Category: Architecture

Introduction

Gothic architecture is a well know and extremely recognizable style of architecture, but do we know what actually defines a building as gothic and where the style originated? In this essay, I will give a brief look into the history of gothic architecture. Furthermore, I will pick out and discuss in depth the key characteristics of gothic buildings while also explaining looking at how the gothic style differs from other similar styles. As a result, I will come close to defining what gothic architecture is. Moreover, I will look in depth at the history, construction, and defining gothic features of some of the world’s most famous examples of gothic architecture. Finally, I will conclude with a well-rounded summary of what has been written prior while also giving in my own words the answer to the question, what is gothic architecture?

Gothic architecture

Gothic architecture (or pointed architecture) is an architectural style that was particularly popular in Europe from the late 12th century to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019). The gothic style is heavily influenced by Romanesque architecture which is predominately found in Europe and can be characterized by semi-circular arches along with other distinctive features. Gothic architecture is heavily associated with religious buildings in particular cathedrals. Gothic architecture is grand and dramatic style making it a fitting choice for religious buildings as a religion at the time was extremely important to most people. Religious leaders were some of the most important people around and therefore were deemed to deserve the extravagant gothic buildings we see today. Gothic architecture originated in the ‘le-de-France region of northern France; however, the style of gothic architecture is known to vary according to location, age, and type of building. Despite differences in buildings, gothic architecture can be characterized by 5 key architectural elements (Richman-Abdou, 2017):

1. Large stained-glass windows:

Stain glass windows can be found in most places of worship but particularly in gothic cathedrals. These windows are large to allow light painted by the windows to flood into the spaces.

2. Pointed arches:

This feature is also commonly seen in places of worship. Pointed arches, rather than semi-circular arches, are what set gothic architecture aside from Romanesque architecture.

3. Ribbed vaults:

In order to incorporate higher ceilings and taller windows into their designs, Gothic architects utilized a new method of structural support called ribbed vaulting. Ribbed vaulting involves the use of intersecting barrel vaults and arches placed parallel to one another in order to support a rounded roof (Richman-Abdou, 2017).

4. Flying buttresses:

A flying buttress is support that bears the load of roofs or vaulted ceilings (LetsBuild, 2019). Redistributing weight through flying buttresses ensured building integrity and allowed architects to include distinctive gothic features like thin walls and large windows.

5. Ornate decoration:

Ornate decorations cover a wide variety of intricately carved and decorative elements found on the exterior or interior of gothic buildings. Examples of this include stone gargoyles or statues of historic figures.

Some other notable characteristics of gothic architecture include the extensive use of columns and piers to create large open interior spaces into which light can flood. In addition, gothic buildings were commonly built with two main towers and spires making them extremely tall for the era they were built in. It is said that this was done by the architects to give the impression of buildings reaching toward the heavens. Equally important, Rose windows can be found in a lot of gothic cathedrals and churches. The term rose window describes a circular window that is divided into segments by stone mullions and tracery. Lastly, gothic cathedrals will more often than not have a footprint that resembles a crucifix, a well-known religious symbol, in plain view.

Examples of Gothic architecture

Amiens Cathedral:

The Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Amiens or as it’s better known as the Amiens Cathedral is a Roman Catholic church located in Amiens (the capital of the Picardy region of France). The cathedral overlooks the River Somme and was built to house the seat of the Bishop of Amiens.

The cathedral was built almost entirely between 1220 and 1270, a remarkably short period of time for a gothic cathedral, giving the overall look of the cathedral an unusual unity of style (Wikipedia Contributors, 2021). This speed of construction was thanks to the revolutionary gothic building system based around using pieces of stone that were standardized by form and size rather than being a unique cut. Amiens Cathedral is a true testament to the notion of cathedrals being built in an attempt to reach the heavens, with a height of 113 meters. The Amiens Cathedral has a volume of 200,000 cubic meters, making it the largest cathedral in France.

Amiens Cathedral features stained glass windows, rose windows, pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, but is probably most well-known for its iconic and extensive use of ornate decoration on the facade of the building, in particular the west facade. The west facade of the cathedral was built in a single campaign from 1220 to 1236 and shows an unusual degree of artistic unity (Wikipedia Contributors, 2021). It consists of 3 deep porches with pointed arches that cover three portals. Above the portals is the gallery of the kings which consists of 22 life-size statues of French kings. Above this is the rose window. Each of the portals depicts different religious figures and stories, the central portal focuses on the last judgment, the left portal on the martyr saint Firmin and the right portal on the virgin Mary.

Notre-Dame de Reims:

Reims Cathedral also called the Cathedral of Notre-Dame at Reims is located in the city of Reims, France, on the Vesle River east-northeast of Paris (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019). Reims Cathedral is famous for not only being an innovative and sophisticated piece of gothic architecture but also famous for being the coronation site of 25 French kings, from Louis VIII in 1223 to Charles X in 1825, including the crowning of Charles VII in 1429 in the presence of Joan of Arc. The cathedral was designed by Jean d’Orbaisand and is based on the Chartres Cathedral. The building’s intention was to replace an earlier church that was destroyed by a fire in 1210. Construction of the cathedral began in 1211 and was managed by a total of 4 architects over the course of about 80 years. However, decorative and expansion building work has been carried out on the cathedral since completion.

Reims Cathedral incorporated new and innovative architectural techniques, for example, bar tracery. Tracery is similar to window mullions in the sense that they divide windows into sections. Bar tracery is composed of thin stone elements rather than thick ones as in plate tracery. Bar Tracery allows the glass to dominate the window rather than the stone. It gives a more delicate, web-like effect (Vadnal, 1997) to the overall look of a window.

Reims Cathedral is unusually compact compared to other cathedrals. It has a total exterior length of 149.2metres and an interior length of 138.7 meters. The highest point of the cathedral would be the twin towers in the west facade standing at 81metres tall. The cathedral’s smaller size has created a more unified overall appearance. The use of almost identical window types throughout the cathedral and flattering rose windows in both the central portal and west facades emphasize this unity. Reims Cathedral also has exceptional stained-glass windows and is generously decorated with sophisticated sculptures, predominantly found on the exterior, making it a beautiful example of gothic architecture.

Westminster Abbey:

Westminster Abbey or more formally known as the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster is a large predominately gothic-style abbey church situated in the city of Westminster, London, England, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019c). The church is arguably one of the most famous religious buildings in

the United Kingdom is known for hosting Royal weddings, Coronations and being a burial site for English and British monarchs.

The construction of the current Westminster abbey started in 1245 when Henry III Ordered that an existing church, built by St. Edward and consecrated on December 28, 1065, be pulled down and replaced with the church that we know today (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018). The design of the new building was strongly influenced by contemporary French cathedral architecture and is a fantastic example of Gothic architecture. The Church is of a moderate size compared to other gothic churches around the world with an external length of 162 meters, a width of 22 meters, and a height (including towers) of 69 meters.

The building started as a Benedictine monastic church; however, this monastery was dissolved in 1539. In 1540 The abbey was given the status of a cathedral which lasted until 1556. Since 1560, the building hasn’t been an abbey or a cathedral but instead has had the status of a Church of England (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019c).

Westminster Abbey exhibits all classic gothic features as well as some early medieval styles. The church is well known for its chapel which has an outstanding fan-vaulted roof with carved pendants which enhances the grandeur of the space (says, 2020). The church’s plan resembles a crucifix and has town main towers at the main entrance of the building. Both towers are beautifully decorated with detailed masonry work. The two towers are divided by large stage glass windows that overlook the nave. The two transepts are supported by flying buttresses and have a large rose window in the center of the transept’s facade.

Milan Cathedral:

The Milan Cathedral or Duomo di Milano as it is known in Italy is Italy’s largest cathedral and the fourth largest cathedral in the world (V, 2011). The cathedral has a length of 158.6 meters, a width of 92 meters, a height of 108.5 meters, and a total capacity of 40,000 people. Its grand size and distinct gothic style make it easily one of the most famous buildings in the world, but construction was challenging with the conception of this gothic structure taking nearly 600 years to complete.

The Milan cathedral is the seat of the Archbishop of Milan and was built as a tribute to Santa Maria Nascente (Saint Mary Nascent). The cathedral is decorated in a Gothic style more reminiscent of not the expected Italian style but the French one. This huge project was started by Archbishop Antonio da Saluzzo, in the year 1386.

