Category: Antibiotic

This research conducted by Abdul Malik and Khalilur Rehman is of much significance because it relates to those bacteria present in food items, that are resistant to antibiotics. Such pathogenic bacteria are transferred into the human body through milk intake, and at times antibiotics that are administered for the treatment of infection do not succeed in destroying the pathogens, causing a threat to the life of the infected person.

The most frequently prescribed drugs for infection are b-lactam based. This is because b-lactamases are the enzymes produced by the pathogens in the body, which are targeted to be destroyed by antibiotics. In this study, bacterial isolates from foods have been examined, showing resistance to antibiotics.

The research initiated with the collection of food samples; 36 food samples, comprising raw and pasteurized milk, fruit juices, and vegetables were collected from a local market. They were sent to the laboratory for initial processing speedily, within three hours of collection. These samples were first homogenized and emulsified by suspending 10ml or 10g, in 90ml normal saline solution. The samples were diluted, and also plated on different selective media for enculturation, followed by colony growths.

Staphylococcus spp. was isolated in accordance with the standard methods prescribed by the American Public Health Association. Samples were placed on Staphylococcus aga, and incubated at 37degrees centigrade for 24 hours. The colonies formed were counted with the colony counter. Some of the suspected colonies were identified for Staphylococci.

An amount of 10ml of samples was added to MacConkey’s broth at 37 degrees centigrade for a span of 48 hours. Those which exhibited acid and gas production were further placed on Escherichia Coli broth and incubated at 44.5±0.2 degrees centigrade for 24 hours, in a shaking water bath. The suspected colonies were identified for Escherichia Coli, and Escherichia Coli B was used as a control.

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the E.Coli and Staphylococcus spp. isolates were taken by the plate dilution method. Cultures of each isolate were made, and control experiments with E.Coli B were also being undertaken alongside. The antibiotic solutions were put into sterilized nutrient agar plates. The inoculated plates were kept for incubation at 37 degrees centigrade for 24 hours.

The b-lactamase enzymes were isolated from bacterial strains through spot inoculation on starch agar plates. Positive and negative tests were made for assurance of b-lactamase production by phosphate buffered solutions containing potassium iodide.

The results obtained from these experiments show that the strains obtained were based on cultural, morphological, and biochemical characteristics. All the isolates were differentiated according to the antibiotic susceptibility test. The antibiotics that were chosen for the study included those that were similar to the ones that are commonly used, like amoxyciilin, etc.

This study showed that most of the isolates had multiple resistance to varying antibiotics and drugs. Different numbers of resistance patterns were observed from the Staphylococcal and E.coli isolates from the food items. This resistance was seen against two to seven antibiotics. Also, the MICs of ampicillin and cloxacillin for each isolate were seen. These included the study for b-lactamases.

Those Staphylococcal strains that were highly resistant against ampicillin and coxacillin showed a direct proportionality of their decolorized colonies to the MICs obtained. In the control zones there was no decolorization seen, which indicates that MIC values are also directly related to b-lactamases production. It was a quick method to test for sensitivity against b-lactam antibiotics.

References

M. Khalilur Rahman Khan and Abdul Malik. Antibiotic resistance and detection of b-lactamase in bacterial strains of Staphylococci and Escherichia coli isolated from foodstuffs. World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 17: 863–868, 2001. 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

In 1928 Alexander Fleming observed that a contaminant mold was growing on a culture dish that he had prepared earlier (Winn, 946). He was not expecting the contaminant but because the culture was carelessly exposed to the air the contamination was made possible. Upon closer examination the said contaminant mold inhibited the growth of bacteria in the said culture. Fleming made a significant discovery that the mold, specifically Penicillium notatum “…was producing a diffusible bacteriolytic substance capable of killing bacteria” and as a result antibiotics were invented. Decades later the first case of antibiotic resistance was reported and since then the medical community has been trying to curb this problem. It is imperative that the impact of antibiotic resistance must be reduced because if this will continue there will come a time when mankind will no longer have a defense against virulent strains that are incurable.

Antibiotics

While it was Fleming who discovered the underlying scientific principle for antimicrobial medication it was not until 1939 when researchers Florey and Chain developed a technique that enabled them to extract the antimicrobial properties of Penicillium in sufficient purity and quantity (Winn, p. 946). Antibiotics became available afterwards and after World War II not only was additional antibiotics discovered, the same became readily available (Winn, p. 946). This is the beginning of a revolution wherein mankind was able to defeat major sickness and diseases. Medical problems that were considered life threatening in the past became a challenge that can be easily remedied.

Antibiotics are made from fungus and mold. It is important to remember that these living organisms can be readily found in the soil and this fact will play a major role in later discussions concerning resistance. Researchers are saying that these fungus and molds already interacted with deadly microorganisms and even prior to the discovery of antibiotics virulent bacteria already evolved based on these interactions and would explain why these microorganisms already developed some form of defense mechanisms in accordance to a long time association with the environment.

In the United States pneumococcal disease is estimated to cause 3000 cases of meningitis and 60,000 cases of bacteremia among adults annually (Bessler, Morita, & Fridkin, p. 428). This is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and in the past penicillin is the effective cure but this is no longer true because since the 1960s resistance to penicillin and other microbial agents has been reported (Bessler, Morita, & Fridkin, p. 429). By simply focusing on pneumonia one can already have a basic understanding of the significance of bacterial resistance. Simply put without effective medication tens of thousands of sick Americans are in danger of losing their lives because a routine medical problem that has become incurable.

Bacterial Resistance

While harmful microorganisms develop resistance through evolution the major cause for developing bacterial resistance is in the use of antibiotics. This may look like a paradox but in medicine and in biology this is easy to understand. There is a concept called “selection” where the drugs can eliminate those that have no resistance to the antibiotic and leave behind those that have developed resistance to the bacteriolytic effect of the drug. If this process continues, then the population of bacteria that are resistant to treatment will increase and this trait can be passed on to the next generation of virulent strains.

This conclusion was made when a pair of researchers tested “preserved bacteria” circa 1917-1954 (U.S. Congres, Office of Technology Assessment, p. 41). This period is known as the “pre-antibiotic era” and when tested these preserved bacteria demonstrated little if any antibiotic resistance (U.S. Congres, Office of Technology Assessment, p. 41). The same thing could not be said of several virulent strains of microorganisms in the present time.

