Category: Archaeology

Abstract

Since the year 2000, significant progression has been completed worldwide in the dendrochronology of wood coupled with past human action and intellectual custom. This review sum up this current development in areas with a longstanding tradition of using tree-ring technique, such as Europe and the USA, as well as others such as Asia where improvement have been chiefly fast in recent years. The oldest wood usually begins from archaeological location and the largest amount of wood for research appears from historical arrangement such as colossal and dialect architecture. In addition to construction wood, wooden doors, ceilings, furniture, objects of art (such as board paintings and carving), medieval books, musical instruments and boats can also be use. Dating is the primary and vital step of the research and is frequently complex even in regions where dendrochronology has a long history of use. In addition to fixed dates, dendrochronology has presented additional information that has improved historical knowledge from other foundation. Behavioral and environmental inferencing and dendroprovenancing are appropriate in foremost areas of research and in regions with well-developed system of orientation to chronologies and with dynamic collaboration among laboratories.

Tree-Ring Research

Currently, dendrochronology is the solitary dating technique that presents a ruling which is fewer than or the same to a one year. Dendrochronology is chiefly helpful in the historical ground for the reason that it can conclude the ante quem non-perimeter, that is the year before which an entity could not have been produced because it is the final growth ring-shaped by the tree before felling.

The majority of general factors that avoid the use of dendrochronological dating include:

An insufficient quantity of rings, the existence of a group inappropriate for dating through dendrochronology, the lack of convincing indication of chronologies for the wood species or the place of the source of the wooden item. Once such conditions take place, dendrochronological dating by itself cannot be used, and radiocarbon dating is typically engaged.

Dendrochronology has been distinct as “the dating of yearly growth of coating in wood plants and the utilization of the environmental experiences which they contain,” (Fritts 1971). The science is stand on the basis that the yearly growth rings of trees differ from year to year, mainly in accordance to the climatic circumstances.

The primary foundation of dendrochronology is the yearly growth ring which forms inside the bark by the partition of cambial cells. Huge, thin-walled wood or xylem cells (earlywood) are formed at the start of the growing season, and small, thick-walled wood cells (latewood) towards the last part of the budding season. The sudden transformation in cell size among the last-formed wood of one year and the first-formed wood of the next year frequently defines the border between the annual growth increase and annual rings (Fritts 1966).

Brief History of Method

A. E. Douglass leads the way for tree-ring work on living trees at the beginning of this century, developing a 3,220 year-long evidence of ring widths from the giant sequoia (Douglass 1919; Douglass 1928). Douglass established that the widths of yearly rings in trees can connect with differences in climate and that their exceptional succession of wide and narrow rings can be acknowledged and the similar outline cross-matched (cross-dated) in felled trees from adjoining areas. Cross-dating from living trees to dead trees made it likely to determine the actual year in which the dead trees were felled. The dynamic planned of tree-ring research that goes after this breakthrough led to the new discipline called dendrochronology. By statistically evaluated timbers alongside recognized UK master chronologies dating back to 5289 BC, it is now feasible to get precise calendar year dates for timbers of a variety of species by dendrochronological analysis.

Dating

Dendrochronology is utilized in archaeology, building history, and art history for precise dating of the tree-ring outline of wood (Schweingruber, 1988). The standard is that the distinction in tree-ring width is to a large degree predisposed by climate. This means that tree-ring showing of trees of a similar grouping rising in a definite environmental area can be cross-dated and averaged into so-called master chronologies. Regional master chronologies are computed from the tree-ring chain of thousands of tree-ring orders from a similar geographical region. By having common characteristics and cross-dating tree-ring sequences from living trees with those calculated from historical, archaeological, and sub-fossil wood, long chronologies have been constructing that can reach back for thousands of years. At the moment, an association of hundreds of master chronologies of unlike tree species has been built up for Europe (and the rest of the world). These regional master chronologies provide references for dating. To date a tree-ring series measured from a part of the wood of unidentified age, is statistically evaluated with all available regional master chronologies. If a match signifies by highly considerable t-values or connection (Baillie, 1982) is established, every tree ring of the cycle can be assigned to a calendar year. The final formed tree ring beneath the bark shows the felling date of the tree.