Although the project was initiated in 1386, construction on the cathedral did not start until the beginning of the 17th century when under the watch of Federico Borromeo, Francesco Maria Richini and Fabio Mangone built the foundations of the facade. Carlo Buzzi was appointed the new leading architect in 1649 and decided to change the design of the fassade so that it was more fitting to the gothic style that was intended for it. This new design did not last long as the fassade was demolished in 1682. When Napoleon was about to be crowned King of Italy- he insisted that the facade should be ready for his crowning. Thanks to this request, the facade was built over 7 years in Carlo Buzzi’s vision by the new architect

Francesco Soave (V, 2011). Napoleon was eventually crowned at the cathedral and there is a statue of him at the top of one of the spires. From 1829 to 1858 the stained glass windows were replaced, and missing arches and spires were also added. The last gate was added to the cathedral in 1965 and represents the end of centuries of additions and renovations.

The Milan Cathedral is famous for its main entrance facade. Not only is the facade covered in exquisite ornate decoration it also differs from more traditional gothic cathedrals. Most cathedrals will have two main towers at the front of the building, but the Milan Cathedral has a completely different look a reassembly of a house with a pitched roof. The front facade, along with the rest of the building is also covered with small pinnacles and spires. The Milan Cathedral has a total of 135 spires (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019b). The cathedral is also famous for the Madonnina spire that was built in 1762, having a height of 108.5 meters (V, 2011).

Conclusion

In conclusion, gothic architecture is a French-born style renowned for its Grandeur and Innovation. The gothic style showcases how fine delicate details can be produced on large scale to create extravagant buildings that are not only beautiful but stand the test of time. Gothic Architecture is defined by its iconic features stained glass windows, pointed arches, ribbed vaults, flying buttresses, and ornate decoration. This style of architecture is immortalized by the world-renowned cathedrals and churches that are still used and celebrated today.

Introduction:

The architecture of Ancient Greece is the architecture produced by the Greek-speaking people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland and Peloponnesus, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Asia Minor and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. Ancient Greek architecture is best known for its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, mostly as ruins but many are substantially intact. The second important type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is the open-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 350 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are the processional gateway (propylon), the public square(agora) surrounded by a storied colonnade (stoa), the town council building (bouleuterion), the public monument, the monumental tomb (mausoleum), and the stadium.). Greek architecture influenced Roman architecture and architects in profound ways, such that Roman Imperial architecture adopts and incorporates many Greek elements into its own practice. An overview of basic building typologies demonstrates the range and diversity of Greek architecture.

Historical background

1. Location:

• Greek civilization occurred in the area around the Greek mainland, on a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea.
• Greek civilization spread to other faraway places including Asia Minor and Northern Africa
• Most of the Greek mainland was rocky and barren and therefore bad for agriculture.
• Most Greeks, therefore, lived along the coastline or on islands where the soil was good for farming.
• The Aegean and Mediterranean Seas provided a means of communication and trade with other places.

2. Period:

• The period of ancient Greek history can be divided into four as follows:
• 1100 B. C. – 750 B. C. Greek Dark Ages
• 750 B. C. – 500 B. C. Archaic Period
• 500 B. C. – 323 B. C. Classical Period
• 323 B. C. – 147 B. C. Hellenistic Period

The classical and archaic periods are referred to as the Hellenic period.

Architectural Characteristics

I. Building Types:

• The major architectural element of the Greek civilization is ordered, and their principal building type is the temple.
• Greek buildings also feature civic buildings such as theater, council chamber, stop, etc.
• Three orders of architecture were invented by Greeks:

Doric

Doric was the earliest and has a square capital and the stoutest proportion, resembling the power of a man.

Ionic

Ionic was taller in its proportion, has a volute capital, and resembles the proportion of a maiden.

Corinthian

Corinthian has the same characteristics as the Ionic except that its capital is decorated with the Acanthus leaf.

Temples were the principal building types of the Greeks. Temples were considered houses of the Gods and efforts to beautify them pushed architectural development. The evolution of the orders led to standard temple forms based on them.

II. Materials:

Examination of Greek architecture points to three common materials of construction:

Stone

Stone was the most common construction material for buildings. Greece had an abundant supply of stone, particularly marble. Stone was used for all types of the temple and civic construction. It was used for all types of building elements.

Timber

Timber was used mainly for roofing. It was a very scarce commodity and it also had limited length which limited its use. The limitation in length meant that the width of buildings was restricted and only very important buildings such as the Parthenon could go beyond a certain width.

Clay

Clay was used mostly in housing construction. Clay was made into sun-dried blocks for use in construction.

III. Construction and technology:

• The principal Building Material of ancient Greece was stone, and the principal construction system was trabeated or column and beam construction. Combined, the two were used for temples and civic buildings.
• Construction technology involves ordering stones in a semi-prepared state from quarries.
• The Frieze and cornices of buildings were also decorated with appropriate relief carvings.
• Pediments were also finished with relief carvings, which in temples depict stories of the gods.
• Full statues of gods were also carved and placed in strategic places on the outside of the temple as the major element in the interior.
• The Greeks essentially formalized architectural sculpture and decoration.
• Ancient Greeks did not make significant contributions in the aspect of building technologies.

IV. Architectural Organizing principles

It is possible to understand the forces and principles shaping Greek architecture by examining the following issues:

– The role of religion in architectural development:

Religion played a significant role in the development of Greek architecture. Architecture started in the service of religion. Temples were the house of the Gods. The search for how to make the temple beautiful resulted in the establishment of Greek ideals of beauty. Greek ideals of beauty were rooted in mathematical proportions.

– Ideas about architectural aesthetics:

Greeks developed principles based on their beliefs about aesthetics. These principles were refined over time as they are applied in building. With time they developed into a standard that is widely applied. Builders exerted great effort in ensuring that buildings were created to meet the aesthetic ideals of society. The Greeks in essence became the first society to have well-established ideas about architectural aesthetics with principles for their translation into a physical design.

– Principles of architectural organization:

The Greek ideals of mathematical proportion were applied in architecture using orders. The orders provide a means to codify mathematical proportioning, by linking all the elements of the building with the diameter of the column. The orders were also viewed as anthropomorphic, representing the human body. The use of the orders also provided a means for the Greeks to design buildings to meet their ideals of harmony, balance, and symmetry.

– Principles of city planning and urban design:

The ancient Greek city-states developed a standard plan for the city. The city consisted of three defined elements: the town, acropolis, and Agora. Principles were developed for organizing each element of the city based on activities and its symbolism.

The Nineteenth Century and the Modernist period was a time of rapid growth and development in almost every aspect of human exploration, shaping design in a monumental way and which still continues to have an influence on Architectural work that is produced today.

Developed as a means to improve quality of life, Modernisation took Architecture out of the perpetual loop of meaningless ornamentation that it seemed to be stuck in and gave it a new purpose beyond aesthetics, provoking a fresh outlook on Architecture, which in turn, ignited a new style of design.

The ideas behind modern architecture are still of major importance today and have unlocked a new way of thinking about architecture.

This essay will trace the development of architecture in relation to design and planning, by touching on what sparked the movement, its influences, as well as its effects, with the intention to clarify how modern architecture has changed and adapted as a result of a shift in thinking partnered with developments in technology.

The essay will be structured chronologically, highlighting major shifts and influences on the modern movement by touching on the related architectural works of the modernist period to clarify how these works pushed the boundaries of the then-current architecture and sparked new possibilities, changing people’s perceptions of space.

[bookmark: _Toc9204846]I have purposefully chosen examples of buildings that I believe have had generic importance or have had a pioneering effect in the development of architecture during the 1900’s up until 1968 (the end of the modernist period). The buildings used in this essay are in no sense the most famous buildings of the modernist period nor the most exciting, however, I would argue that they have had some of the greatest influences on architecture as a whole, sparking new outlooks and conventions and/or are seen as an embodiment of what architecture was at that specific time.

Architectural evolution

In analysing a time of rapidly changing ideas, fashions and tastes, the difficulty is in finding the exact point to where it all started.

Naturally, there are a number of different opinions, most believing modern architecture was founded in the early 1900’s, however through research it is apparent that its roots stem far earlier than that. Many attribute the industrial revolution as the ‘seed’ that sprouted modern architecture due to the largescale iron production (macleod, 2013) which prompted the construction of more efficient structural elements, better lateral stability and wider beam spans.

