecology’ itself comes from the Greek ‘oikos’ – ‘home’. This concept defines the science of communities – about our house and its inhabitants. And no matter how hard the environmentalists lament for the extensive interpretation and widespread dissemination of the fashionable word today, it is rather difficult to preserve the status of a strictly scientific term.

The noun ‘architecture’ today has the full right to be accompanied by the adjective ‘ecological’. And not just because in this case the conversation is specifically about the house and its inhabitants. But also because this phrase is hidden extremely important tendency of human desire for nature and nature, which is gaining momentum in innovation architecture.

The stamp in modern architecture was formed at the beginning of the 20th century in the process of the influence of the accelerated pace and industrialization of construction, and the widespread introduction of new materials and structures. The scale of such changes has become so large and significant over time that it would be more appropriate now to speak of a technical revolution in architecture. However, in the process of accumulation by the modern architecture of the experience of implementation, imperfection, and incompleteness, lack of initial prerequisites, inconsistency with the real demands of society became more and more visible aspects. To a large extent in all respects for taking into account natural, biosocial, and socio-psychological factors, these include the specificity of the natural environment, the particularities, and traditions of the place, the diversity of needs of various groups of people, the freedom of individual choice of different types of behavior and spatial environment. The prerequisites for finding solutions to contemporary architectural problems in these areas form the concept of what we now call the ecological approach to architecture.

Main features of ecological architecture

So, the main feature of ecological architecture is love and respect for nature.

But in a narrow sense, ecological architecture implies such a combination of signs of style, which expresses this very love. Simply put, ecological architecture as a director of architecture as a whole has its own, completely material, tangible, and visual features.

If you look at already built eco-houses and projects created, you can highlight signs of eco-style. In general, it is impossible to confuse the eco-style with other trends in architecture, it is absolutely unique. In the lines and forms of eco-homes, we see nature. The lines are smooth and perfect, but at the same time, they are a little illogical, and strange. But in fact, there is nothing strange, because nature is amazing and diverse – therefore, architects can create boldly without fear of being misunderstood. Thanks to such forms, eco-homes fit perfectly with the surrounding landscape.

Principles of ecological architecture:

1. The principle of conservation of energy.

We are talking about the new design and construction of structures in such a way as to reduce to a reasonable minimum the need for the consumption of thermal energy for their heating or, on the contrary, cooling.

2. The principle of reducing the volume of new construction.

From the dawn of time, people used old buildings or only materials from their demolition for the construction of new buildings. Thus, the builders of the abbey of Saint-Alban in England at one time adapted to the cause of the bricks from the ruins of the Roman city of Verulamium. In the practice of Russian and Scandinavian wooden architecture, healthy old beams and rafters were often marked, removed from previous buildings, and collected anew in another building. So, did the builders of the roofs of medieval Europe. By the middle of the 20th century, a different approach seemed to have completely won, the developers urged the city authorities and private investors that it was cheaper and more efficient to break everything and build from scratch. In fact, it is not always cheaper, rarely more efficient, but undoubtedly simpler.

3. The principle of ‘cooperation’ with the sun.

In order to save and sustain the ‘green’ architecture, solar panels, and solar energy storage devices are used. Also, a large area of ​​windows is located on the south side of the building, which in total gives up to 80% savings on heating and hot water.

4. The principle of respect for the inhabitant.

Speech about a significant change in the approach to the functioning of the building, when both the builder, the architect, and the owner see in the construction not a car for residence, but corporate ownership, in maintaining of which every occupant plays a huge role. Obviously, this role cannot be significant in the case of multi-unit, standard multi-story blocks with an unchanged configuration of walls and roofs, where the role of inhabitants is reduced exclusively to the prevention of vandalism.

But with the reconstruction of old buildings, the role of future inhabitants can be extremely large.

5. The principle of respect for the place.

In fact, we are talking about a special attitude of consciousness, to the greatest extent represented by Eastern philosophy, in which fusion with the natural environment, endless gazing into it from time immemorial, was considered the highest value. In general, the European consciousness has long cultivated a different attitude to nature – it was considered solely as a resource, and as an object of purposeful activity of people. The appearance of ‘green’ architecture gives a hint that humanity has finally begun to think about the destructive impact on nature and is gradually trying to learn how to coexist with it in harmony.