Dendroprovenancing

Dendroprovenancing is somewhat a new method to find out the origin of wood, i.e., the place where a tree was growing that was later used as, e.g., foundation pile. At this moment, studies on dendroprovenancing focused mostly on the importation of high-class oak timber for (ship) building (Bonde et al., 1997) and art-historical objects (Wazny, 2002; Haneca et al., 2005). Though, by research on wood transport throughout Europe, dendroprovenancing was effectively used to rebuild former trade relations (Bonde, 1992; Bonde et al., 1997; Wazny, 1992, 2002).

Technique

Complete cross-sections offered the utmost amount of information. While cutting these is both unfeasible and prohibited (from a living tree or an important architectural monument), the dendrochronologist is forced to route to coring. A Swedish augmentation corer is used to obtain out the small radial core from standing trees, and a variety of commercially – easy get drillbits are applied to dig out similar radial cores from the entire structural design of timbers. P. Klein and colleagues in the Hamburg laboratory have had fine achievement with some 2000 oil paintings painted on wooden board by surfacing the end-grain with a razor blade and assessing directly from the panel (Eckstein, et al., 1983). In unusual instances, an excellent, high-contrast photograph of the end-grain has permitted a piece of wood to be dated. The difficulty of photographs is that microscopically small, rings are roughly unfeasible to distinguish except for the photographer who had the consideration to do some rub down and cleaning before taking the photograph. For both part and the central part it is vital to take in as much of the sapwood where it is present and to avoid knots, cracks, and other blemishes which disfigure the patterns of ring growth. In some instance, if the outermost layer of the tree is present, or the ‘waney edge’, the engagement when the tree was knockdown can discover out to the year. For oaks, if a considerable number of sapwood is conserved, the felling date can be projected with varying amountsinstancescross datedside several years. Further species, or in oaks with small or no sapwood and an indefinite amount of missing heartwood, only a boundary post quem date is likely.

Technique analysis

The exterior of the example to be calculated is equipped with fine sandpaper or a razor blade so that each ring can be measured and morphological peculiarity is noted, typically under a binocular dissecting microscope. after that, whether a conventional (‘the Douglass method’) or an extra sophisticated technique is applied, the more advance in sequence jointly with the whole dimension of the ring-series and a mixture of types of numerical investigation, the rings have to be harmonized to one and the other. Once wood or charcoal sampling have been crossdated, they are then set in arrangement, starting with an unlimited-dated tree, and a chronology is put up in a step-wise manner into the past as far back as the proof will permit.

Progress of dendrochronology

Since archaeology has developed from its rather prehistoric beginnings, so, too, dendrochronology has advanced from a relatively imperfect focus on the dating of monuments or archaeological level. In addition to the straightforward ring-width measurements pioneered by Douglass (1919, 1928, 1936), whether skeleton, scheme, or measured, new logical procedures include X-radiography, X-ray densitometry, and neutron activation analysis, among others, to study morphological and chemical alteration within particular rings or cells or to identify the occurrence of specific trace-elements and isotopes.

The functional dendrochronological subject now comprises the study of changes in both the instant and isolated environment (Dean 1988), the history and effects of pollution (Schweingruber 1988), stream erosion and infill (LaMarche 1966), forest fires (Swetnam 1993), earthquakes (Lamarche and Wallace 1972; Jacoby, et al., 1992), glacial movement (LaMarche and Fritts 1971), volcanoes (LaMarche and Hirschboeck, 1984; Kuniholm, et al., 1996), tsunamis, seasonal river flooding, insect life-cycles, human intervention in the forest, and changes in wood utilization and exploitation (Billamboz 1988; Dean 1978), etc. Schweingruber (1988) offers an amazing illustrated listing, with a bibliography, of many of these fields and subfields into which dendrochronological research has progressed.

Radiocarbon calibration and wiggle-matching

The chronicle of the tree-ring calibration of the radiocarbon time-scale is or must be well recognized by nearly all archaeologists (Suess 1970, Stuiver, et al., 1993, 1998). What is less familiar is the application of ‘wiggle-matching,’ where chosen decade-long slices cut from a piece of wood at detailed period are individually radiocarbon-dated, and then the entire collection of dates is matched to the radiocarbon arc (Kuniholm 1996).