The early innovations in steel production meant that the “quality, quantity and speed of construction were able to be increased drastically” (Theodore H.M. Prudon, 2008), and very importantly, the cost decreased. For a long period, buildings were using these new advanced materials in construction, however it wasn’t until the construction of the Eiffel tower did people begin to diverge away from traditional designs and aesthetics, and now began to push the limits of what they knew architecture to be.

The research going in to producing taller, slimmer buildings, to maximise the use of the site, while decreasing the area it used on the ground urged improvements in steel framing arrangements. Although being hailed as an ‘abomination’ in its early years, the ability of the Eiffel Tower to extend to such a height with fairly lightweight materials, was unheard of and broke down old boundaries, sparking new innovations. These new technological advancements were used to create never before seen complex structures and forms (such as the Zeiss-Cupola, which perfected the geodesic dome shape).

These advancements in steel production lead to perhaps the most important technical discovery of Modern Architecture, that being the development of reinforced concrete; the combination of the compressive strength of concrete and the tensile strength of steel offered possibilities in building design that architects before never knew possible. The characteristically plain surface of the reinforced concrete also established the un-ornamented look, which is so closely linked with Modern Architecture.

Why a new movement?

With the aftermath of World War 1, there was a need for a large amount of reconstruction all over the world. The sheer amount of destruction meant that large amounts of people were in need of homes – an expensive problem- therefore construction demanded efficient planning methods which would be cost effective.

The general outlook on Architecture was a bleak one, shocked by the effects of the first World War

The solution was to build high-rise apartment buildings that could house many families (Severino, 1970).’ Compactness’ became a key concept in space-saving and money-saving and was integral in rebuilding these countries.

Back to basics

Before, where buildings were designed with a major focus on aesthetics and form, the major focus shifted, and designs became function obsessed; rooms were designed to have more than one function to increase its efficiency and to allow greater utilization. Spaces were now designed in a way where they had flexible use, with the aesthetic part of the building being seen as no more essential or perhaps even less essential than any other aspect of the building.

Due to the war, there was a major need for improved, healthier living and working environments which would be affordable and therefore accessible to most people, visually, this meant that buildings of the early modern movement were distinctly different from that of the past with horizontal, flat rooftops, large windows and fully concrete walls. The new design distanced itself from ornament, with new focus on design simplicity and spatial clarity, this was a long way away from the load-bearing, decorative style of before.

The Bauhaus by Walter Gropius, designed in 1920 is one such example of an early modern building which favoured simplicity and functionality over ornamentation. The style combined a practical design with social needs. The building disregarded symmetrical design which before was preferred by Architects, and instead payed more attention to the spatial design of the building, which consequently, was asymmetrical. The massive curtain wall shows the importance of natural light in the building, which was a characteristic ignored in premodern buildings. The curtain wall itself is a predecessor of the efforts of the Eiffel Tower to build a taller building; further “developments [of steel frame design] encouraged the separation of the structural frame from the exterior envelope” (Theodore H.M. Prudon, 2008) ; from this separation, the curtain wall was created.

Experimentation in modern architecture

Early modern architecture, characterised by its plain, box shaped buildings and simple design, while bringing solutions to many problems such as cheaper housing, better living conditions and faster construction was criticised for its lack of narrative; modern buildings were seen as boring and formulaic; it seemed that the relationship between creator and building was lost (MacLeod, 2013) and the unending search for “task in architecture dulled and deadened designs” (MacLeod, 2013), this was, until a pioneer by the name of Buckminster fuller, inspired by the quest for a better quality of life with the end of World War 2 in sight, decided to partner advanced technologies of the War with architecture to do so (Designing a New Industry, 1946).

Fuller shied away from the conventional building shapes of early modern architecture as he believed the architecture of the future had no specific shape (Theodore H.M. Prudon, 2008); the Dymaxion House was one such project. Its irregular shape and construction methods were techniques before unapproached by other architects and never before seen in other works of architecture, however it did benefit from advancements in metal construction, that began before the modernist period, also seen in the construction of the Eiffel tower.

Aesthetically and structurally, the building took on a more lightweight and ‘aerodynamic’ design as opposed to many other concrete buildings of the time. Having been inspired by aeroplanes and fighter jets, the structure and façade consisted mostly of a lightweight aluminium material, which consequently gave the building a futuristic appearance.

Fuller had the best interest of the environment in mind and designed natural systems to combat factors such as wind, energy consumption and undesirable temperature (Designing a New Industry, 1946), he designed a system from which air was drawn from the roof of the building, which was then cleaned and humidified and distributed into different rooms in the form of warm or cold air (Designing a New Industry, 1946), this brought a focus on to the environment in relation to architecture that was not a major concern in previous works, “linking architecture to ecology and the environment’ (Designing a New Industry, 1946), he included things like garbage disposal and electricity generation in to his designs, instead of seeing it as an add on. It was in this period, that ‘sustainable design’ really started to become an important factor in architecture.

After the 2nd World War had ended, the levels of technology were extremely rich. Thanks to advanced computer technology, new building materials, and methods, architects were able to conceptualize, represent, fabricate and erect almost any form as long as it obeyed the laws of physics, and were able to do so with a certain degree of ease. Architects were no longer limited to straight lines and conventional shapes. Globally, architects began to use these advancements to master the use of these materials, and to better construction which lead to more refined designs (macleod, 2013).

The following years of architecture represented an accumulation of many of the principles that were unravelled since the beginning of modernisation. Architects began to integrate the very function of the building in to the physical appearance of the building, with beautiful outcomes; the same can be said with regards to sustainability; systems were designed in to buildings that fit seamlessly with the character of the buildings.

The Sydney Opera House, which began construction in 1959, is a perfect example of a building which fits the ‘Form Follows Function’ theory; the idea was to create a multipurpose building, with main function to support theatre performances; this entailed that the building should be designed for acoustical clarity. This is where the shell shape of the building is derived, not to mention the fact that the shell-like appearance was perfectly suited to its location, ‘floating’ on top of the Sydney harbor, providing the building with a narrative that brought back the old sense of romanticism of premodern buildings. The Sydney Opera House reflects on the importance during that time to introduce sustainability in to the building’s design; most notably, where the air conditioning of the building system utilizes sea water (Utzon, 2002).

This building represents the peak technological design of the Modern movement as opposed to the Eiffel Tower which [arguably] started it all. It shows what the refining of technology, materials and principles has done to create another extravagant piece of architecture.

Fundamentals of modern architecture

Regardless of location or background, we can derive a few fundamental principles from buildings that were established during the modernist period.

It was important that architects derived the utmost utility out of spaces, ridding designs of ornamentation and wasted space, and giving them purpose.

It is clear also that there was a new appreciation for materials and structure; before where the structure which kept a building standing upright, did solely that and was hidden by an ornamented façade, modern architecture looked to showcase structures in a different light and saw beauty in the raw form of the building.

Modern architecture saw no separation aesthetically between the front of the building, its back, its ground plan, or its surrounding area; no detail existed solely for its own purpose but was designed to fit together in to the general design of a building.

Lastly and most importantly was the belief that all buildings should place function as a top priority because all buildings that function well, look good; the belief was nothing could truly look unappealing if it functioned well.

The final product, was therefore something that had a strong aesthetic attitude, as well as psychological, social and technological ones.

Conclusion

From a movement that has neglected decoration and ornamentation, with greater favour to function… modernist architecture has had an influence on buildings since the First World War. The marriage of design and technology has influenced architecture in a considerable and important way, allowing us to move further towards a progressive future; one that takes into consideration all aspects of life, be it economic, social or environmental and making new designs possible, allowing complete expression and allowing our wildest ideas to become a physical reality.