6. The principle of integrity

This principle expresses the idea of ‘green’ architecture, although, of course, it is not easy to achieve a solution in which all the approaches to the problem listed earlier would be used together. This is an ideal, the desire for which is increasingly painted actions of architects in the countries where the greatest mutual understanding between the new avant-garde and the customer.

Vegetable tower, City of Nantes, France

French architect Edouard François, who is a great lover of plant use in solving architectural and design problems, designed a tree-planted tower for the city of Nantes, France.

Trees will be placed in steel pipes specially designated for them and will decorate the facade of the Tour Végétale building. The tubes will not take up much space, but thanks to their use, residents of the house will be able to relax in the cool shade of various types of trees from the local botanical garden.

The main 17-story residential tower is located on the base building, which will be shops and parking. On the other side of the base, a black cube of rubber will be erected, which will accommodate offices.

The living quarters of the tower are ringed with large oval balconies. Different floors have balconies of different diameters.

Modern ‘Green’ School from Spanish architects

This unique, creative inside and outside building belongs to a modern public school in Roldan (Spain). The exterior of the entire hull is covered with a green organic carpet in such a way as if the school had ‘grown’ from a classic landscaped golf course.

The concept of the building is designed to make the new school closer to nature and to integrate it as much as possible into the surrounding landscape.

The authors of the project – the Spanish architectural studio Estudio Huma – tried to form extremely spacious rooms, decorated in a very youthful spirit, so that the schoolchildren feel at home or on the street. This democratic and sincere atmosphere, according to the authors and customers of the progressive project, will certainly contribute to the effective interaction of the establishment and its inhabitants.

The organic carpet, which covered the facades of the educational building, besides the unique positive aesthetics, bears the ecological load, as it forms a favorable microclimate and effective heat exchange of the rooms. Around the school is a spacious area for games and sports.

Green Skyscraper N-Ensan in the International Business Centre of Seoul

On the north bank of the Han River in Seoul, in the International Business Center in the near future, a green skyscraper H Yensan, a height of 385 meters, will appear, which will set a new standard for design and technology in green building. The skyscraper N Yensan, thanks to the technologies used, will be friendly to the environment and humans, the building has a natural shape, and the building will receive full energy from the solar batteries to meet the needs of users.

Solar panels on the roof of a skyscraper. Its area is 176255 square meters, and there will be a hotel, spacious living quarters, retail facilities, and a beauty and health complex on the ground floor.

Instead of the traditional structure of the tower, the architects decided to imitate the structure of an organic crystal. Three asymmetrical ‘wings’ depart from the base of the building, thanks to which a beautiful view of the river and the surrounding landscape opens up.

On the roof of a skyscraper, the architects decided to plant trees, shrubs, and other greenery, which is so lacking on the streets of the 10 millionth metropolis. At each level of the skyscraper, it is planned to place certain natural landscape complexes: somewhere there will be tropical forests, somewhere imitations of Korean mountain villages, somewhere shady parks.

Green skyscraper N-Yensan is planned to be built by 2016.

Ecological Sky Screen Park Royal Tower in Singapore

The WOHA architects were able to completely change the traditional view of the skyscrapers – at the Park Royal high-rise in Singapore, they managed to place the greenery twice as large as the Hong Lim park located nearby. And all because the skyscraper, in which the hotels and offices are located, twists around vertical gardens and decorates green terraces – only 15 thousand square meters. m. green spaces.

Skyscraper Park Royal at Pickering in Singapore is called the vertical expansion of Hong Lim Park. And the park has become more than once at once – by 15 thousand square meters. As planned by the architects, the skyscraper is decorated with trees, creepers, palm trees, and many other types of plants that not only allow you to hide car parks from your eyes but also purify the air from a wide variety of emissions. Park Royal is not a skyscraper in its traditional sense. This is a jungle, shot up into the sky, in which not tigers, elephants, or boas live, but businessmen and office workers.