Dendrochronology in the field of Archaeology

There are of course distinguished dissimilarities in the duration and value of historical records in different parts of the worlds, the chronological partition within archaeology which can be freely classifiedas the final millennium or the era of extensive detailed records, the time of just over a millennium that cover the first millennium AD and the end of the first millennium BC or the period of incomplete record maintenance but where at least the dating of the historical record is quite safe, and prehistory or the period before the first few centuries BC in which the past differ from in total absent, to badly dated, to highly contained.

The relations between archaeology and dendrochronology are somewhat diverse in each of these periods. For the final millennium, dendrochronological exposure is so huge that high levels of dating achievement are now feasible, be it in the wide transect from Ireland to Poland, the Eastern Mediterranean, or North America. In this era, outside America, chronological records are normally at chronological decree; with the consequence that dendrochronology is to do something to improve chronology and is unlikely to expose key lapse in historical/archaeological chronology.

Dendrochronology can provide an improved dating background wherever it is useful. Nevertheless, the poorer the chronological evidence provided by history/archaeology in previous periods opens up different chances. There were three expansive areas of interaction between dendrochronology and archaeology moving back through the first millennium:

1. There are circumstances where the outcome of dendrochronological analysis can verify history/archaeology; for example, a well-known felling date matches exactly with conservative or acknowledged understanding.
2. There are circumstances where ultimate felling dates make it clear that the previous information which has come down is imperfect in some way; for example, when the dendro dates for timbers from Roman Carlisle are found to be consistently earlier than the ‘traditional’ date of the fort (Hillam, 1992).
3. For the most part common situation is where past historical or archaeological information is either indistinct or non-existent; here dendrochronology can present totally new, and occasionally unforeseen, dates. A classic Irish example is the AD 148 BC date for the Corlea bog roadway; a roadway that had initially been loosely assigned to the ‘Bronze Age’ by archaeologists (Baillie, 1995).

From an archaeological perspective, whether archaeologists are ready for it or not, the incidence of this package of information, set in time around 1627 BC, means that all pertinent archaeology will unavoidably have to fit itself around this date. Frankly, well-dated locations can be argued concerning this occurrence, poorly dating sites cannot. Archaeologists will have to decide if they want their position to be part of the bigger picture represented here or to simply add period color. Such choices have insinuation for which sites are excavated, how sites are excavated, what is dated, and the quantity of resource dedicated to chronology as go up against, say, to relic protection.

In general, the reason for these circumstances should be the progress of demands on the archaeological society to focus their resources on sites that suggest the potential for refined dating; to decide on sites and relate resources to finding out the true age of human activity. The involvement of dendrochronologists ought to give a much clearer chronological and environmental structure, which is helpful to archaeologists.

Implication for succeeding years

The accessibility of a constant high-precision calibration curve for radiocarbon dates. It is at the present understood that the least amount sensible normal difference associated with a custom radiocarbon date is c+/- 80 years. This can be affirmed since the results of interlaboratory studies carried out in recent years. It is also currently recognized that practical standard difference of c+/- 20 years can be accomplished in high-precision laboratories. These innovative high-precision dates in combination with the high-precision calibration curve present dating approximation radically better than conformist routine dates. Archaeologists will have to move toward conditions with the insufficiency of their accessible radiocarbon-based chronologies.

On the other hand, more significant than this development in radiocarbon technology must be the future availability of dendrochronological dating in prehistory.

The subsequent decade should see a conversion in archaeology from an unrefined radiocarbon-based chronology to a complete chronology. It is to be anticipating that the pre-existing unrefined radiocarbon chronology will permit the formulation of the problem to which answers are required in particulars. Dendrochronology and high-precision dating can then be heading towards providing reaction.

Recommendation

One essential goal of dendrochronological research in the next consecutive years is to have a better understanding of the method behind dendrochronology. The outcome of such research should be a necessary part of and must control, the entire approach to optimizing dendrochronological dating for archaeology. Lastly, it is essential to decide one exact purpose for the next succeeding year. This should be the conclusion of one main English oak chronology way back into prehistory.

Future Prospects

There is sustained reason, though, to be positive about the future forecasts in dendrochronology and its developing applications. As the long tree-ring chronologies are unlimited and their associations to one another are more obviously understand, as geographical breaks are overflowing in to generate a web of absolutely-dated and interlinked chronologies worldwide, and as a new technique of their explanation is developed, projection on a hemispheric level should be possible. The result that tree-ring dating should have on archaeology in the subsequent generation and the modification in archaeological philosophy that will in this manner be obligatory is certainly going to be ground-breaking.