References

1. (1946). In K. Sykes, Designing a New Industry (pp. 154-164). New York: George Braziller.
2. Macleod. (2013, Jan 28). modernism to Post Modernism. Retrieved from Macleod 29: http://macleod29.blogspot.com/
3. Severino, R. (1970). Equipotential Space. New York: Praeger Publishers, Inc.
4. Theodore H.M. Prudon, F. (2008). Preservation of Modern Architecture. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
5. Utzon, J. (2002, May). Sydney Opera House Trust [AU]. Retrieved from sydneyoperahouse.com: https://www.sydneyoperahouse.com/content/dam/pdfs/Utzon-Design-Principles.pdf

Christianity began to gain momentum in Europe as the main religion. This called for the European lifestyles to match the momentum created. Buildings had to be bigger, larger, and taller than ever before. This required new architectural techniques in order to fulfill the new demand of exceptional buildings. This new form of architecture of large vertical buildings with intricate detail inside and out was called Gothic architecture. The term “Gothic” architecture can be derived from the Romanesque timeline and there styles tend to have similarities. The similarities between gothic style and Romanesque architecture are the tall large high ceiling and “vertical” structure of buildings. Johann Goethe’s essay “On German Architecture” it is about how through his architecture he was able to express his beloved German culture. Goethe in his essay was known for his buildings, converting to religious buildings and it could have been from his writing style using words that expressed religious beliefs. These building he created converted to large places for people to come together to practice religion. Goethe strived to unify people and let his pieces of work be a place where people can unify for a singular cause, majority of the time for religious practices. Goethe wasn’t only an influential person for architecture but he had a direct impact on German culture, shaping it for the future.

Goethe’s architecture emphasized longevity, these great monumental structures would be around for centuries, and unify people to come together for these “once in a lifetime” pieces.

In Goethe’s essay he states, “It will be a living whole”, what he means by this is when he is finished with his work, people will be able to unify and come together to practice religion, and have a place to safely worship. German history is founded on the basis of religion. The unifying force has always been from religion, from the Germanic Tribes, to the chivalrous days, the crusades, the Roman Empire, the Goths, and all few and in between Goethe’s architecture was a catapult for uniting Christianity across Germany and letting it explode due to the large buildings.

The term “wholeness” comes from Goethe’s idea of how he was able to unify people extremely well. Also consists of how detailed the buildings well, where ornamentation was a huge characteristic of his work. The intricate detail is what made Goethe’s work so revolutionizing. The inspiration was to create a wholesome, inclusive place to strengthen a population over a central cause. He was a pioneer in his feat of accomplishing that. Wholeness is a key part of Goethe and his work, and has direct ties to Christianity. He didn’t just see these huge structures as buildings, but as art. He intended for the pieces to have a comforting feeling for people and to have a huge impact on the population.

The originality has several meanings when described by Goethe. Gothic architecture was founded on a key characteristic called ornamentation. Intricate detail was able to represent how people are unified behind a singular belief in Christianity, or behind the German culture. Originality can also mean distinction, not like the rest, just as Goethe’s architecture and design was, with his ornamentation, and exceptional details. The art was created to describe the German culture, a since of pride about a culture. A new distinction and proudness of their buildings being made that depicted the culture very well.

The importance of trying to give the German people a voice was vital in the late 18th century. Through Goethe’s architecture they were able to accomplish it, and give a voice to the German culture. The country was in deep need of an identity, so in turn, these large buildings as well as the spark of Christianity lead to a huge rise in German pride. Cathedrals of massive size and exceptional large vertical buildings put a stamp on what it meant to be German and allowed the people to rally behind a singular cause. Goethe’s ideas on “wholeness” and “originality” were the backbone behind his truly remarkable Gothic architecture and his essay truly allows the readers into his mind. He was a pioneer and centuries ahead of his time, his creativity left a legacy for future architects to follow and set the blueprint on revolutionizing building large structures.

The German people back then and still today are directly tied and feel a relationship with the Gothic Architecture. The Vertical aspect to these buildings had a direct correlation to the sense of pride in Germany, and their strength in belief of the Christian faith. You see in today’s age how Gothic architecture has a direct stamp on architecture today from skyscrapers, castles, and even on our campus here at the University

In this semester, I went to Lo Pan Temple in Sai Wan. It is the only temple in Hong Kong dedicated to Lo Pan, or we called Master Lu Ban. Lo Pan was an ancient woodworker, engineer, savant, innovator, politician, lived during the Spring & Autumn period of China. On account of his extraordinary commitment to development, he was characterized as the patron saint of Chinese manufacturers and construction workers. Many inventions of him are beneficial to modern, such as cloud ladder, ruler, saw, etc.

In 1884, Lo Pan Temple was funded and built by a group of thousands of construction workers. Kwong Yuet Tong started monitoring Lo Pan Temple in 1921 and registered as an administrative organization legally in 1949. The temple had been renovated for a few times, and it was rebuilt in 1928 as well. Finally, the temple was confirmed monument as Grade I historic building in 2009.

Lo Pan Temple is a two-Jin building. The roof is made of wood and covered with tiles. Although the temple is not huge, it is rich in architectural decoration, including murals, pottery, and clay sculptures. There are nine groups of pottery and twenty-six murals in total, and these make the temple look like an art exhibition. In the temple, I could see that there are four deities, Lo Pan, Yuet Lo, Choi Sun and To Dei Kung. The good faith of coming to visit is mainly engaged in the construction industry. In my point of view, maybe they are not only praying for Lo Pan to bless and bless the work, but also pray for blessing form Yuet Lo about love and Choi Sun about wealth.

By reading some related materials, I found that there is a significant difference between an ordinary day and event day. There were not many visitors on the day I visited, as visitors coming to the temple are mainly engaged in the construction industry and pray for safety at work. The temple will be full of excitement on 13th Lunar June every year (Lo Pan Patron’s Day). There is a Taoist ceremony lasting for one and a half day to appease spirits of those passed away from construction industry’s accidents. Then, there are many apprentices and mentors of the Construction Industry Council Training Academy visit and offer incense in the temple. After that, The Labour and Welfare Bureau will hold a prize presentation ceremony of the Skills Upgrading Lo Pan Award, to praise workers who have Lo Pan’s spirit. Finally, there is a lion and dragon dance troupes performance to entertain both human and god. In the past, there was cooked rice distributed; now, meal coupons have replaced cooked rice.

In traditional Chinese culture, wood with a meaning of endless life. Therefore, there have been more than 7,000 years of wooden construction systems. No matter it is a magnificent palace, a beautiful garden, or an ordinary dwelling, the wooden structure takes the leading position. China’s traditional wooden construction plays an essential role in the history of world architecture. The roof of Chinese architecture is the most eye-catching, and it is almost a signature of traditional Chinese building. The building enclosures also reflect the ancient craftsman’s intentions everywhere. These complex and ingenious structural components constitute the traditional architectural form of China for hundreds of century. The wisdom of the ancients to create such a great art form deserve people to admire. However, these great arts are being abandoned by urbanites ruthlessly. The increasing of the modern high-rise building has gradually faded into unique Chinese villages.

It is crucial to figure out what lead to declining Chinese traditional architectures. First, the design level and skill of architectural design workers are disparate, leading to “good and bad” architectural works. Second, the abuse of administrative power by relevant government departments has led to chaotic management of the planning and design market. Third, in recent years, European-style real estate has developed rapidly, and Western architectural culture dominates the Chinese architectural environment. Fourth, globalization impact, the standards of aesthetics and evaluation of architecture in all walks of life gradually converge – Westernization. Fifth, having weak self-confidence on the national culture. Western culture has led to the neglect of Chinese culture by Chinese citizens. In the face of the decline of Chinese traditional culture, the whole city looks the same. How to create a new building with the representative Chinese culture and era in modern Chinese life? How to innovate China’s new Building has become a hot spot of concern to society?

The above reasons for declining Chinese traditional buildings may brings some unwanted fates for the Chinese buildings. First, blind plagiarism, lack of innovative spirit. The famous architectural works around the world have appeared in many places in China, and the blind copying has become a great spectacle in the modern Chinese architecture. For example, in Zhengzhou, there is a “French Church in France” built in the 1990s. After the French Le Corbusier Foundation expressed anger and dissatisfaction, the building has been demolished; Zhejiang Tiandu City counterfeit the Eiffel Tower, known as the ghost town by the media. The town style is directly copied from the foreign residential buildings. The Austrian town of Hastat has been named a world cultural heritage because of its unique style, which has become a place that the world yearns for. There is also a cottage version in China, in Huizhou, Guangdong; Thames Town is one of many copycat targets in China, security guard of the fake British town with security clothing is copycat of British royal soldiers. These have resulted many people said that ‘China copied everything and did not innovate independently.’ There are many other examples of blind worship and reproduction of Western construction arts in China. They are “special” in all corners of China, but not inconsistent with the local regional culture and surrounding environment.