The impact of the Park Royal skyscraper on the environment is neutralized due to the abundance of greenery placed on the facade, as well as through the open areas that contribute to natural light and natural ventilation of the building.

On the roof of the project will be installed photovoltaic cells, which will provide the building with electricity, and a rainwater harvesting system that will be used to irrigate numerous green spaces. We can say that this ambitious project will be almost completely self-sufficient. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Park Royal project received Green Mark Platinum – the most prestigious environmental certificate in Singapore.

The Park Royal project harmoniously complements the ecological path of development of modern megacities proposed by the American company Terreform, Inc. The buildings of the new generation will be the solution to such global problems of mankind as food shortages and urban pollution.

Ecological Construction in Russia

While in Europe there are already thousands of eco-friendly buildings, there is only one LEED-certified object in Russia — the energy-efficient building certification system — the SKF concern bearing plant in Tver, and a few more that are about to do so. Among the latter is the residential complex Barkli Park on the street of the Soviet Army (architectural studio Atrium), all facilities in Skolkovo, as well as Olympic facilities in Sochi, which, as Alexey Polyakov, a member of the Board of the Council for Environmental Construction in Russia, ‘will certify volitional decision. ‘

residential complex Barkli Park on the street Soviet Army, Moscow.

The topic of eco-friendly architecture is being discussed very widely today, including at the government level, whence then decrees are issued for the mandatory introduction of innovations into everyday construction practices, but, alas, there is no need to talk about meeting these requirements.

What really makes investors spend on ‘green technology? As it turned out, humanistic principles have nothing to do with themselves. So, according to Anton Nadtochy, one of the authors of Barkli Park, the ideas of environmental and energy efficiency appeared in their project after the investor decided to upgrade the object class. ‘The promotion on the market was much more interesting for the customer than energy efficiency, but it allowed us to implement a number of innovative solutions,’ says the architect. ‘These are energy-efficient ventilation and air-conditioning systems, partial use of secondary water, and control of air pollution in parking lots, and use of green roofing and vertical gardening. ‘

In such a city as Moscow, unsettled and aggressive in terms of environment and ecology, the main argument for ‘green technologies’ can be exactly the comfort that they are able to provide. The limited capacity of the networks in the Russian capital also played its role – investors willy-nilly have to think about saving energy, because otherwise, they will not be able to realize their projects very soon.

In other words, the most reliable ‘allies’ of eco-friendly solutions in our country are the lack of communications necessary for the normal functioning of newly built facilities.

At the same time, all interested parties – both investors, architects, and environmental experts agree that innovations will take root in Russia for a very long time, and this process is hardly worth pushing. The main thing is that precedents are being created, and we have good energy-efficient objects from the point of view of architecture. Let today they can still be counted on the fingers of one hand, but nevertheless, thanks to them, our country is already on the verge of a ‘green era’.

Globalization heavily impacted architectural styles universally by allowing the start of cultural appropriation as well as its growth.

Globalization leads to the substantial manifestation of (eras, factors, and styles) of architecture through culture appropriation. Within this essay, I will highlight cultural appropriation as an effect of globalization. Consequently, declaring that cultural appropriation of architecture was an effect of thereof. The timeline of globalization will be explored within the architectural context of styles and eras- that which involved culture appropriation. Furthermore, I will discursively argue against globalization being the cause of cultural appropriation with another historical factor that possesses a similar caliber of relation and effects to grasp the nature of this essay in a calculative way. Finally, the comparison will be summarized before a conclusive response to globalization and cultural appropriation of architecture.

Primarily, globalization and its denotation should be explored. Globalization refers to how globally, nations are interlinked through the series of connectivity in various forms of literature, art, and other disciplines. Manfred B Steger described this as “forms of connectivity and flows linking… the West to the East, and the North to the South” in his book, A Very Short Introduction. Consequentially, the universal occurrence had multiple effects, one of which was the influence over platforms of art, culture, and other forms, including architecture.