Summary

The prospect of dendrochronology with value to the field of archaeology is required to deal with numerous subject matter including legacies from the history involving the curation of data and physical specimens. Realistic consideration engages the optimization of chronological exposure in both geographical and sequential magnitude to make the most of future archaeological dating possible. One principal deliberation is the incorporation of tree-ring resulting information, both chronological and environmental, among other well-dated information from other substitutes is to provide archaeologists with the finest possible background image for their studies. The subsequent responsibility of archaeologists is to focus on resources on sites that can be well-dated so that information on human behavior can be incorporated with the environmental account underpinned by dendrochronology.

The effort needs to be valid to growing chronology exposure and improving dimensions of the relationship between tree-ring outlines. Development in these areas, together with an enhanced understanding of the character of the ‘signal’ which manipulates cross-matching, may considerably develop the Dendrochronologists’ capability to source individual timbers.

Reference

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Most people perceive the aspect of anthropology in terms of the past. Archeology refers to the study of past remains with the objective of revealing the past. This could include fossils, landmarks as well as the culture of the ancient societies. Nevertheless, the conceptualization of archaeology is applicable to a diverse nature of studies with the view of learning about the present. In a similar manner that the archaeologists can come up with a hypothesis of civilization that was in existence millenniums ago, one can come up with inferences about self through a scrutiny of both the “preservable” and tangible objects that one uses. I embarked on a three-day mission with an objective of studying the waste product that comes out of me.

Between the fourth and sixth of February, I carried a personal study of Garbology, scrutinizing my eating habits with the view of comparing two aspects of my behaviour—real and ideal. Ideally, my real behaviour is what I do in actual sense. My ideal behavior, conversely, is what I claim to do, or in another light, what I would like to think I do. In this regard, I examined my kitchen garbage for the above said three consecutive days. After three days, the weight of my trash was two pounds. After listing every item that I found in the trash, I only concentrated on the ones that were related to food, disregarding the rest. I categorized these food-related items into four well-known food groups and then came up with new a new category that encompassed desserts and others. My next move was to come up with a percentage estimate of each food group that formed my overall diet.

Surprisingly, I managed to make important conclusion that relates to my eating practices after concise examination of my waste. During the study of my waste, I was able to discover many objects like broken jars of juices, caps that mainly sealed milk products. Additionally, I found numerous beer cans and barely empty cartons of soft drinks. From this observation that the boxes were incomplete and only found plastic rings and not the milk and juice bottles themselves, I inferred that I make an effort towards recycling some of my trash. Another of my observations was that my garbage was short of remains from smaller meals—as most of what I located was the nature of meals that I take for dinner—further assisted to make the inference that some of my meals, mostly lunch, are taken away from home.

Frozen chicken fingers, hamburgers and pizzas among other meals that are easy to prepare, had a heavy presence in my garbage. In this light, I inferred that I did not always have ample time to prepare a meal for dinner. Probably, I used to both work and attend classes. Another observation was that I had consumed higher rate of carbohydrates and milk products compared to proteins and products like meat. After a thorough sorting of the trash, it was my feeling that the quantity of trash that I had found could not match the actual volume I could have produced in the span of three days. I inferred that more likely than not, I could as well have deposited some other nature and volume of my trash in other places of my house in the last three days.

How does it define me?

In the study, I scrutinized myself in terms of eating habits and compared this information with the one that I had gathered from my garbage. This worked well because I shop and prepare food for myself in my household. By so doing, I was trying to compare and contrast my ideal and real characters. My first step was to try to give an estimate by percentage the amount of protein, dairy etcetera that I take in my diet, assuming that I had not carried out the garbage research. In my intrinsic response, the amount of my intake in these varying food groups was a balanced consumption. This however, was in contrary to my findings from the garbage that showed that I actually took more carbohydrates than compared to proteins. Moreover, assumptions were that I took desserts and such like foods in lower amounts than I actually found out.

I examined whether indeed I had other places that I usually dumped my trash and whether I recycled any items. I figured out that I was in possession of three additional trashcans that considerably lowered the amount of trash present in the kitchen garbage. I realized that I am used to disposing some types of food wastes through other channels other than throwing them away. Regarding recycling, I noted that I do put back to use some glass and plastic containers. Granted, I had much higher garbage out put than the two pound weighed in the study. However, had I taken into account the other cans of trash in the house while conducting my study; I would probably have come up with a figure that was close to average. A closer look at my way of life confirmed the inference that I actually took most of my lunches away from home.