Second, lack of regional characteristics. With the evolution of people living standards, they are not only satisfied with the pursuit of material, but also pay more attention to the pursuit of the spirit. In recent years, the community has gradually realized that the bad development or conservation status of Chinese architecture. The similarities in the development and construction process and the architectural appearance of convergence have made everyone feel the lack of Chinese architectural culture and the lack of architectural features, especially the decline of national culture.

Third, the pursuit of architectural appearance is unconventional. In the context of the ever-converging modern architectural design, some architects are also actively exploring how to innovate in architectural design, and the results are positive and negative. For example, the Taipei 101 Building designed by Mr. Li Zuyuan, the building wall is divided into 8 sections, which are inclined one by one, having the shape of the Chinese pagoda and the growth of bamboo. This building is a good design of modern design, building materials, techniques and Chinese tradition. The building has been combined innovation and inheritance, which is a positive production. However, some architects are paranoid to highlight those special appearance of modern buildings, making controversial. For example, Fu Lu Shou is the prototype of the Tianzi Hotel, with meaning of good fortune, prosperity, and longevity. In order to achieve the objective of the building, a lot of manpower, material resources and financial resources have been invested, resulting in great waste of resources. After the CCTV headquarters building is completed, It is also controversial. The architectural structure is exquisite and the building technology is praised. At the same time, the appearance of the building has been stunned as “big pants”. Chinese-style architecture is not only a ‘new and strange’ in the appearance of the building, but should be a building that is in line with the Chinese social background and meets the needs of social development and has cultural implications!

Fourth, Westernization is serious and lacks national characteristics. The rise of the industrial revolution has had a tremendous impact on countries around the world. In architecture, modernist architecture has sprung up. With China’s reform and opening up, international exchanges have become more frequent, and Chinese architecture has quickly aligned with the world. There are many High-rise buildings and glass curtain walls. It seems that every city is carved out of a mold, and the city’s recognizability is greatly reduced. In such a high-tech reinforced concrete building forest, Chinese gradually lost its own style.

A good architectural work should be rich in connotation. Only modern architecture with cultural characteristics can go to the world and be eternal. Then, how should we seek the best combination of tradition and modern, international and regional, standardization and speciality balance and coordination, and create China’s own architecture that meets the requirements of the times? First, the architect should improve the design level and professionalism, especially for the study and understanding of traditional culture, integrate the ‘tradition’ and ‘modern’, and rationally examine and draw on the rational ideas in Western architectural culture. Second, the relevant departments of the government standardize management and strictly enforce the law to make the planning and design market more healthy and orderly, and provide a good environment for the development of Chinese-style buildings. Third, the building business community has established a correct industry orientation and promoted the commercial architectural style of infiltrating national culture. Fourth, the correct treatment of Western culture and reasonable choices must not be copied blindly. Fifth, the whole people will enhance their national cultural self-confidence and establish a correct aesthetic system and a standard system for judging buildings. In short, the creation of modern architecture with Chinese characteristics requires many efforts. It is not the sole responsibility of the architects. It requires sufficient public participation to provide fertile ground for growth. Only in this way can China’s architecture flow everywhere with “Chinese genes” and let China Buildings can one day go to the world and be loved and learned by the people of the world!

Designed by Canadian American architect Frank Gehry, the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao building represents a magnificent example of the most groundbreaking 20th-century architecture. With 24,000 m2, of which 9.000 are dedicated to exhibition space, the Museum represents an architectural landmark of audacious configuration and innovative design, providing a seductive backdrop for the art exhibited in it.

Almost from the moment it opened in 1997, Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, with its distinctive titanium curves and soaring glass atrium, was hailed as one of the most important buildings of the 20th century. Gehry’s use of cutting-edge computer-aided design technology enabled him to translate poetic forms into reality. The resulting architecture is sculptural and expressionistic, with spaces unlike any other for the presentation of art. The museum is seamlessly integrated into the urban context, unfolding its interconnecting shapes of stone, glass, and titanium on a 32,500-square-meter site along the Nervión River in the old industrial heart of the city.

Eleven thousand square meters of exhibition space are distributed over nineteen galleries. Ten of these galleries have a classic orthogonal plan and can be identified from the exterior by their stone finishes. Nine other irregularly shaped galleries present a remarkable contrast and can be identified from the outside by their swirling forms and titanium cladding. The largest gallery, measuring 30 meters wide and 130 meters long, was used for temporary exhibitions for several years. In 2005, it became the site of the largest sculpture commission in history, Richard Serra’s monumental installation The Matter of Time.

The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao is a pinnacle in Gehry’s outstanding architectural career as well as in the field of museum design. It remains unsurpassed in its integration of art and architecture, maintaining an aesthetic and programmatic unity.

Altogether, Gehry’s design creates a spectacular sculpture-like structure, perfectly integrated within Bilbao’s urban pattern and its surrounding area.

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao—a spectacular structure made of titanium, glass, and limestone—was hailed as the most important building of its time.

Guggenheim Museum is arguably the most important building of Wright’s late career. A monument to modernism, the unique architecture of the space, with its spiral ramp riding to a domed skylight, continues to thrill visitors and provide a unique forum for the presentation of contemporary art. The museum is essentially a shell that evokes the past industrial life and port of Bilbao. It consists of a series of interconnected volumes, some formed of orthogonal coated stone and others from a titanium skeleton covered by organic skin. The connection between volumes is created by the glass skin.

Louise Bourgeois ‘maman

This large 30 ft high sculpture is one of Bourgeois’ most well-known. Titled Maman, it was created in 1999 and is made of mostly bronze and steel with marble eggs inside. There have been several casts made of this sculpture and are placed in various places around the world.

This sculpture was made as a portrait, or ode to her mother. She was very fond of her and said she was her best friend. She finds qualities of spiders similar to those of her mother, such as weaving, nurturing, and protectiveness. These were all qualities she loved about her mother and conveyed through this sculpture, Maman.

When Tate Modern opened its doors in 1999, the museum commissioned Bourgeois as the first artist to exhibit her art in the massive Turbine Hall. Maman consisted of a tall steep spider sculpture representing both protection and benevolence. While this was not the first time Bourgeois had included a spider motif in her work, having appeared several times in some of her work during the 1940s, her 1999 exhibition at the Tate was certainly her largest. She first used the spider motif in a small ink and charcoal drawing created in 1947.

Her spider sculpture was created using steel and marble. Supported by eight thin legs, the spider’s body was suspended above the ground, which allowed audiences to walk freely underneath. Each ribbed leg was created out of two pieces of steel. Underneath the spider was also a wire-meshed sac that contained 17 white and marble eggs.

Bourgeoise’s spider sculptures were always large, but they got more massive between 1995 and 1999. Her largest spider installation was approximately 21 feet tall and showed the body and round head of a spider supported on eight stick-like legs. Over the years, Bourgeoise made spiders in a range of media and ranging in size. The smallest spider she ever created was a 4-inch brooch, but her largest by far was the Maman sculpture close to 30 feet tall and could only be installed outside. Today, spiders have become synonymous with Louise Bourgeoise’s work.

The Thomas Jefferson Memorial, a monument in Washington D.C., has rich information in it’s bones waiting to be shown, viewed, and appreciated. It brings a sense of pride to the country and its people. What people do not realize is that this memorial is a part of the foundation that is the United States history.

The shrine is located in West Potomac Park. On the east and south, East Basin Drive borders the monument; on the west and north, the Tidal Basin borders the monument. The land on which it stands is made of landfill dredged from the Potomac River. On the outside of the monument are circle-style stairs that lead up to it. The front of the monument faces the White House.

It was officially established on April 13, 1943. Construction occurred between 1938 and 1943. On what would have been Jefferson’s 200th birthday, the memorial was built and during the same time World War II raged on. During the construction, protestors of the “Cherry Tree Rebellion” did not want the memorial to be built because of the fear that it would destroy the neighboring Japanese Cherry Trees. Female members of the rebellion chained themselves to the trees to try to stop it. However, the construction workers figured a way around them by giving them tea to make them leave to go to the bathroom. In total, three architects designed the monument. The first architect was John Russell Pope who was replaced by Daniel Paul Higgins and Otto Reinhold Eggers after Pope’s death. Currently, the memorial is seventy-eight years old, the east wing is closed off for construction, and the money it took to pay for the monument is over four billion dollars.