The first primary occurrence of Globalisation was the large destitution of maps. Initially started by Mappe, over 150 maps were created conveying each idea of the constant change in world politics. This phenomenon enabled globalization which later developed architecture globally, connecting involving nations, to which most are specific in their architecture- before globalization.

As continuous links were made across nations through occurrences such as the major recreations of the world map, cultural elements became recreated and copied in countries, by people that didn’t own such attributes or belonged to a different nation. Popular and known examples of this are prominent in music, fashion, and pop culture. For example, Shakira’s performance of Waka Waka, a song with lyrics native to South Africans and not a woman of Columbian and Lebanese heritage. This release and performance held many points of view. Nevertheless, another example of this is when Kim Kardashian adorned a hairstyle traditionally worn by African/Caribbean people. Again, this had many and varied responses, both negative and positive. However, it should be noted that these are examples of appropriated culture, through fashion, music, etc.

Ultimately, these were described as culture appropriation, which was manifested by globalization and induced by international links and connectivity. Globalization affects exposure to culture and more frequent learning of cultural practices by international or global audiences. As it affected music and fashion, it also produced cultural appropriation in architecture.

Architecture is represented and recognized through architects as well as a few other attributes. A very substantial factor is the representation of countries, cultures, and nations- which was highly affected by globalization. Architecture is defined by culture monumentally. For instance, the Taj Mahal is visually different from The White House. The shapes, curves, lines, symmetry as well as many other visual and physical aspects delineate the cultural background- mirroring the country it is built in. Even the intentions of the buildings and their inspirations are different, the Taj Mahal was a religiously inspired architecture, “They laid the plan for a magnificent building and a dome of high foundation which for its loftiness will until the Day of Resurrection remain a memorial to the sky-reaching ambition of His Majesty, the Sahib Qiran-Thani (Second Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction of the Planets Jupiter and Venus), and its strength will represent the firmness of the intentions of its builder.” It can be agreed that culture contributes to the very physical attributes of architecture.

Globalization created a connectivity that induced encounters with other cultures, about influential reactions within many forms of societal norms, such as art. Effectively, architecture endured this effect and thus, countries had inspired architecture relatively through other cultures. The theory then became concerned with the cultural appropriation of architecture and how it is done- through globalization. Furthermore, globalization is separated into different stages and occurrences. This is relevant as the specific stages will further support the claim that cultural appropriation was an effect of globalization, especially when the phases are specific to cultural exposure.

Before highlighting the forms of ‘culture appropriation’ within architecture, the denotation of the term itself will be noted. Extracted directly from the Oxford Dictionary, “the act of copying or using the customs and traditions of a particular group or culture, by somebody from a more dominant (= powerful) group in society”. When referring to architecture within this essay exploring the cause, the idea that typical styles of architecture that originated from a certain culture, to then be mimicked or used within another country, is being investigated. After illustrating such findings, the period will also be explored to prove the correlation between globalization and the cultural appropriation of architecture.

Additionally, a primary example to draw attention to is the intricate building in America. Standing tall in America, is the Washington Monument. Although a historical landmark honoring the ‘father of this country’, the design of the monument was built in the image of an obelisk, an historical architectural device belonging to Ancient Egypt. The rectangular pillar originally made from stone stands in honor of the commemoration of an event or God. This is a form of appropriating culture, which again, is and was an effect of globalization. The international link allowed exposure to culture and thus inspiration for architects. Thus, architecture was impacted and inspired by other cultures due to globalization. The monument began its creation in 1848. According to studies of world trade, the 1800s was the period in which world trade grew. It is also believed to be the first time-lapse of Globalisation; the correlation is explicit. According to an article, “… openness increased from 1830 to 187- (the true first period of globalization (1870-1913)…” World trade is

During Hatshepsut’s reign, obelisks were first introduced. Her architect Senenmut had helped her do so, in which he also famously created the ‘Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut’.

This is an evident effect of globalization on architecture. There are many more examples of this. Cultural elements are being used within designs or even becoming appropriated as a predominant style of architecture.