During this study, I was able to get to a position whereby I could have a look at my own behaviours without the idealization of personal feelings or my personal estimates. As such, I was able to carry out a non-reactive measurement—observations that are taken devoid of interference. Most importantly, the data that I gathered in this study was able to give a reflection of my ideal behaviours. My estimates were not a reflection of what I observed in the trash. I suppose that I incline to utter things that do not contradict my beliefs and that which elicit praise amongst other members of the society. Besides, I realized they define my socialization patterns where I say things that people love to hear. Despite the size, the study was able to illuminate my ideal and real behaviors.

Introduction

In their works, both Xi Xi and Dung Kai Cheung depict their love for Hong Kong by using a variety of techniques. Some of their approaches are similar whereas some are quite different. While both authors present their descriptions in fiction, Xi’s narration looks like a fairy tale whereas Kai Cheung’s stories sound as if they were taken from some historical almanac. The paper aims at identifying similarities and differences in Xi’s and Kai Cheung’s expression of their “Hong Kong obsession.” The most common and divergent features of authors’ writing style will be analyzed.

Common Features in Kai Cheung’s and Xi’s Writing

The first similarity in both stories is their fictitious character. Kai Cheung’s narration sounds more realistic than Xi’s, but it still is not void of some romantic and imaginary air. Kai Cheung describes in detail how places and streets received their names, and it seems that he gives his stories a mythical character. Xi describes real people and events, but the general presentation of Hong Kong is offered in an imaginary fashion. It is depicted as a floating city that hangs there “neither sinking nor rising.”

However, irrespective of the choice of the level of imagery, both authors employ it, which gives their stories a peculiar character and arouses mixed feelings on the part of the reader. The combination of reality and fiction in narrations makes the stories more interesting to read and allows the audience to feel some romantic and adventurous notes.

The second common feature is the use of proper nouns. Both writers mention titles of places and names of people. Kai Cheung pays much attention to the description of streets and squares, such as Possession Street, Scandal Point, Aldrich Street, Central District, the Botanical Gardens, Queen’s Road, Sugar Street, Sycamore Street, Seven Sisters Road, and others. There is even a whole list of streets named after trees: “Pine Street, Oak Street, Beech Street, Elm Street, Ivy Street, Cherry Street, Maple Street, Willow Street, Poplar Street, Cedar Street.”

The famous people mentioned by Kai Cheung are predominantly military men and some outstanding persons that contributed to the development of the city. The author speaks of the Emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Commodore Sir J. G. Bremer, the Health Officer J. A. Davidson, and Major Aldrich. The notorious persons in Xi’s writings are predominantly the people of art. He describes the works of such painters as Magritte, Botticelli, and Li Gonglin. There are no referrals to street names in Xi’s stories, although he describes the parts of Hong Kong in detail as well as the city in general.

Also, Xi and Kai Cheung refer to a variety of professions in their stories. In Kai Cheung’s “The Atlas,” much attention is paid to the profession of military men. The author starts with the explanation of the origin of Possession Street: it was “the British man-of-war” who was ordered to occupy the Island of Hong Kong. Further, such words related to the military profession are mentioned as “marines,” “squadron, “soldiers,” and “troops.” Xi’s mentioning of professions is less focused on the military, but still, he employs some terms related to war. There is a reference to “pirate ships” and “a knight” in his story.

Other professions mentioned by Kai Cheung are entertainers, fortune-tellers, practitioners of herbal medicine, sugar and coinage factory workers, fisherman, and even prostitutes. In Xi’s story, professions are mostly related to art and science. When describing the opportunities for people living in the floating city, Xi indirectly or directly mentions engineers, builders, drivers, doctors, inventors, psychologists, museum workers, and painters. The variety of professions in both stories allows the reader to understand the predominant occupations of the people as well as trace the major achievements of the periods described.