The architecture of the monument is neoclassical. It’s designed with twenty six columns with a domed ceiling and a 165 foot diameter memorial chamber. Each of these pillars represent the number of states admitted to the union at the time of Jefferson’s death. In 1947, a statue of Jefferson himself was installed inside. Built by Rudolph Evans, Jefferson’s statue weighs 10,000 pounds and has a height of nine feet. The memorial itself is made white Georgia marble with a floor made of pink Tennessee marble and a dome of Indiana limestone. The original statue was made of plaster and the current statue is made of bronze.

This particular monument honors the third president of the United States. It was inspired from the pantheon in Rome and the Rotunda in the University of Virginia. For each quote of Jefferson engraved, there is what is called a “memorial wall.” Franklin D. Roosevelt, being a great admirer of Jefferson, wanted to fulfill Jefferson’s wish to be remembered for his proudest gifts. The memorial was intended to represent the Age of Enlightenment and of Jefferson’s many occupations. Those occupations being a philosopher and statesman.

Commemorating the third president of the United States, this shrine shows his many occupations that he wished to be remembered for. The creation of this monument was not easy but it was all worth it in the end. FDR wished to show the people an amazing example of who an american can be by showing them an amazing example of an American: Thomas Jefferson.

Frank Lloyd Wright, throughout his career, viewed nature as a spiritual reference, yet despite this intense admiration for these natural surroundings, there are at times clashes between the way he valued nature and his actual work. Though Wright’s architectural approach required a harmonious relationship with nature, it contradicted his admiration for new technologies such as the car, which harmed the varying environments he sought to build within. To evaluate this contradiction to his work, a dive into his philosophy which is rooted in his concept of organic architecture, where form and function are one, and designing buildings that are appropriate to the place, in his eyes a coffee shop should be built like a Greek temple, in practice this idea looked like a functional yet seamless integration of his building in his natural settings. He harmonized and connected with nature and buildings, being grace to nature and its surroundings rather than a disgrace, almost any natural environment can be improved upon by an appropriate piece of architecture.

An example of this is his famous architectural design, Fallingwater. When Wright designed Fallingwater, he was 70 years old and he was still being discovered as an architect. Back in the late 1920s, he established an architecture school, a place where his apprentices can study and learn his theories and philosophies first-hand, and was called the Taliesin. Fallingwater was commissioned by Edgar Kaufmann Sr, father to Edgar Kaufmann Jr, who was an apprentice of Wright and joined the Taliesin in October 1934. The idea behind the commission was to make a vacation house, that gave the Kaufmann family’s life a balance by taking them away from the chaotic city life and providing a relationship with nature. Originally the site was used as a low-cost alternative vacation house for the workers of Mr. Kaufmann’s family business, however, during the 1930s in America, the nation faced a historic event called the Great Depression, known as the worst economic downturn in history of the industrialized world, resulting in the US economy to plummet, unemployment to rise from 3.2% to 24.9%, average income rates dropping by almost 40%. As a result, of the Great Depression it was hard for people to spend money on a vacation, and soon after Mr. Kauffman decided to purchase the plot.

Fallingwater is known to be one of the best architectural designs in modern history. The site is situated in southwestern Pennsylvania, the site is based around a woodland area with a stream running through it along with a waterfall. In terms of designing the building, the logical tendency would be to situate the building so that it looks towards the waterfall. Nevertheless, Wright felt that despite the building having to serve an aesthetic function, it needed to work well, this is where his idea of ‘form and function being one’ comes into play, so he placed the building on the southern slope, allowing for rooms to have natural sunlight. This led to the building being on top of the waterfall and ultimately, resulting in a very intimate experience with the nature surrounding the building rather than from a viewing standpoint. During the site visit, Wright was told that the Kaufmann’s mainly used the waterfall as a recreational area and a place where friends and family connected with one another and with nature. How the rock ledges cantilevered, allowing water to fall off, and the natural aesthetic of the waterfall inspired Wright, and he saw an opportunity for architecture not only to work with nature but to be a part of nature.

Shortly after the site visit, Wright created the first and final drawings for Fallingwater, and this inclusion of being in nature resonated with Edgar Kaufmann, as he too was fond of nature and its beauty. Wright states: “One should conceive the building in the imagination, not on paper but in the mind, thoroughly – before paper, let it live there gradually, before taking more definitive form before committing it through a draught broad and when the thing lives for you, start to plan it with tools. Not before is the best way to cultivate imagination to construct and complete the building before working with it with a T-square and Triangle”. The idea of cultivating an idea in one’s imagination and taking time to slow down the process of the various elements, issues, and factors revolving around the site is considered for the design and showcases elements of good architecture. This allows for feelings and emotions to process with design ideas, as Wright’s idea of intimacy is one of the core factors that influences his designs, this also allows for better end vision and the ability to plan and construct the building. In contrast to ideas of iterations, testing out what works for the design, the process of cultivating thoughts could help. This idea of Wright is something that stretches his philosophy of organic architecture by situating the site to be in the epicenter of the stream and waterfall enforcing the intimacy he so passionately discussed, and this design idea that he implemented showcases his understanding of his theory and the relationship between nature and architecture.

The Great Depression left an imposing issue for Wright as he would need to make the houses. Wright believed that materials should be used in a simple way, showcasing the character and nature of the material in the raw form, not disguised behind another material, but in the forefront, Wright only used a few materials used for the construction of Fallingwater those are stone, concrete, steel, and glass. The stones were cut from an old local quarry and the labor was done by local workers. Sourcing materials for the building locally is not only good for the environment, but it also evokes a sense of sustainability and will contribute to saving money for the overall cost of the building, and involvement of local laborers allows for the local area to benefit from this. However, some of the local experts questioned the design of the building and claimed that the design on top of the stream wouldn’t hold and would destroy the natural landscape and that Edgar Kaufmann is ultimately wasting his money and time by investing in this building. Edgar Kaufmann acted by asking for a further detailed report on such claims and forwarded it to Wright. Wright addressed this issue to Kaufmann in a firm manner by saying that “You’re not worthy to have a house of mine if you believe in this junk”, and Mr. Kaufmann believed in Wright. How Wright designed the building is based on cantilevers, he built a foundation and placed a beam that extended over the foundations and then placed more structure over the beam that sandwiched the beam between structures, he used this method four times in Fallingwater.

Wright in his desire to make a strong feeling of continuity between indoor and outdoor space was extremely important, as the whole house had to feel open to the outside, so emphasizing a designated spot for people to enter the building was contrary and, as a result, he made the front doors discreetly, allowing for multiple ways of entering the building and, in essence, paying homage to the idea of equilibrium between indoor and outdoor spaces, allowing for connectivity to those spaces via different entrances. Another design factor Wright designed that connotes his philosophy through the means of his architecture is the stair that leads right onto the stream and is situated in the living room, and the design idea behind it was simple, and the space in the living room should consist of a way where there is immediate contact to the surrounding environment. This connection with the outdoors is something that Wright used as a driving force within his design. He wanted people to be living harmoniously with the surrounding natural environment and sourced local materials for building the design and tried to enforce the design to have big windows, as well as orientating the building for the right amount of sunlight, which can help heat, cool, and be sustainable design. Wright’s idea of indoor and outdoor spaces is based on the idea that both shouldn’t be apart from one another and that they need to be in a state of equilibrium, meaning that a room should be seen as ‘architecture’ and that there aren’t two separate entities of an indoor and outdoor space. This ideology comes through when he talks about glass, and how glass ‘liberates’ an interior space, he refers to ‘false mass’ sufficiently insulting and oppressive to our intelligence as people, meaning that by allowing a material like glass in an architectural form as a window, would allow for the room to breathe and connect with nature allowing for inspiration, changing the atmosphere and enhancing a user’s experience with the architecture, yet maintaining that connection with nature. With this ideology there are various benefits and being exposed to nature reduces things such as type ii diabetes, blood pressure, stress, depression, anxiety, and premature death.