Resistance among Bacteria

Resistance develops because of the prevalent use of antibiotics. In layman’s terms those that can survive an attack will come out of the ordeal much stronger. In the world of microbiology, virulent strains that are left behind after the initial wave of antibiotic use may develop resistance to the drugs or the drug may simply reduced the number of bacteria to tolerable levels and those that are left standing are the ones that have a defense mechanism against a particular antibiotic. The only thing needed is time for this new generation of strain to replicate and then the host will again feel the symptoms of the disease. This is the reason why bacterial resistance can be observed while a patient is currently undergoing treatment. On the other hand bacterial resistance can also be observed within a particular community such as in hospitals where microorganisms can interact with other resistant strains.

There are basically three major ways to achieve resistance and this is through mutation and selection. Mutation occurs rarely and yet it can alter the genetic make-up of the bacteria making it resistant to medication. Mutation also occur spontaneously and enabling the microorganism to modify or eliminate the effect of the antibiotic’s action (U.S. Congres, Office of Technology Assessment, p. 41). For instance, Linezolid, the first clinically available member of oxazolidinone class, acts by inhibiting protein synthesis through its binding to the initiation complex but a single point mutation in the rRNA gene can give resistance (Rice & Bonomo, p. 444).

One of the more interesting discoveries relating to bacterial resistance is linked to how resistant strains are able to influence other microorganisms, even those that belong to different species. This means that the transfer of genetic traits favoring resistance is not only limited to parent and offspring or in this case from one replicate to the next but is also possible using genetic material coming from the environment as well as microorganisms that are nearby (Winn, p. 947). For instance, researchers discovered that there are microorganisms that can use DNA material from dead bacteria (Winn, p. 947). These microbes have the ability to gather the said genetic material from the environment and then incorporate it into their own while replicating. Therefore the new generation of virulent strains contains an improved or altered microbe that can prove resistant to treatment.

This is very important to consider because this means that microorganisms may be simple-celled living things but they have mechanisms to protect themselves from harm. Mutation and selection processes that may result in the emergence of resistant strain is difficult to control in microorganisms because while humans, “…whose evolution is relatively slow, bacteria multiply and evolve rapidly … a 24-hour period allows 1 million or more opportunities for the development of mutations for many bacteria” (Rice & Bonomo, p. 441). It also means that they have the capacity to adapt well to the environment and as seen in the preceding discussion, they even have the capacity to use existing materials from the environment to develop a defense system. This is an added challenge to bacteriologists and all those who labor in the medical community.

The implications of highly-evolved defense mechanisms are compounding the problem because of two factors: 1) there is a considerable increase in the use of antibiotics all over the world; and 2) mankind is no longer stationary but mobile in a planet that is shrinking due to efficient transportation and communication. At first globalization was seen to impact only the economic aspect of the community but this time it is very much evident that its influence goes far beyond business and social networks. Globalization can also add into the current problem of bacterial resistance. Those who developed resistance to a particular drug can travel to different parts of the world and by doing so can spread microorganisms that have the genetic capability to develop defense mechanisms against antibiotics. This means that there are more opportunities to develop highly resistant strains as well as the fact that it is creating an international health problem.

Since resistance to antibiotics is due mainly to the abuse of antibiotics the thought that resistant bacteria can be transferred through migration is a major cause of concern especially when considering the movement of bacteria into Third World countries. In depressed areas of the globe there are serious deficiencies in medical care and this includes the lack of medicines and health workers. When it comes to the link between antibiotic use and the development of resistance to medication, the improper use of antibiotics can readily contribute to the problem.

Conclusion

There is a need to reduce the emergence of resistant strain. One way to do this is to develop a more scientific approach to the use of antibiotics. This is linked to the research findings that aside from the chromosomes bacteria use plasmids to transmit “antibiotic resistant traits” to the next generation of bacteria or even to those of belonging to other species that it is in contact with (Winn, p. 45). As a result this new strains carry “excess baggage” in their genetic make-up and will have difficulty of thriving (Winn, p. 45). This behavior must then be reinforced with the limited use of antibiotics and by doing so the struggling population is diminished while at the same time denying it the chance to develop a defense mechanism against the drug (Winn, p. 45).

If these issues are not dealt with, mankind could be facing an epidemic of global proportions. In the past decades there was a triumphant celebration of how humans were able to overcome the forces of deadly diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, smallpox, polio etc. This time it is difficult to be as confident. Instead of eradicating these problems it seems that the medical world has succeeded in creating virulent strains that are incurable in the long run. This is a grim outlook for many especially those in poor countries that do not have access to healthcare.

Works Cited

1. Bessler, Richard, Julia Morita, & Scott Fridkin. “Public Health Responses to Antimicrobial Resistance in Outpatient and Inpatient Settings.” Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials. Ed. Kim Lewis & Abigail Salyers. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002. 427-435.
2. Miller, Paul & Philip Rather. “Global Response Systems that Cause Resistance.” Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobials. Ed. Kim Lewis & Abigail Salyers. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002. 37-45.
3. Rice, Louis & Robert Bonomo. “Genetic and Biochemical Mechanisms of Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents.” Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine. Ed. Victor Lorian. PA: Lipincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005.
4. U.S. Congres, Office of Technology Assessment. Impacts of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995.
5. Winn, Jr. Washington. Koneman’s Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 6^th ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.

Abstract

The purpose of this practical assignment was based on the identification of auxotrophic requirements in bacteria and antibiotic resistance in bacteria, testing of mutagens and effects of Ultraviolet light on mutagens. The experiments were conducted separately under four different objectives. It was found out that methionine, as nutrient is required for bacterial growth. E.coli bacteria were found to be resistant to tetracycline. In addition, cigarette was found to be carcinogenic and exposure to UV light does not kill cell when the duration is below ten minutes.

Method

Identification of Auxotrophic prerequisites in Bacterial

Materials such as Bunsen burner, minimal media plates, 70% ethanol, auxotrophic E.coli strain, dips, impregnated filter paper discs and pipette use used in the experiment to identify auxotrophic requirements in bacteria. First, the cultured plates were labeled accordingly at the base. With the help of a pipette, a measure of 100µL of E.coli culture was spread at the surface of plates of minimal medium agar. A special technique known as the sterile technique was employed to place all the eight nutrient impregnated discs in agar in an orderly manner as was labeled. The two plates were then inverted and incubated for a period of 24 hours at a temperature of 37ºC. After twenty-four hours, the plated were observed and examined thoroughly and data entered in the table.