Contrasting Elements in the Stories

The comparison of the two authors’ works has revealed some common features about them. However, there are also several elements peculiar to each narration that make the stories contrasting. The first of such characteristics is the time dimension. Kai Cheung describes past events whereas Xi dwells on the present happenings. It is even possible to speak of some features of futurism, taking into consideration that Xi describes a floating city that has never existed in the history of mankind. Thus, the choice of the time reference in the two stories is the first divergent feature between them. Kai Cheung makes numerous notes regarding dates.

He describes such episodes as the Opium War, the formal possession of Hong Kong, and a variety of military events that happened in 1842, 1845, 1866, 1874, and 1880. The author makes referrals to political and military leaders, and he draws connections between the present events and processes and historic occasions that led to them.

Meanwhile, Xi focuses on the most recent events and experiences associated with Hong Kong. The author describes the variety of possibilities that citizens have. He notes that they have created a “vibrant and prosperous metropolis” due to their hard work and “pioneering spirit.” The author emphasizes the numerous achievements of the people living in the floating city. Buildings, “each one taller than the next,” appear as quickly as one can only imagine.

Flyovers “circle the air space” above the roads. “Centipede-like” trains “crawl underground.” Xi also draws attention to the breakthroughs in medicine and science: any citizen can have his or her kidney stones “shattered by laser beams,” and brain tumors are “diagnosed by scanning.” In addition, Xi remarks that the city has such attractions for curious minds as the Planetarium and the Ocean Park.

Another difference between the two pieces is the authors’ attitude to the description of people’s social options. Kai Cheung only makes a brief reference to people’s choices of how to spend their leisure when he speaks of Sycamore Street. He remarks that the street was the opportunity for citizens to satisfy their desire for “peace and prosperity – poetry, singing, and dancing” as the activities “associated with the good times.” Meanwhile, Xi describes in detail not only how people can spend their leisure time but also their duties and responsibilities as the citizens of the floating city. For instance, there is a requirement to undergo a nine-year compulsory education.

Also, people can count on social security, pensions, and allowances for the disabled. The variety of entertainment choices is rich: it is possible to attend one of many art festivals and visit bookstores that hold literature from all parts of the world. Most of all, Xi emphasizes the freedom of speech and silence. He mentions that those who decide to remain silent “have absolute freedom to do so.”

Another aspect that makes the two authors’ writing different is their choice of language. Kai Cheung makes several attempts to enrich his narration with poetic words. He uses metaphors (“mouth of the watercourse”) and epithets (“ominous” word, “grandiose plan,” “invincible giant fortress,” “inestimable value”). Also, he uses a few poetic versions of verbs: “enshrouded in mystery,” “venerated,” and “alleviate.” However, on the whole, Kai Cheung’s writing style does not relish literary language and poetic word combinations. What concerns Xi’s writing, he describes his floating city with all the possible passion and admiration he possibly has. The very start of the story sounds like a fairy tale: “Many, many years ago, on a fine, clear day” the city appeared “in full public gaze.”

Xi uses such stylistic devices as metaphors, inversions, epithets, synonyms, and many others to make his story sound as majestic and magic as possible. Inversion is employed at the very beginning of the story: “Above it were the fluctuating layers of clouds,” and “below it the turbulent sea.” Xi uses many poetic words to enrich his narration: “incredible,” “terrifying,” “unremittingly,” “eternal sleep,” and “obscure legends.”

Also, Xi employs synonyms to make his story more exciting to read: the words “sway,” “swing,” and “rock” are used when speaking about wind, and the description of a dreamy character of the narration is emphasized by such a collection of synonyms as “miracle,” “illusion,” “fairy tale,” and “dream.” The magic of the story is further deepened by several allusions to Cinderella and the description of the fairy tale’s elements.

Another divergent feature in Kai Cheung’s and Xi’s writing is the presence or absence of the aspect of inspiration and hope. Kai Cheung’s story is more down-to-earth, it depicts such unromantic occasions as battles and prostitutes’ activity. Meanwhile, Xi incorporates the elements of hopefulness and encourages the reader to believe in the possibility of reaching his or her dreams. Xi remarks that living in the floating city requires “more than courage,” it demands “will-power and faith.” In his description of the citizens’ hardships associated with the impossibility to leave the city, Xi manages to inculcate the belief in a better future.