In contrast, if we investigate the available interior and exterior space from a building in an urban setting compared to the interior and exterior space of a building like Fallingwater, which is set in a rural area, as well as the ideology behind the equilibrium of indoor and outdoor spaces. The urban area is restricted by the amount of nature and outdoors it could bring in, also the location is densely populated, further increasing restrictions in architectural expression, potentially some places wouldn’t have green spaces available. In comparison to Wright’s Guggenheim Museum, he designed for nature to be inclusive through elements such as light, water, natural materials, and plants. The building situates near Central Park in New York, and as a result, this is as close as one could get to nature in the densely populated, crowded city. However, not everyone is exposed to such luxuries as being close to nature like that. The issue remains that the city including Wright’s ideology of interlinking the indoor and outdoor space is restricted on a vast scale, it’s one of the major reasons for Kaufmann’s building Fallingwater, to escape the city and city lifestyle. In 1932, Frank Lloyd Wright came up with a solution to the city, via a concept called Broadacre City. A city that is decentralized and abandoned the crowded machined aged city, but avoided a rural community. Everyone had one acre of land that would be theirs to own and grow their food on their land, which led to the creation of decentralized farms throughout the city. Wright did not like centralization and designed the city to be widespread homes factories and municipal buildings were separated by large parks. The concept involved adults working at home, and goods being manufactured in small local factories. Wright designed the city and different house types to accommodate how many cars a household would own, the automobile is a crucial design concept that Wright embodied whilst designing this city concept. Wright quotes: “Here architecture is landscape, and landscape takes on the character of architecture by way of the simple process of cultivation”. Wright believed that cars are an ‘advance agent of decentralization’, he kept mass transit at a minimum, and believed that each person had a right to own a car, with no limit on the number of fuels one could utilize, the car created a new way of thinking about communities, everything was spread out and connected using highways and motorways. Wright’s ideas may have come off as weird and strange, but it has become the norm, and people rely on cars to go to places such as work, school, and shopping. In terms of pedestrians, there isn’t much for them, and the city is designed more so for cars. This concept of Wright is interesting as it shows his awareness for years to come, futureproofing his design concepts with technological advancements.

The first issue of Broadacre City comes with the idea of owning one acre of land and the practicality to farm your food, not many households would be adjusted to that manner of lifestyle, and not every conventional family will consist of traditional family members, what of the single parent with several kids or even the single parent and single child do. Space would be too big of a stretch for Wright’s philosophy, it depends on the users’ needs and situation for what they desire. Could people even afford that amount of land the cost of maintaining the farm would certainly be of concern, despite the incentive being approached sustainably and economically, the cost of machinery is high, and people are already suffering from the Great Depression, so people would be cautious with their spending. However, despite this being a concept, the philosophy behind the incentives strongly showcases Wright’s values as a theorist and architect, and it potentially overlooks certain factors that he may not have considered. Another issue with Broadacre City is the use of automobiles, claiming that each household should have a car and where automobiles should be the main use of transportation, it defeats the purpose of being in nature. The use of automobiles is harmful to the environment, in comparison to other cities, the use is limited, yes. However, are the emissions of fossil fuels from automobiles and small factories compared to the green spaces available in Broadacre City justifiable? Looking into modern-day technology, most automobiles/cars are now electric or hybrid and can recharge their batteries, resulting in emitting fewer greenhouse gasses. So, Wright’s interest in the automobile could prove to be fruitful as technology advances and solve issues that are harming our environment in the modern-day. Thirdly, the idea of designing for automobiles, rather than pedestrians, contradicts Wright’s idea of intimacy with nature and user experience with the built environment. Movement is a major concept within a city, and each person has a different approach to a destination through different means of transport. As previously mentioned, cars cause emissions that are harmful to the environment, whereas walking or even cycling from destination A to B not only is good for the environment but also good for health. However, creating a vast separation between areas to enforce users to use automobiles for travel could be problematic, considering that every resident should have a car, an alternative could be using a bus.

The claims that Wright makes through his theories and architecture, comes across as imaginative and creative, a person who is confident with his vision through a stubborn approach. But could this stubbornness be his weakness? In terms of Fallingwater, there are many issues and problems associated with the building, one being the growth of excessive amount of mold due to the waterfall, and the other issue being the cantilever not having enough steel used to support the first floor’s concrete skeleton. As mentioned earlier, Kaufmann did question Wright’s decision of cantilevers and it not being viable, and due to Wright’s stubbornness, he disclaimed the idea of additional reinforcement and continued with his design, unfortunately, over time, the effect of gravity resulted in the first-floor cantilever to drop, and as a result, in 2002 a restoration procedure was carried out to reinforce the structure’s foundation, resulting in the stone floor and furniture of the second floor to be discarded of. This gets to show how despite how beautiful and well awarded the piece of architecture Fallingwater is, it isn’t perfect. Frank Lloyd Wright once mentioned that “a doctor can bury his mistakes, but an architect can only advise his clients to plant vines”; in comparison to the issue with Fallingwater’s cantilevers, this humorous approach to Wright’s imperfections and mistakes ultimately showcases that Wright knows that thing associated with architecture can be fixed. But is this stubbornness due to Wright having to prove himself as an architect and that Fallingwater is his comeback piece after years of being out of the architectural forefront?

In conclusion, Frank Lloyd Wright’s understanding of nature as a theorist and as a practicing architect through Fallingwater does resonate. The aspects of form and function, cultivation of imagination, sustainability, mass equilibrium, building and site, proportions and space, nature, and simplicity run through thick and thin within the project. The fact that Wright drew up the drawings of Fallingwater in such a short amount of time really shows how intertwined he was with his method and values as an architect, and what he believed to be good organic architecture. Even in the modern-day, these design aspects are considered by architects and consideration of how the environment and climate are arising to be a bigger issue. Wright believed in and dedicated his life to this notion of sustainable ecosystems, architectural environments, and elements that support each other to thrive off of each other. To think that he actually hypothesized such ideas and developed them into theory and put it into practice through his architectural works shows that he is a relevant person. His design with Fallingwater is one that contrasts with the environment but also works well by reefing to form and function, he used new technologies that improved the surrounding landscape and the inhabitants’ lifestyles, this requires seamlessly incorporating the structure with nature, as well as celebrating the natural world, and there’s somewhat of a nod to its natural surroundings, such as the waterfall. Wright straddled the line between incorporating new technologies and respect for the site in the natural world, at times he leaned towards one side of the other. But that’s what makes his buildings captivating, a constant surge of the middle ground between comfort, technology, and reverence of the natural world.

Creativity is the most important aspect of architecture to me, which allows architects to create something unique through every building they design. Through architecture, I want to express my creativity by designing buildings that show the use of space and form to influence a person’s mood and thoughts. I am interested in learning about sustainable design and ways we can reduce the environmental issues we are currently dealing with, to achieve a better sustainable future for all. When I came across a picture of the Taliesin West by Frank Lloyd Wright, this opened my mind to how architecture can be approached. I was intrigued by how the interiors and exteriors were incorporated together through his architectural designs, which merged with the environment. By studying architecture I want to further develop my appreciation and understanding of the built environment in which we live today and to look at how the future of design can be improved.

I am currently studying Physics and Maths for A-level, which has led me to improve my problem-solving skills which are important since all plans and projects are susceptible to change so architects have to be able to adapt themselves quickly to solve the problem. Taking Art for A-level and going to the ‘Architecture of London exhibition at Guildhall Art Gallery has led to me discovering the importance of creative expression in the work we create, which represents how we see ourselves and the world. I have also attended architecture summer school where I improved my skills in drawing, model making, and analysing the urban environment which has helped me prepare myself for the tasks taken on in the architecture course. Participating in a Tiger Monkey Studio course has led me to further develop my art techniques such as collaging and stenciling, which I am interested in bringing into the course to experiment with how architecture can be represented.

In college, I decided to attend Architecture Academy where I helped design an architecture piece with my colleague which strengthened my creativity and attention to detail for architecture. I learned how to work as a team by sharing ideas with my colleagues on how to incorporate our initial sketches of buildings to plan out a strong final architectural design, which has improved my communication skills. When creating the piece, I enjoyed model making with various materials which have helped me grow as an artist, encouraging me to explore and develop ideas through experimentation. From this experience, I enjoyed exploring the different ways you can gain ideas from simple objects such as shape and form, and manipulating them to create your architectural piece.