In the identification experiment of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, forceps, spreader, Bunsen burner, 70% ethanol, tips, antibiotic discs, pipette, strain of antibiotic resistant E.coli and a plate of nutrient agar materials were used. First, the nutrient agar plate was labeled at the base. A measure of 100µL of E.coli culture was spread at the surface of NA (nutrient agar) plate. The bacteria was then spread using the sterile techniques. The antibiotic-impregnated filter paper discs were placed on the NA plate using the forceps. Antibiotics were placed at suitable distance from one other.. The plate was then inverted and incubated for a period of 24 hours at a temperature of 37ºC. A table was then filled after the duration of the experiment and after examining the plates properly.

In the testing of mutagens experiment, minimal culture plates were labeled accordingly with a permanent marker. TA100 culture of 100µL was applied on the plates’ surface. The bacteria was immediately spread using sterile technique. In the center of one of the plates was placed a filter paper discs before adding 10µL of test solution to the disc. The same procedure was repeated for all the remaining solutions. The plates were inverted and then incubated for a period of 24 hour at a temperature of 37ºC. The observations were then recorded in a table after examining the plates.

In the experiment on the effect of Ultraviolet light on mutagens, the material used include aluminum foil, 70% ethanol, Bunsen burner, UV lamp, five nutrient agar plates, bacteria spreader, four 6cm by 10cm cards and culture of E.coli. First, nutrient agar plates were labeled accordingly followed by spreading of E.coli culture in the plates using sterile technique. A line was drawn on the plate dividing it into two sections; one was to be exposed to ultraviolet light while the other was not to be exposed to UV light. Plates cover was then removed and the 6cm by 10cm card was placed over one of the sections and secured by a tape. It was then exposed to UV light before the plate covers were replaced. The plates were inverted and wrapped with aluminum foil. This was followed by inversion of the plates, which were then incubated for 24 hours at a temperature of 37ºC. The plates were examined after 24 hours and colonies counted and recorded in a table.

Results

The results of the experiment of Identification of Auxotrophic prerequisites in Bacterial are presented in the table below.

Table 1: Responses of auxotrophic bacteria growth.

The results of the identification experiment of antibiotic resistance in bacteria were presented in a table as shown in figure two below.

Table 2: Growth responses of antibiotic resistant bacteria.

The result of testing of mutagens was presented in a table as shown in the figure below.

Table 3: Growth response of TA100.

In the experiment on the effect of Ultraviolet light on mutagens, the colonies’ count on the plates were observed and presented in a table as shown in the figure below.

Table 4: Effect of Ultraviolet light on bacteria visibility.

Discussion

In the experiment of identification of auxotrophic requirements in bacteria, it was established that of the eight nutrients used, methionine nutrient is the one that showed a growth response (Barth, Woodford & Pitt, 1993). Other nutrients such as histidine, arginine, leucine, tryptophan, threonine, thiamine and proline nutrients did not show any growth. This means that of all the eight nutrient methionine is the single auxotrophic requirements in bacteria.

In the second experiment where the main objective of the experiment was to identify the antibiotic resistance in bacteria, ampicillin, gentamicin, cephradine, tetracycline and chlorampenicol antibiotics were used in the experiment. The antibiotics were tested to find out those or that, which is resistant to bacteria. It was established that growth appeared in the impregnated disc where tetracycline was applied but there was no growth in impregnated disc where all the rest of antibiotic was applied. It is therefore certain that the bacteria strain is resistant to tetracycline antibiotic (Todar, 2008).

In the other experiment of testing of mutagens cigarettes and 2-aminopurine were found to grow colonies while vinger and haridye did not grow colonies. From the experiment, it is true that cigarette introduced mutation into the TA100 strain. Hence, cigarette has a potential of damaging DNA, making it a carcinogen.

In the experiment of finding out the effects of Ultraviolet light on mutagens, E.coli bacteria was exposed UV light for different duration to find out the viability if the UV light on the viability of bacteria. After the bacteria was exposed to UV light for five, ten, twenty and sixty second durations and 10 minutes to sunlight both irradiated and non-irradiated sides were found to have same number of colonies. Hence, the cells of a single celled organism like E.coli bacteria is not destroyed when exposed to a UV light for up to sixty seconds ten minutes for sunlight (Chaudhary & Gupta, 2010). Therefore, organisms need to be exposed to UV light radiation for their DNA to be damaged.

References

Barth, A., Woodford, N. & Pitt, T. (1993). Complementation of Methionine Auxotrophs of Pseudomous aeruginosa from Cystic Fibrosis. An international journal, 36, 190-195.

Chaudhary, K. & Gupta, S. (2010). Mutagenic effect of UV- light and X-rays on streptomyces nigrifaciens and yield of the antifungal substance, 27(6), 706-707.

Todar, K. (2008). Bacterial resistance to antibiotics. Web.

Introduction

Antibiotics work against bacteria in numerous ways by either inhibiting metabolic pathways, nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis, depolarizing cell membrane, or inhibiting the cell wall synthesis. By employing these methods, antibiotics can inhibit bacterial growth or kill it. However, as antibiotics work against bacteria, they have been depicted to leave behind resistant strains that multiply naturally (Reygaert, 2018). Antibiotic resistance occurs when germs such as bacteria and fungi continue to grow by developing the ability to defeat drugs designed to kill them (Singer et al., 2003; Toerien, 1967). Sometimes it is impossible and difficult to treat infections that are caused by antibiotic-resistant germs (Foti et al., 2011; Fair & Tor, 2014). Patients who have these infections require extended medical stays, follow-ups, and costly alternatives before realizing positive results.

Microorganisms from the unknown samples are essential to identify to prevent harmful and beneficial bacteria in this society. The problem of antibiotic resistance has spread worldwide and has a more significant impact on poor and developing nations than developed nations (Ventola, 2015; Waxman, & Strominger, 1983). Because of the ease with which antibiotics can be purchased in many of these countries without a prescription, the developed world primarily relies on prescriptions (Alanis, 2005). According to Falagas and Bliziotis (2007), polymyxins were the antibiotics that retained the highest activity against the three examined species of Gram-negative bacteria. Citrobacter freundii (C. freundii) is often resilient to numerous groups of antibiotics, signifying that both scientific and ecological strains may harbor antimicrobial resistance elements (Liu et al., 2018). Over the past years, there has been increased awareness of family Enterobacteriaceae due to its association with causing animal and human diseases (Stanic et al., 2015). Genus Hafnia has been linked to emerging antimicrobial resistance patterns and infections related to presenting unusual diseases and stem cells.

The lab techniques and procedures covered during this course were used to test each student’s practical understanding of microbiology. The purpose of this lab report is to identify unknown organisms using genetic sequencing and traditional biochemical testing techniques on each isolated unknown that led to the identification of each unknown. It is also predicted that C. freundii will have a more excellent antibiotic resistance to each of the four tested antibiotics, including penicillin, doxycycline, polymyxin B, and rifampicin, than Hafnia alvei.