Conclusion

Xi Xi’s “Marvels of a Floating City” and Dung Kai Cheung’s “The Atlas: Archeology of an Imaginary City” have many divergences. The authors chose different time frames, and they depicted the events from different angles. The two stories have various amounts of magic and truth, and people and names are mentioned in them at a contrasting level. However, both narrations also have some elements in common, which makes it possible to compare them and find some similar features in the stories. Both Xi and Kai Cheung employ a great deal of imagery and poetic language. Both authors make direct and indirect references to Hong Kong.

Both writers remark the achievements in some spheres of people’s activity, such as military, scientific, or medical. Most of all, there is one common issue in both Xi’s and Kai Cheung’s stories that allows considering these authors’ writings under a common topic. It is obvious that Xi Xi and Dung Kai Cheung love Hong Kong, and although their narrations are not entirely similar, they are the representation of the authors’ “obsession” with Hong Kong.

Bibliography

Kai Cheung, Dung. “The Atlas: Archeology of an Imaginary City”: 40-52.

Xi, Xi. “Marvels of a Floating City”: 41-54.

Tools and Methods used to Study the Crusades

The history of Crusades has been studied by the use of different interdisciplinary; this includes the participation of art historians, theologians, archeologists among other disciplines methods to ascertain the period, and the people who were involved.¹ A case in point is the study of specific happenings during the Crusades to provide a big picture of the historical organization and time. For example, in the study of the Crusader Castle of Vadum Iacob,² geoarchaeological method and analysis of artifacts were the main methods used to understand the Crusades. The artifacts were excavated and subjected to analysis to obtain accurate information about the happening. The geoarchaeology incorporated archeoseismology. Therefore, the following paper explores the use of geoarchaeology and analysis of the artifacts to study Crusades with a key focus on the Crusader Castle of Vadum Iacob.

Type of Information that can be Discovered Using the Tools and Methods

Geoarchaeology is an interdisciplinary method that encompasses geography, archeology, history, and scientific processes to obtain information. It involves the excavation of identified points on the earth’s surface to examine the evidence relating to the happening being studied. In the case of the Crusades, the type of information that can be discovered is the probable dates of the Crusades, the type of people involved, and the rationale for the happening. Geoarchaeology also entails the study of archeoseismology which allows understanding the occurrences of past earthquakes in the region and their effect on the historical evidence. For instance, the assessment of the faulting in the area around the Castle of Vadum Iacob enabled the establishment of accurate dates of the Crusades.

Artifacts discovered after excavation are used to provide information through contextualization and theorization. The excavation of various locations at the castle led to the discovery of equid remains that provided archeological evidence of the attackers and the people who were in the castle.³ The articulated skeletons of pigs with numerous arrowheads signify information of a religious castigated attack as Muslims consider the pigs to be unclean animals which prompted their killings. Muslims could not have stayed with pigs in the castle. Also, working tools scattered around such as hoes, spades, picks all made of iron showed that the castle was under construction at the time of the attack.

Role of the Methods

Both the geoarchaeological and analysis of artifacts methods are used to exemplify the key people involved in the Crusades and the time. The archeoseismology shows the earthquakes that must have taken place after the destruction of the castle. This is evidenced by the displacement of the walls. The Muslim mosque unearthed on the northern side of the castle had displaced wall, a pointer of the earthquakes that happened after the Crusades. Also, the study of the pottery shows that the mosque was rebuilt at least two times, a possible suggestion of the effect of the earthquakes. The discovery of the copper coin TVRRIS DAVIT enabled historians to understand the political leadership at the time and the probable people who might have minted the coins.⁴ For instance, Sabine’s theory is largely used to explain why the coin must have originated from the Frankish kingdom rather than the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Methods

Geoarchaeological approaches to the historical study of artifacts are crucial in the gathering of crucial information; however, the methods may not provide precise information and sometimes are subject to interpretation bias. For example, the use of the geoarchaeological method in which archeoseismology is incorporated helped the researchers to understand the seismic movements; this is crucial for archeologists as they excavate the earth to collect important remains. Also, the method helps in the possible prediction of the occurrences of earth events and hence can be used in determining the possible time an event occurred. However, the key weakness of the method is that it is based on estimation. The interdisciplinary nature of the method makes it cost-intensive.⁵