In momentary deduction, globalization was effectively developed as an occurrence with the aid of cultural appropriation in architecture. In addition, another example of this is the rococo a primary example of Globalization increasing. Rococo originated in France as geometric architecture; it spread throughout Europe, from Germany to Russia. This is another example of globalization leading to cultural appropriation of architecture and further developing itself as a reflexive occurrence through the exposure of culture and its principles- whether in art, fashion, or this case, architecture. Although this architectural style is inspired and originally from France, it is believed to be one of the greatest styles created by Western civilization, Russia adorns this style through its architecture.

In addition, another example of cultural appropriation within architecture is when another style that appropriated in countries other than its own of origination. Palladian architecture originated in Venice and spread to England among other countries. The forms, shapes, and symmetry originally belonged to Roman Architecture. It is widely believed that this architectural style had a “profound influence on European architecture from the early 17th century” This style originated elsewhere, its features belonging to a culture, before it was appropriated through the world. During the 17th period, proto-globalization began its reign, increasing interaction and interlinks between Western Europe that were already manifested between Asia and the Middle East. The highly active period of globalization occurred during this time, further reinstating the idea that globalization allowed cultural appropriation of architecture, thus having a large impact on the universal development of architecture.

Before the Palladian architecture styles, the 14th century began its adaptation of the architectural style that pertains to the famous architect with relation, Fillipo Brunelleschi- Renaissance architecture. The European architecture across different regions delineated revival through Greek and Roman culture until the 17th century. The architectural style embraced differentiating elements from the original style of classical Roman architecture. The forms, shapes, and curves were all distinguished by the original characteristics introduced by Romans: arches, domes, columns, etc. The style was well associated with the architectural specialized lexical term of ‘pediment’. The term relatively illustrates a certain architectural element, typically above columns

Globalization and architecture can arguably be unrelated. There is a possibility in high regard that cultural appropriation was an effect induced by imperialism. Imperialism is the means of acquiring power as a country through the means of colonization and other forces/methods. This would be a massive exposure to culture, thus globalization not being responsible or at least solely responsible for culture appropriation; thus the substantial effect on architecture. The pinnacle of American Imperialism occurred from mid 18th century to the early 1900s; furthermore, the connection made between the Washington Monument can be argued in the light of the point of this. This is because it was made during the late 1800s which was during the pinnacle of Imperialism. Hence, it can be strongly argued that the correlation between Imperialism and cultural appropriation of architecture surpasses that of the correlation between globalization and cultural appropriations- thus the historical and substantial development of architecture. Imperialism can be argued strongly to have caused cultural appropriation in architecture. Similarly, colonization can be argued to be the case in the same way imperialism can be. Beginning in the late 1400s, the process of countries taking physical control of one another lasted for 500 years. The act of sending people to another country and enforcing their lives to be in a country other than their own heavily exposed culture through every aspect, cooking, arts, architecture, etc. This can have an undisputable effect and lead to cultural appropriation, especially due to the duration and timeline.

However, the reason for globalization contributing mostly towards the cultural appropriation of architecture is due to the widely shared belief that globalization also caused the counter eras previously mentioned or is linked to it. Moreover, colonization is thought to be a form of colonialism although it is also believed vice versa. Therefore, the idea that colonialism is negated as they are used synonymously or are believed to be equals. This is a similar approach when encountering imperialism as a counter-cause for the cultural appropriation of architecture.

Consequentially to globalization and the exposure of culture; further its replication through what is currently known as culture appropriation, architecture is highly affected and rather developed around the world. Imperialism may be argued as the factor causing culture appropriation and thus the development of architecture however, it is highly argued, and even more so, that globalization is a form of imperialism, so therefore, one cannot disprove the other. Therefore, the statement, that it is imperialism and not globalization at all is rebutted- as they correlate and are debatably stronger than the effect on architecture through culture appropriation. Monumental landmarks originated or were inspired by architectural features belonging to another culture.