Methods

Two unknown organisms labelled as #15 and #43 were provided on agar plates. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was done to identify the genus for both unknown organisms (#15 and #43). PCR entails a biochemical process that amplifies a single DNA molecule (BIOS 3120, 2021). It was used to find specific 16s rRNA genes present in unknown organisms by cross-referencing them with databases for known bacteria sequencing. PCR test involved materials such as Taq polymerase, a DNA template, PCR primers, nucleotides, inoculation loop, a flame, a micropipette, sterile water, and a PCR tube. A mix for loading in the PCR was made by adding 0.5µL of forward primer 8F, 0.5 µL of reverse primer 1492R, 1µL of the DNA template, 10.5 µL of sterile water, and 12.5 µL of master mix to a PCR tube. The tubes were then loaded in an Eppendorf Mastercycler Nexus Thermal Cycler Gradient programmed to start with 95⁰ C for 10 minutes, 95⁰ C for 1.5 minutes, 55⁰ C for 1 minute, 72⁰ C for 2 minutes, 72⁰ C for 10 minutes, and a 10⁰ C hold (Lab Manual, 2021).

The unknown organisms were streaked on the TSA broth and TSA plate by inoculating the loop over the flame and then transferring a loop bacterium into the slant on a zig-zag motion. The streaked organism was then incubated at 37⁰ C until the next lap period to prepare the bacteria for biochemical tests. An analysis was made, and the samples were used to carry out six biochemical tests on each unknown bacterial culture. For unknown #43, the following tests were performed: gram stain, thioglycolate, oxidase, catalase, citrate, indole production, and ornithine-decarboxylase test. For unknown #15, the tests performed were gram stain, thioglycolate, oxidase, catalase, ONPG (B-galactosidase), and indole production.

Gram Stain

Gram stain is a laboratory technique used for determining the thickness of bacteria’s peptidoglycan layer by labeling it either as thick peptidoglycan layer (gram-positive) or thin peptidoglycan layer (gram-negative). To perform gram staining, the material needed included clean microscope slides, staining trays, gram stain reagents, a water bottle for rinsing, and bacterial cultures. Gram stain test began with the bacterial smear at fixed heating on an inoculated slide containing a colony of bacteria culture in a small volume of water. The bacterial specimen was then air-dried followed by fixed heating underside for a few seconds. After completing heat-fixing, gram straining was performed on the bacterial smear.

The procedure for this biochemical test entailed, firstly, addition of crystal violate drops to the smear and then allowing it to settle for sixty seconds. The slide was then rinsed off; after this step, all the cells were purple. Secondly, a few drops of gram’s iodine were added to the bacterial smear and then allowed to sit for sixty seconds before rinsing with water. Alcohol was added as a decolorizer and left to run over the slide surface for 7 seconds until no more crystal color came out of the bacterial smear. The slide was then rinsed with water to stop the decolorization process. It was noted that Gram-positive cells retain crystal violet and remain purple after adding decolorizer while gram-negative cells lose crystal violet and become colorless. Finally, a few drops of safranin were added on the slide as a counterstain then allowed to sit for one minute before rinsing off. The results were then analyzed by putting and observing the slide color under a microscope. Bacterial growth at 45⁰ C was done by incubating the culture for 48 hours, and then observation was done on its growth.

Thioglycolate Test

In a bacterial experiment, a thioglycolate test was chiefly performed to ascertain bacterial oxygen requirement using thioglycolate broth that contained an oxygen gradient with higher levels at the top and no oxygen at the bottom. When conducting this test, the material required included a thioglycolate tube with resazurin indicator and bacterial cultures #43 and #15 (Beaman et al., 2007). A thioglycolate tube was inoculated with the organism to be tested for oxygen relationship and then allowed to grow at the optimal growth temperature. Growth patterns were then observed for the test on thioglycolate broth.

Oxidase Test

Oxidase test was done to ascertain if bacteria under test produced the enzyme cytochrome oxidase. The presence of this enzyme is an indication of aerobic bacteria, which can utilize oxygen in the respiration process as a terminal electron acceptor (Beaman et al., 2007). Oxidase test was performed by inoculating bacteria culture onto an oxidase disc upon which Kovac’s reagent was added on top, and then observation made on the color changes.

Catalase Test

A catalase test is done to establish if bacteria produce enzyme catalase understudy in a bacterial test. Catalase enzyme is used for breaking down hydrogen peroxide, which is a harmful chemical (Beaman et al., 2007). The test was conducted by streaking bacteria onto the TSA slant and growing it at 37⁰ C for 48 hours, after which hydrogen peroxide was added. The observation was done on the reaction of the bacteria with hydrogen peroxide.

Citrate Test

A citrate test is done to determine if bacteria can use sodium citrate as the only carbon source and inorganic ammonium hydrogen phosphate as a nitrogen source. Citrate test was done by streaking the slant back and forth with a light inoculum containing bacterial colony and then incubated aerobically at 37⁰ C for 96 hours (Beaman et al., 2007). The observation was made on color changes from green to blue or no color change along the slant.

Indole Production

Most proteins contain tryptophan amino acid, and some bacteria can produce enzyme tryptophanase that breaks down this type of amino acid into indole, pyruvate and ammonia. The indole production test was performed by first growing the organism using a tryptophan medium (Beaman et al., 2007). Tryptophan broth was then inoculated aseptically to allow culture growth for 24 hours at 37⁰ C. 0.5 ml of Kovac’s reagent was added to the broth culture, and the tube was observed for absence or presence of the ring.

Ornithine-Decarboxylase Test

Ornithine-decarboxylase test is primarily done to establish if a microbe has the ability to use ornithine as the sole carbon source and energy for growth. Ornithine decarboxylase accomplishes the utilization of ornithine. The test was conducted by putting the inoculum of culture #43 aseptically into ornithine decarboxylase broth and then incubated for 48 hours at 37⁰ C and an observation made on color changes.

ONPG (B-Galactosidase) Test

ONPG test is perform to differentiate members belonging to Enterobacteriaceae family and other microbes depending on activities of beta-D-galactosidase. The test differentiates late lactose fermenters from non-lactose fermenters of Enterobacteriaceae. The test was conducted with test medium at room temperature of 37⁰ C, and then inoculum incubated aerobically with loose caps for 24 hours and observation made on color changes.