On the other hand, historical analysis of the artifacts provides a true case scenario and there is high precision. This helps to avoid the process of affabulation witnessed in the past which was based on imagination rather than the historical reality.⁶ For example, the discovery of tools in the castle, and the equid remains all can be scientifically examined to determine their origin and age. However, a key weakness with historical analysis is the theorization which is used to rule out some probable occurrences. For instance, the use of the inscription TVRRIS DAVIT on the coin to determine its source may be biased as it is purely based on a deductive method that does not put in place the political relations that could have existed between the Kingdoms.⁷

How the Methods Work to Enhance Our Understanding of the History of Crusades

The combination of the geoarchaeological and analysis of artifacts methods pull together data from different sources which helps us to draw comparisons that are critical in understanding the crusading history. For example, the dates obtained from archeoseismology can be compared with existing records of the existence of the various kingdoms and knighthoods to have a clear period of the Crusades. Also, the analysis of the remains obtained after excavations such as the equid remains, the construction tools, and the coins help historians to understand the context of the various happenings.

Bibliography

Constable Giles. The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World: The Historiography of the Crusades. Washington, D. C: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001.

Jotischky Andrew. Crusading and the Crusader States. New York: Pearson, 2004.

Kool Robert. “From the Horse’s Mouth: Re-Dating the Anonymous TVRRIS DAVIT Issue.”Israel Numismatic Research, no. 6 (2006): 2-7. Web.

Vadum Iacob Research Project. Web.

Footnotes

1 Andrew Jotischky, Crusading, and the Crusader States (New York: Pearson, 2004), 3.

2 “About,” Vadum Iacob Research Project, Web.

3 “Archeological project,” Vadum Iacob Research Project, Web.

4 Robert Kool, “From the Horse’s Mouth: Re-Dating the Anonymous TVRRIS DAVI Issue,” Israel Numismatic Research, no. 6 (2006): 2-7, Web.

5 Andrew Jotischky, Crusading, and the Crusader States (New York: Pearson, 2004), 3.

6 Giles Constable, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World: The Historiography of the Crusades (Washington, D. C: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001), 5.

7 Ibid.

History is filled with controversy, which is often lost or disregarded through centuries. An average person of today relies on monuments and tales of the past as the primary source of information. As such, non-experts in history exist in a uniform informational sphere, which presents the facts in a simplified, one-sided manner. As a result, the field of history faces serious issues, which consist of imprecise interpretations of past events and personalities. Such misinformation often becomes embedded in the mindsets of the people, forming colossal myths and misconceptions within society. Consequently, the situation leads to a biased representation of history, which exaggerates the feats of privileged groups, while disregarding the input of the oppressed. Such a form of historical presentation is alarming, as it nurtures a twisted perception of the past, especially among less-educated individuals. Through this phenomenon, the link between the past and the present is revealed clearly. Accordingly, the misrepresentation of the past creates a favorable environment for oppression and discrimination in the present.

In its general sense, historical archaeology implies the review of artifacts and written records through the prism of a broader social and political context. Historical archaeology considers such important variables as the stratification of society at a certain point in history, as well as propaganda and intentional twisting of facts. The physical presence of a certain artifact does not inherently suggest that it can be a reliable point of reference. On the contrary, it is not uncommon for prevailing social groups and entire civilizations to eradicate any signs pointing toward the feats of the oppressed. In regard to American history, the poor representation of African Americans’ achievements during wars and other pivotal events is a case in point. Because of the misrepresentation, a general resident incorrectly assumes that the country owes its greatest achievements to white citizens. Consequently, white supremacy is reinforced, having a direct impact on the current social landscape. Historical archaeology is instrumental in this regard, as its methods provide a broader context for discussion.

Ultimately, the contemporary academic community increasingly relies on historical archaeology as the leading way of establishing historical accuracy. The issue of misrepresentation of the past is becoming particularly topical in the United States, as misinformed people continue to spread wrong ideas. Through the prism of bias and disparities, facts are twisted and distorted, resulting in a poor understanding of the truth. Historical archaeology effectively addressed this issue through rigorous research of relevant sources of information. Written records, statutes, and even personal correspondence may become a vital tool for reinforcing historical accuracy. The core principles of historical archaeology rely on democratic methods, which review each issue in the light of various social and political groups. Its findings enable an objective interpretation of history and its monuments, contributing to healthier relations within society. If the issue of historical misrepresentation persists, society will find it harder to overcome the problems of discord and discrimination stemming from the mistakes of the past.

Reference

Trinley, Tom. (2012). Monumental Myths-Movie[Video]. Web.