During year 12, had a part-time job at KidsArt where I taught kids various art techniques such as dry brushing to improve their skills in painting, which has further developed my confidence in communicating with people while improving my creative skills. I have also worked as a junior sales assistant at Boots where I interacted and guided customers for help which has helped me become a more friendly and approachable person to work with other people, which I have realised are important qualities for an architect.

I helped fundraise for a mental health charity called CAHMS by creating a project with my National Citizen Service team called ‘Mental Health Helpers’, which led me to develop my team working skills. To help fundraise, I designed my mental health postcards for the charity which has further developed my interest in design.

I am a hardworking and creative student and I believe studying architecture will help me learn about the wider impact architecture has on society. Learning about sustainable design, to creating healthy and productive environments will help me envision the world not as it is, but as it could be.

Everything conventional is not always purposive, and not everything ancient is ineffectual.

This essay is an attempt to articulate the blind side of architecture and its influence that goes much beyond the apparent level of design efficiency and user-friendly systems.

Perception is a corridor beyond which lies the boundless experience of existence, and architecture is a manifestation of one’s potential assisting in enhancing the perception. With such an enormous possibility we have reduced its prominence to ergonomics and sustainability.

Today we have reached a juncture where we have to re-examine our conception of development and growth in the form of efficient edifies, and controlling the expanding urban chaos. It amazes me to see that sustainability has become the need of the hour. While technology and machines were made to make life simpler, the unwise use of these tools has landed us in the era of the sixth extinction.

The most unique thing about this extinction is that only one species is responsible for this – we, the humans. Having said this, the major share of responsibility goes to the fraternity of architects. Inhumanly we have poached the forest lands and threatened unique ecosystems under the disguise of evolution and much-needed development. Such an incomprehensible approach is unjustifiable. While this was not enough, our ignorance still dismisses the interlink between covetous human aspirations and the pronounced climate change.

Architecture is seen through a primitive lens of designing and building infrastructure that caters to the current needs of the human population. However, the significance of this realm extends much beyond. Architecture is a fiber that binds the nation. It holds the amplitude that can inspire the user to tap into their dormant inner capabilities. In short, the role of architecture in nation-building is super-colossal. To uncover this bilateral relationship, let us see it through the lens of ancient India.

In ancient India, architects created consecrated spaces. This simply means that the design was rooted not just in science but even in intention. The creation was built with passion infused with possibilities. Today, it is reduced to mere replicative matchboxes deceiving even the creator – the architect. The architects of ancient India were created from a profound premise. The intelligence had its roots across scholarly domains. The structures were organically crafted, and cities flourished in rhythm with the principles of the cosmos.

Among the innumerable masterpieces of architecture in India, I would like to take 2 of them to explain my viewpoint here.

The first one is the Sun Temple in Odisha. This is a true gem that reflects many facets of human intelligence. Various elements are symbolic of comprehensive teachings in the field of astronomy, spirituality, and stages of human pursuit and nature. The name has its origins in the Sanskrit word, ‘Kona’ which means ‘angle’, and ‘ark’ which means ‘Sun’. Hence, it is commonly known as the Sun Temple.

The temple is built in the form of a massive sun chariot drawn by 7 horses. This is the epitome of seven days a week. The 12 intricately carved wheels of the chariot represent the 12 months of a year, and every structure built within represents the passage of time. Every single wheel has 8 spokes, which symbolize a 3-hour period, referred to as ‘prahar’; adding up to 24 hours of a day. This is an incredible sundial that helps the observer calculate time by studying the shadows cast by the wheels.

The well-crafted sculptures that adorned the temple walls depict the four major pursuits of human life: the Kama, Artha, Dharma, and Moksha.

Even a finer detail such as a sculpture right at the entrance which has a lion crushing an elephant, and underneath the elephant is a human being, acts as a powerful reminder. The lion is the epitome of power and the elephant is a symbol of wealth. Thus, this is not just a sculpture that adorns the entrance. In fact, it is a reminder that man is often overpowered by money and power.

The second most fascinating example dates back to the 9th century during the Chauhan dynasty.

Today we struggle with a shortage of water, while a phenomenal rainwater harvesting system existed in the 9th century in the arid zones of Rajasthan in ancient India. India’s largest and deepest step well – The Chand Baori, located in Abhaneri, a small village in Rajasthan. This is a masterstroke of mathematical perfection, which has 3500 steps in perfect symmetry, descending 20 meters to the bottom of the well. This 13-floor deep step is well-ensured water all year round.

This a just a glimpse into how architecture weaved the teachings, aspirations, beliefs, and wisdom into its craft. Sometimes it served as a reminder to align human aspirations with the greater good, some other times it aligned itself with nature, enriching his life experience even in a harsh environment. With such an alignment it strengthened the quest of tapping into one’s limitless potential by understanding the laws of nature. And at the same time, it nurtured an inclusive consciousness where every being was revered and valued and seen as man’s equal.

As a nation, the canvas of this country was not just inclusive to every philosophy, but each one had its space to flourish and grow. With the diversity and harmony that ancient India held, no other country seemed to fathom this possibility. The architecture reflected these ideologies and profound intentions were infused in the creation.

The structures of ancient India were the epitome of subtler and deeper aspects of human intelligence, creativity, and valor. They integrated the essence of humanity into the designed edifices. Many mysteries remain uncovered that exemplify the science of acoustics, temperature controls, and integral security fundamentals. These are a few of the many magnificent things that ancient Indian architecture possessed, while the world went on to recognize her as ‘Sone ki Chidya’ ( The Golden Bird).

To comprehend this correlation between architecture and nation-building, it is imperative to look at what nation truly is, and what goes into nation-building.

A nation is an idea or a concept. This has physical boundaries defining its geography. However, the concept is alive because beliefs, culture, and ideology are its breath. To be breathless is to become imbalanced. Across the globe, the nations have been left imbalanced as the invasions happened.

The history of invasion imported a spectrum of ideas fostering innovation, but its intention remains questionable. When the intent is muddled, this is more harmful and regressive than the apparent evolution that it portrays. The idea of embracing the new and progressing towards unique avenues must stem from inclusiveness, rather than shaming the shortcomings of a civilization.

But the invasions that history witnessed destroyed the essence of that nation. Their beliefs, culture, and ideology were shattered, leaving them confused and ashamed of their origins. With such damage, most nations were left in dismay. Thus, they blindly adopted and replicated the apparent stability that they perceived in the principles applied by the invaders.

One cannot rewrite this spiritedness by a fragmentary outlook of dominance enforcing it to be blindly adopted. However, over the years most nations have adopted and nurtured a shallow perspective towards life. This has manifested in one of the most significant fields of creation – architecture.

The architecture of a nation must not reflect its invasion but its liberation. When the content and the context are aligned, the impossible becomes possible.

Today, unfortunately, our ignorance stands at loggerheads with nature, competing with ‘The Creator and the Nurturer’ herself. In many subconscious ways, we are trying to establish a dominance that stems from manipulation, shrewdness, insecurities, and greed. As a result, in the past couple of decades, the prominence of architecture is reduced to a denominator of infinity. The reason is, architects are trying to portray their competence, rather than engineer through their eternal magnificence.

When the creator himself is entangled in such a constricted perception, how can he contribute to an idea of nation-building, which by itself is an enormous idea to comprehend?

Nation-building is not just about having the best infrastructure that claims at fostering social harmony, ideal military conscription, policies of economic growth, and welfare. There are mere avenues through which an ideology expresses itself. History has recorded innumerable incidents of genocide under the disguise of nation-building. Just like empowerment cannot be enforced, nation-building cannot happen with such a superfluous perspective.

I firmly believe that architecture is that powerful strand that can awaken the defunct awareness. It can revive the worn-out spiritedness and intelligence that was dampened by years of invasion on our minds, imposing fabricated aspirations in the form of altering our idea of inclusive living.

I hope, in these trying times, when the world has come to a pause, we the fraternity of architects reflect on our intent, and our integrity, and revive the barter of our existence. This is the time to raise our consciousness and bring mindfulness to our creation that has been trampled by corrupted learning. We are at a crossroads, and this is surely an opportunity to pave an empowering path for the coming generations rather than leaving them with a distorted legacy. Every structure contributes to the fabric of existence, not just to the realm of nation-building.