Kirby-Bauer (Antibiotic Sensitivity) Test

Kirby-Bauer test is used for ascertaining the choice of antibiotics to be used when treating an infection. The test used penicillin, doxycycline, polymyxin B, and rifampicin on the culture colony. The observation was then done on the zone sizes, and results were interpreted (Bhargav et al., 2016). Upon completing all the experimental tests, unknown organisms were identified following PCR/BLAST, dichotomous keys using the Bergey’s (Whitman et al., 2016), streak plate isolation, and biochemical tests.

Results

An organism of genus Citrobacter was characterized by straight rods, about 1µm in diameter and 2 – 6µm in length and occurring in pairs and singly. Both #15 and #43 were first identified using DNA sequence analysis that involved performing genetic comparisons of the organisms. During initial identification of these organisms, genetic analyses workflow was performed that included identifying genus via PCR/BLAST, dichotomous keys, streak plate isolation, and analyzing isolated biochemical tests using the Bergey’s Manual. For unknown organism #15, a gram stain, thioglycolate test, oxidase test, and indole production were all negative, and positive for catalase test and ONPG (B-galactosidase) test. To identify the identity of the unknown organism, the test results were followed using a dichotomous key, which identified unknown organism #15 to be C. fundii.

The result for unknown organism #43 was negative for gram stain, thioglycolate test, and oxidase test, while a positive result was observed in the catalase test. Citrate test was negative, while the indole production test using SIM and ornithine-decarboxylase test were positive. Hafnia is characterized by straight rods of about 1µm in diameter and 2-5 µm in length, it was first identified based on its PCR/BLAST, biochemical test results, and dichotomous key. Therefore, the unknown organism #43 was identified as H. alvei based on the tabulated results below.

Discussion and Conclusion

Gram stain test was done to determine the thickness of the organism under study. Both unknown organisms #15 and #43, C. fundii and H. alvei, respectively showed negative results for the gram stain test as expected. A thioglycolate test was done to determine bacterial oxygen requirement, and in the experiment, the test was negative for both cultures of bacteria colonies. There were negative oxidase test results, and this test was conducted to identify if the organism under study used oxygen. It was also essential to perform a catalase test to determine if the bacteria contained catalase enzyme. The catalase test was positive for both organisms because the reaction with hydrogen peroxide was effervescence, producing bubbles. A citrate test was performed to establish if the H. alvei could use compound citrate as the only source for carbon. There was no color change in the medium during the citrate test, showing the inoculum did not contain enzyme citrate permease. The predicted results of H. alvei, conformed with biochemical test for genus Hafnia except for indole production which was positive.

It is possible to detect indole in a media because it accumulates in the body, unlike ammonia and pyruvate, which are converted into other molecules. The existence of indole in the biochemical test exhibited the release of tryptophanase enzyme by the bacteria, and it was showed by the pink color that settled when the medium was added Kovac’s reagent in #43. During ornithine decarboxylase test on #43, it was observed that the color changed from yellow to purple showing that glucose present was used by the microbe to cause pH drop thereby activating ornithine decarboxylase enzyme. After 48 hours the yellow color changed back to purple showing positive test results for ornithine decarboxylase enzyme. ONPG (B-galactosidase) was performed to differentiate members of Enterobacteriaceae, and it showed positive results in #15. The results of these tests resembled the predicted result for genus Citrobacter (Aryal & Kolo, 2018).

There were no problems encountered during the identification of the organisms because all the procedures involved in biochemical tests were followed correctly. Gram stains were primarily done on fresh cultures because older cells might have damaged cell walls, leading to improper gram reaction. Reliability of unknown strain was maintained by keeping backup of each strain under 4⁰ C while the inoculate broth for antibiotic tests was maintained at 37⁰ C.

From the semester-long project, the study was critical as it equipped one with practical knowledge regarding microbiology. Laboratory tests included numerous techniques and procedures such as biochemical testing and genetic sequencing for identifying different organisms. These tests and methods provided extensive knowledge that is useful for use in research to improve health and medicine in the community. The project also provided knowledge on antibiotic-resistant bacteria and how they affect a particular population.

References

Alanis, A. J. (2005). Resistance to antibiotics: Are we in the post-antibiotic era? Archives of Medical Research, 36 (6), 697–705. Web.

Aryal, S., & Kolo, U. F. (2018). Methyl red (MR) test-principle, procedure and result interpretation. Microbiology Info. Web.

Beaman, C., Leavell, S., Hoekstra, B., & Hinterlong, B. (2007). 6.5% salt tolerance test. Welcome to microbugz – 6.5% salt tolerance test. Web.

Bhargav, H. S., Shastri, S. D., Poornav, S. P., Darshan, K. M., & Nayak, M. M. (2016, February). Measurement of the zone of inhibition of an antibiotic. In 2016 IEEE 6th International Conference on Advanced Computing (IACC) (pp. 409-414). IEEE.

BIOS 3120 (2021). PCR and gel electrophoresis. Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University

Reygaert, W. C. (2018). An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria.AIMS Microbiology, 4(3), 482–501. Web.

Fair, R. J., & Tor, Y. (2014). Antibiotics and bacterial resistance in the 21st century. Perspectives in Medicinal Chemistry, 6. Web.

Falagas, M. E. & Bliziotis, I. A. (2007). Pandrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria: The dawn of the post-antibiotic era?International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 29(6), 630–636. Web.

Foti, M., Rinaldo, D., Guercio, A., Giacopello, C., Aleo, A., De Leo, F., Fisichella, V. & Mammina, C. (2011). Pathogenic microorganisms carried by migratory birds passing through the territory of the island of Ustica, Sicily (Italy). Avian pathology, 40(4), 405-409. Web.

Liu, L., Chen, D., Liu, L., Lan, R., Hao, S., Jin, W., Sun, H., Wang, Y., Liang, Y., & Xu, J. (2018). Genetic diversity, multidrug resistance, and virulence of Citrobacter freundii from diarrheal patients and healthy individuals.Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 8, 233–233. Web.

Singer, R. S., Finch, R., Wegener, H. C., Bywater, R., Walters, J., & Lipsitch, M. (2003). Antibiotic resistance—the interplay between antibiotic use in animals and human beings. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 3(1), 47-51. Web.

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Toerien, D. F. (1967). Enrichment culture studies on aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria found in anaerobic digesters. Water Research (Oxford), 1(2), 147–155. Web.

Ventola, C. (2015). The antibiotic resistance crisis. Pharmacy and Therapeutics.

Waxman, D. J. & Strominger, J. L. (1983). Penicillin-binding proteins and the mechanism of action of β-lactam antibiotics. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 52, 825–869.