As the research has demonstrated, through historical events with references to timelines, it can be seen evidently that globalization allowed major exposure of culture through art, economics as well as many other aspects but in particular- architecture. When reviewing globalization itself, it is easy to observe interlinks between countries as well as initial adaptations or other forms of itself (such as Colonialism and Imperialism). These have made the attitude to appropriate culture much easier. For example, through colonialism, Indian slaves in the Caribbean had their cooking styles adapted by the native Caribbean people. To this day, the cooking style is still used by the majority of the Caribbean. Therefore, it can be deduced that globalization is the primary cause of culture appropriation amongst architecture- styles which have proven greatly influential to architecture and the public alike. A beautiful effect of universal interlinking monumentally shared art that stands to the present and many more decades to come.

It’s a little wacky to think that we live, as Lilliput, among pieces of gigantic artwork every day. These artworks are the concrete or brick buildings and structures designed by the architects. Architecture is an art form that easily integrates itself into every aspect of our society. Hence, it makes sense that architects, and their brilliant ideas, play a significant role in developing a society and a country as a whole, which consists of inspired and empowered citizens.

In reality, architecture gives a solid and livable form to the culture and beliefs of the people, it reflects the national ambition and targets of a nation in the world. It gives a position to a nation that it swanks in the world. Architecture is a service discipline that is charged with innovation and creativity and holds responsibility for national consciousness. Actively, architecture must lead a nation and be in the vanguard of a nation’s progress.

Nation-building is a complex term. It cannot be limited to a single definition. According to my comprehension, nation-building is the headway for a nation to advance technology, and reconstruct society with the unification of different ethnic groups with a vigorous economic situation. Architecture is undoubtedly the most efficient means to foster this system of ideas by unifying all of these under one cohesive nation.

Architects can provide a society beyond what is obvious, that is, its built environment or the most vital need of a human: shelter. They convey five other responsibilities that drive a nation towards stability and development.

Long-term Vision

In the performance of an architect’s professional duties, he/she is always geared up for the future. They always try to provide a healthy image of the nation by looking at the mistakes of the past structures and trying to find solutions for such problems in the present scenarios. Having long-term goals satisfied by a built structure, through the medium of architecture finally builds the nation.

Conservationist

Achieving sustainability and stability within a nation is a very important responsibility an architect upholds. An architect focuses on minimizing the negative impacts a structure can have on the environment by implementing sustainable development goals. The impact of an architect’s conscious and continuous effort to provide safety and comfort without ruining the sensitive nature can propel a nation to progress. This is not only for a nation’s welfare but also for the survival of the future generations.

Regulator

An architect’s most important role is they regulate between multiple service providers targeting society’s development. They act as the merging point of other disciplines in the construction department. Consequently, the architect’s influence is so huge that they provide the standard for almost anything that is erected and constructed.

Unifier

An architect’s role is also to unite a nation composed of different cultural groups through the medium of his/her profession. Frame their similarities and reverently design their differences within one nation forms the ultimate goal and develops a nation socially and the final analysis of the built-environment contains one society of different people.

Preservationist

Architects preserve the culture and heritage of a society and assimilate that knowledge into the present construction. An environment that promotes own identity and presents pride in one’s nation reflects the strength and resilience of a culture that defines a nation as burgeoning and idiosyncratic.

‘A nation’s culture resides in the hearts and the souls of its people.’ – Mahatma Gandhi

I think, as an architecture student, I can recast this sentence quoted by the Father of our Nation ‘India’ into an architectural sphere where it would become ironic to say that a nation’s culture resides in the hearts and the souls of its people, and the people reside in the culture of its nation’. Alvar Aalto’s quotation ‘Architecture belongs to culture, not civilization’ upholds this statement of mine, which means the dwelling where a nation’s people reside is ironically, its culture, designed by the architects, which holds a vital part in their hearts and souls. Even the modern architectural style has evolved by going through the journey of architecture which started from the traditional and cultural ideas. Architecture is more than just the built environment, it’s a part of our culture. It stands as a representation of how we see ourselves, how we see the world as well as where we stand in the world. This can unquestionably be linked to nation-building.