Whitman, W. B., Rainey, F., Kämpfer, P., Trujillo, M., Chun, J., DeVos, P., Hedlund, B., Dedysh, S. & Nedashkovskaya, O. I. (2016). Bergey’s manual of systematics of Archaea and Bacteria.

Clinical experts warn that resistance to antibiotic is on the rise with the latest WHO report on drugs terming the resistance as a potential threat. The study identified the problem as the world’s most challenging issue to the public health sector. Medical practitioners from Health Protection Agency warn that several bacterial infections are becoming less responsive to the antibiotic- based medication aimed at treating patients with such conditions.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) causes antibiotics to lose their ability to cure. Clinicians warn that infectious disease such as pneumonia and diarrhea, which account for more deaths in the entire world can no longer be treated effectively using the antibiotics (Okeyo, 2015). For instance, In the UK, there are rising concerns about Klebsiella pneumonia infections (bacterium) carried in the intestines. According to the daily mail, scientists implicate that the disease (Klebsiella pneumonia), has become resistant to the currently available line of antibiotic drugs. This infection is fatal in the case of the most delicate patients and the newly born babies.

Dr. Keiji Fukuda, World Health Organization’s health security assistant director, asserted that there is the need for crucial measures to be undertaken in order to curb the threat. Global medical research bodies and the various stakeholders in the health sector are urged to come up with prevention measures that are geared towards the innovation of a more effective antibiotic drug. However, medical practitioners warn that if scientists fail to act timely, then the world will retrogress to the past era where simple disease could kill.

Clinical experts express their frustration with the rate at which new antibiotics are being developed. Dr. Danilo Lo Fo Wong; in an interview with theguardian, asserted that new drugs are being produced at a slower rate. He claims that the world has not had a new invention of antibiotics for over 25 years and that there are no signs for a new drug being invented in the near future (Boseley, 2015).

Dr. Danilo is wary of an imminent treatment failure, and he expresses his displeasure with the ineffective treatment that has exposed the world’s largest population to fatal conditions that otherwise could have been treated. He notices flaws in the medical practice that could render patients more susceptible to the bacterial infection due to antibiotic resistance.

A section of human right activists criticizes some of the methodologies adopted by hospitals when procuring treatment. For instance, they cite a case whereby the patients are treated with the same kind of antibiotics for a long time. This faction of human right activist lobbies for a rather precise method to be adopted instead of the ‘test and trial’ approach. The latter perspective entails treating the patient with different kinds of antibiotic in an effort of determine the one that will work well. Health practitioners point out that such approach is totally outrageous as it exposes the patients to more danger arising from the increased resistance.

Latest health research indicated that some of the European nations retract from carrying out a substantial test to establish the condition before any infection is treated, especially if the hospital will incur additional costs in the process. A global report has revealed that an estimated 10 million lives can be claimed yearly due to antibiotic resistance. The same report indicates that the situation can cost the world’s economy an accumulated figure of 64 trillion pounds for the next 35 years.

Medical personnel argue that some of the patients fail to take the full dosage due to ignorance; a case that will aggravate the patient’s susceptibility due to the overall resistance in the long run. Certain individuals buy antibiotic drugs over the counter in spite of the fact that they have not been tested to ascertain the condition they are suffering from. Such individuals rely on the flimsy reason that they have once suffered from the condition.

Clinicians warn that the conditions that one suffers from might have mimicked the signs associated with a particular disease yet it is a different ailment. Other patients would prefer to acquire the drugs in the pharmaceutical shops only because accessing a qualified physician will involve paying some consultation fees. This practice can be very expensive at times if the process will involve conducting lab test. WHO report raises concerns about the above observations. It has caused a lot of challenges as far as the efforts to treat and contain TB are concerned.

Anti-TB drug resistance is on the rise, and it has caused concerns throughout the world. In the same report, the WHO advocated that all countries adopt a less use of antibiotics when treating patients. In the UK, for instance, antibiotics have been used for a long time to treat superbugs- the form of bacterial infection that causes significant resistance to antibiotics. Medical practitioners in the UK are urged to observe hygienic conditions. Clinicians should encourage their patients to embrace proper hand hygiene. This measure is deemed adequate for handling Staphylococcus aureus, the ‘superbug’ that has shown antibiotic-resistant to the drug methicillin. Meanwhile, gonorrhea, which is sexually transmitted, is getting immunity to the last-resort injection used for its treatment.

References

Boseley, S. (2015). WHO Calls for Urgent Action to Preserve Power of Antibiotics and Make New Ones.Theguardian. Web.

Okeyo, v. (2015). Alarm as Antibiotics Lose Power to Cure. Daily Nation. Web.

The issue of antibiotics resistance among human beings is growing at an alarming rate. According to the Federal Task Force (EFD, 2008) report, the common infections will increasingly continue being scarce and expensive to manage or treat and worse still may become impossible to treat.

This paper is an analysis on the use of antibiotics in the industrial and commercial processes and its effects on human health. The focus is on the meat processing industries and how these practices effects transmission rates and resistance of the antibiotics in human beings.

Analysis of antibiotics resistance among human beings

The antibiotics resistance is a condition transferred from animals’ products to human beings. What threat does improperly managed antibiotic usage in the meat industry pose to human beings? What current industrial policies promote usage of antibiotics in meat processing industries? What ought to be done to reduce this issue of transferring bacterial resistance condition from animals to human beings?

For protection over the consequences incurred, the use of antibiotics on animal food and water ought to be highly reduced. Overuse of antibiotics in animals’ food production is the main contributor to the resistance condition. (EDF, 2007) The reason behind the overuse are claims that, antibiotics promote fast growth in animals and minimizes chances of contacting diseases that are related to movement, overcrowding, strains and unhygienic conditions in the modern industries.

Research indicates that majority of the animal waste contains bacteria that are drugs resistant. The EDF research results of 2007 indicate that over seventy percent of antibiotics and similar drugs in the United States are in use on various domestic animals.

Effects of the use of the antibiotics to animals

The World Health Organization research results indicate that, the resistant bacteria pose a major risk to human population because transmitting occurs directly through food consumption or contaminated environment. The highest risk occurs when a person consumes half-cooked contaminated food or food that comes to contact with infected food. (EDF, 2001) Majority of the antibiotics and the resistant bacteria in animals passes the system without digestion.

The antibiotics are some of the most indispensable implements for most physicians. The EDF (2001) statistics indicates that at any given time, over forty percent of patient at any health facility receives the antibiotics dosage. The inefficiency of the same drugs is significantly evident today because of the common multi drug resistant bacteria or the body’s immunity due to over use.

Not all people suffer from effects of antibiotics condition. Most adults have strong immune systems that are able to fight the disease causing germs with less strain. Venerability depends on the strength of the immune system as well as the age. Children and infants are more venerable than adults are. According to Shea et al (2001), infants are ten times likely to suffer from the germs compared to adults. The old age group is also more venerable with over sixty-five percent being at risk of infection (Shea et al. 2001).

Research also indicates that, various bacterial species are capable of life threatening conditions and remain resistant to most available antibacterial drugs. Some infections are even resistant to newly discovered antibacterial drugs while some illnesses remain untreatable because of their continual diagnosis and prescription.

The continual resistant has affected other environmental components such as wildlife, soil and air thus a cause of alarm in the medical fraternity.

The over prescription and drug misuse are the main causes of the antibiotic resistance conditions. The effectiveness of a drug depreciates due to overuse in both agricultural and human health care settings. Evidently the human antibacterial drugs such as “tetracycline, penicillin and erythromycin” (EDF 2001) are used in the animal health husbandly sectors thus making them less effective even to human beings because they constantly continue to take them unknowingly.

There exists many different and stronger drugs under constant manufacture procedures but the costs remain high thus having to do with the same dosages that are less efficient. According to Shea et al (2001), there are many unnecessary antibacterial prescriptions in the health sectors especially among the outpatients.

This is a global alarm sounding from many worlds’ organizations such as American Medical Association (AMA). World Health Organization (WHO) terms the situation of nourishing animals’ feeds with antibiotics as an unnecessary routine that hinders growth or advancement.

Strategies to reduce potential impacts

The corporate and governmental institutes are having direct impact over decision-making procedures regarding the use of antibacterial drugs in both human beings and animals. There is need for increased pressure to marginalize usage through pressing for reform agendas in drugs selling and manufacturing companies as well as the health care centres.

Companies with close ties to the animal products manufacturing need to embrace strategies of fighting the impact caused by antibiotics resistance. The playing field need levelling for all companies concern with drugs production, distribution and administration.

The drug producing companies ought to be discouraged over manufacturing of antibiotics added to animal feeds as a way of discouraging the already excessive use of non-therapeutic usage of antibiotics, which would rather be medically important to human beings.

Tough campaigns should ensure that companies involved with selling animal products such as restaurants, fast-food outlets, supermarkets, voluntarily resist buying from producers who abuse the medically fit antibacterial with the aim of making high profits.

The government regulations ought to govern usage of drugs as a way of ensuring level playing grounds. None of the meat production industries should have competitive operational advantage over others. In the U.S., the Congress of the “U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)” should ensure removal of the antibacterial drugs from the animal husbandry sectors. Some of the bacterial drugs such as “fluoroquinolone” need prohibition as a way of combating the drug resistance condition. Evidently, some of the most crucial drugs for treating food related illnesses in human beings are on abuse especially among poultry farmers. (FDA, 2008)

On the campaign tactics, the collection of accurate data pertaining usage of antibiotics in both human and animal’s settings and its resistance effects on human beings need publicity and awareness so as to discourage the usage and enlighten the public.

There is no successful strategy, which lacks financial backup. FDA (2008) congress ought to finance the centres for Diseases Control and Prevention for better chances of fighting antibiotics resistance and encourage gathering of data for analysis (Shea et al. 2001).

Conclusion

The main solution to these issues lies upon the companies that are involved in supply, manufacture and usage of drugs. They ought to work closely with the governmental organizations policies and procedure as well as assist other concern non-governmental agencies in gathering and analysis of related information and to come up with ample solutions.

References

EDF. 2001. “Antibiotic Resistance: Playing Chicken with Essential Drugs.” Web.

EDF 2007. “Hold the Antibiotics Please.” . Web.

EDF. 2008. “Innovative Partnerships First To Reduce Antibiotics Use in Mainstream Pork Production.”. Web.

Shea, Katherine, Florini and Barlam. 2001. “When Wonder Drugs Don’t Work.” EDF. Web.

Introduction

Despite the fact that antibiotics are effective in treating a variety of diseases, they can also be used improperly or excessively, which can lead to different complications. Importantly, prescribing antibiotics for a viral infection is not an effective treatment due to the fact that antibiotics are aimed at fighting bacteria (Adams 231). However, the symptoms of viral and bacterial diseases can be similar and, therefore, prescribing such treatment is frequently incorrect. The purpose of this paper is to consider the possible consequences of antibiotics overuse and to analyze the possible ways to minimize their effects on health.

Effects and Issues

It is crucial to emphasize that the use of antibiotics for erroneous purposes or their overuse can lead to several consequences. If the drug is used incorrectly, its effect becomes insufficient. This is due to the fact that over time the bacteria begin to mutate and develop a drug-resistant strain (Podolsky 93). The same occurrence happens when the treatment is wrong or with an increase and an untimely termination of the treatment. The patient becomes a carrier of resistant infections; accordingly, he or she can no longer be treated with the first-generation antibiotics, and the risk of complications or death increases.

One of the main issues associated with their overuse is that antibiotics created to fight infections give rise to new and more complicated infections, which require stronger medication. In addition, the inappropriate use of antibiotics can cause serious harm to the body of the patient. For instance, one of the most common complications is dysbiosis. Drugs like amoxicillin, doxycycline, chloramphenicol, and others are highly effective, but they have a negative effect on the intestinal microflora, which is responsible for the gastrointestinal tract (Tamma 136). As a result, the patient’s immune system gets weaker along with all the metabolic processes of the body. The other effects can be expressed in irritable bowel syndrome, allergies, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and even obesity.

Minimizing the Usage

To prevent the misuse of antibiotics, healthcare professionals should ensure that this course of treatment is necessary. It is important to confirm the appointment of antibiotics through analyses and other health assessments. It is necessary to inform the patient about when he or she needs to start the drug treatment or to observe whether the body can cope with the infection on its own. It is essential to take into account all the patient’s allergic reactions and chronic diseases (Blaser 16).

Each specialist should analyze the interaction of antibiotics with other drugs that the patient receives. This is especially important when a person takes antihypertensive drugs or anticonvulsants. Also, it is important to consider when the patient took antibiotics the last time as it is recommended to have this course of the treatment no more than once a year (Myers 108). Needless to say, patients should be knowledgeable about the necessity to not exceed or reduce the antibiotics intake without medical supervision and not to change the dosage without preliminary agreement with the health care specialist.