Culture is one of the main pillars of development and sustenance of communities and no society can progress in its absence. Architecture is a balanced combination of art and technology which is ranked along with the literature and fine arts. In some aspects, it can even outrank them as it is loaded with technology which the latter is not equipped with. Technology and art are not the only elements, but harmony, functionality, quality, balance, and spatial value are of equal importance too. These components are all determined by a society’s culture, customs, traditions, beliefs, and geography. Architecture not only affects society as a whole but also tends to have a profound impact on its occupants on a more individual and personal level. Everything from the layout of the space to the material finishes, from the ventilation to the lighting, can contribute to occupant’s health, mood, and productivity and may have a positive influence on social development in any country thus, by and large, building the nation.

Architecture Unfolds National Ambition

Every nation tends to adopt the theory of Nationalism which is an ideology and movement that promotes the interest of a particular nation, especially to gain and maintain the nation’s sovereignty. The quandary between nationalism and global consumerism has led the officials to choose a global architectural language to narrate national ambitions and reach for a higher position in the world. Great examples of architectural solutions to satisfy nationalism and global consumerism are the Beijing National Stadium and the Guggenheim Museum of Spain, which incorporates the interests of citizens and leads to building their nations. Hence, standing out in representing them worldwide.

Economic Growth is the Predominant factor of national development

The element that influences the ease or difficulty of nation-building is the level of economic development. It can be largely achieved through the means of architecture.

Along with being an architecture student, I’m a commerce student, from where I’ve got my roots in economics. Nation development is not only measured in terms of culture unification but a nation’s economic position forms a very significant role. It’s the architecture and landscape design that serve the most in economic development. The huge revenues that the city, state, and country earn at the macro level are due to the tourism factor. Architecture performs the function of stimulating tourism in particular regions of a nation. The distinctive, dynamic, and emblematic architecture can be a travel destination by itself like the Taj Mahal, the Eiffel Tower, and the Burj Khalifa. Buildings and their architectural expression have a brief influence on the local economy but large revenues for the nation. The identifiable icon or iconic building can encourage investment in such areas. Therefore, architecture and economy grow together when they have a multidisciplinary approach.

‘As an architect you design for the present, with an awareness of the past, for the future which is essentially unknown.’ – Norman Foster

To design a space that can successfully incorporate the needs of all three aspects of time is true architecture, which can resemble its nation worldwide. It can be explained through the medium of the current scenario of Covid-19 where the only and best vaccine are the shelters provided to the people. The basic example that could be cited is of a school or a convention center, which is their present form, while in the past it was seen as a public forum and in the future as a potential community quarantine center. In light of this example, we can infer that architecture can help in stabilizing a society, nation, and the world from further societal misery in every nation. Such is the importance of architecture when foresighted, that is, when future vision is considered it can ameliorate its society.

It is to be reminded of what Mr. Mahdi Elmandjra, President of UNESCO (1961-76) and World Future Studies Federation (1977-81) say ‘Architecture synthesizes the traits of a nation and it expresses the nation’s genius as well as its cultural identity.’

References

1. Maclang, Amor. Architecture and its role in nation-building https://businessmirror.com.ph/2016/06/14/architecture-and-its-role-in-nation-building/ June 14, 2016
2. Decoded-one. Role of Architects in Nation Building https://www.deviantart.com/decoded-one/journal/Role-of-Architects-in-Nation-Building-225820948 June 5, 2010
3. Vangelatos, George. How Does Architecture Impact Society? A High Level Look https://hmcarchitects.com/news/how-does-architecture-impact-society-a-high-level-look-2019-10-18/ October 18, 2019
4. Kwakye, Gustav. The Architect’s Role in National Development https://newsghana.com.gh/the-architects-role-in-national-development/ December 6, 2019
5. Goverdhan, Viplav. The Role Of Architecture In Economic Development http://www.iaacblog.com/programs/the-role-of-architecture-in-economic-development/ June 27, 2016
6. Khair-El-Din, Abd-El-Hamid M. ‘Architectural education and national development’ – vol. 55, no. 32, pg. 133-137 https://www.jstor.org/stable/43622064?read-now=1&seq=1