MRSA

MRSA is a strain of staph that is resistant to most of the known antibiotics. People with a reduced immune response (with HIV, cancer patients, transplant patients) are at risk and require special attention in respect to this dangerous illness. Antibiotics such as vancomycin and teicoplanin, which should be appointed by a doctor solely, are considered effective for this disease. In addition, cubits in (daptomycin), a cyclic lipopeptide of natural origin, is active only against gram-positive bacteria (Scuderi 252). This drug is sufficient for patients with complicated skin and soft tissue infections and methicillin-resistant strains; consequently, it will also be effective in the treatment of MRSA.

Conclusion

The overuse of antibiotics is rather a widespread occurrence. Healthcare specialists should raise people’s awareness regarding the consequences of incorrect drug intake and inform patients about the safe practices of medication usage. It is advisable to consider the alternative courses of treatment prior to appointing the antibiotics.

Works Cited

Adams, James. Emergency Medicine, New York: Elsevier, 2012. Print.

Blaser, Martin. Missing Microbes, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2014. Print.

Myers, Mark. Symptoms of Diseases, Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation, 2014. Print.

Podolsky, Scott. The Antibiotic Era, Baltimore: JHU Press, 2014. Print.

Scuderi, Giles. Techniques in Revision Hip and Knee Arthroplasty, New York: Elsevier, 2014. Print.

Tamma, Pranita. Antimicrobial Stewardship, New York: Elsevier, 2014. Print.

Market failure can be regarded as an inefficient allocation of goods and services by the free market. Additionally, Marciano and Medema (2015) define it as “the failure of the market to bring about results that are in the best interests of society as a whole” (p. 1).

Considering this, the overuse of antibiotics in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), as well as many other countries, discussed in the article by Cherian (2018) can be regarded as a form of market failure since it induces the problem of antibiotic resistance and poses a significant threat to public health. In the present paper, the issue will be analyzed from the perspective of the market failure theory, focusing on the description of a government intervention that can be utilized to correct the identified market failure.

Types of Market Failure

Widespread antibiotic overuse and the consequent problem of antibiotic resistance can be considered a negative externality. According to Kenton (2019), an externality is “an economic term referring to a cost or benefit incurred or received by a third party who has no control over how that cost or benefit was created” (para. 1). In other words, it is an effect on a third party caused by the production or consumption of certain goods and services.

An externality can be either positive (such as an impact of a talented labor force on the productivity of a firm) or a negative (such as effects of pollution emitted by a plant on the health of nearby community residents) (Kenton 2019). When speaking of the antibiotic resistance, society as a whole becomes adversely affected by the actions of individuals.

The problem arises because antibiotic drug consumers seek private benefits, including rapid recovery from a disease, without considering the overall social costs. As noted by Cherian (2018), access to antibiotics is extremely facilitated nowadays: anyone can buy them without prescriptions and, therefore, they frequently get drugs to treat even insignificant ailments, such as the sore throat. Moreover, many healthcare practitioners prescribe antibiotics without considering alternative remedies (Cherian 2018).

However, this type of drug is associated with a massive drawback since many bacteria develop resistance to them over time and, in this way, many antibiotics become ineffective. The negative effect of excess antibiotic consumption is a high rate of deaths because of infections that cannot be treated. As reported by Cherian (2018), nowadays, 700,000 people die due to antibiotic-resistant infections worldwide every year and it is expected to rise to 10 million by 2050. Thus, there is a need to stop drug overuse for private benefit and reduce the social costs of this detrimental practice.

The problem of antibiotic resistance may also arise due to such a market failure as information asymmetry, which implies the division and specialization of knowledge. As noted by Merrett et al. (2016), “an important characteristic of the health knowledge economy is the asymmetry in knowledge between experts and the people who rely on their advice” (p. 4).

In the case of antibiotic drug consumption and production, pharmaceutical companies are much more aware of the potentially detrimental effects of antibiotics than the majority of consumers. In other words, people buy antibiotics simply because they do not know about the social costs they induce. It is valid to say that the creation of a proper balance in knowledge by providing more information to consumers would help to reduce the rate of drug overuse and, thus, decrease social costs.

Government Intervention and Government Failure

An intervention aimed at the correction of the discussed market failure will take place at the policy level. According to Cherian (2018), the UAE government is developing legislation, “which will prohibit the sale of antibiotics at any pharmacy in the UAE without a prescription” (para. 2). This action will aim to raise awareness of the problem among healthcare practitioners and encourage them to rationalize the prescriptions of medications.

In this way, physicians and pharmacists will become core actors in eliminating information asymmetry between companies and health consumers. In addition, the law will help resolve the problem of antibiotic overuse by prohibiting purchases of antibiotic drugs for self-medication.

Nevertheless, two of the probable outcomes of government failure in the implementation of the identified intervention would be the creation of surplus and an increase in prices for antibiotics. Since these drugs would be less demanded after the law is enacted, pharmaceutical companies might either over-produce drugs or increase prices for items in the market in order to compensate for potential profit losses. In this case, patients who indeed need antibiotic drugs would be negatively affected because they would have to pay more to receive treatment.

Conclusion

More people in the UAE and around the globe become affected by antibiotic-resistant infections. The overuse of antibiotic drugs is one of the root causes of such an adverse outcome. It is clear that the situation indicates market failure since it produces excess public health costs and involves information asymmetry. The creation of the law that would reduce antibiotic overconsumption can become an effective intervention to the problem.

However, it may lead to an oversupply of antibiotics and an increase in prices for them. Thus, it can negatively affect patients who need these drugs to treat infections. Still, it is valid to presume that the intervention will be able to produce more social benefits than the current situation in the market does and since it will improve the cost-benefit ratio, it is justified.

Reference List

Cherian, D 2019, ‘Antibiotic resistance and how not to misuse medicines in the UAE’, Gulf News. Web.

Kenton, W 2019, Externality. Web.

Marciano, A & Medema, SG 2015, ‘Market failure in context: introduction’, History of Political Economy, vol. 47, Suppl. 1, pp. 1-19.

Merrett, GL, Bloom, G, Wilkinson, A & MacGregor, H 2016, ‘Towards the just and sustainable use of antibiotics’, Journal of Pharmaceutical Policy and Practice, vol. 9, no. 31, pp. 1-10.

Introduction

To cleanse your hands, you often make use of a “soap and water” solution. Science Daily report has stated that agents such as triclosan and quaternary ammonium salts, which are ideally present in soap, are ineffective in eradicating harmful germs from the skin’s surface. Sanitizer gels, on the other hand, are more effective in getting rid of the harmful bacterium (Rulon, 2006). In The Pink; a Not-For-Profit Charitable Organization has researched on antiseptic sanitizer gel and has emphasized on the importance of using hand sanitizer gel (see fig. 1).

A hand sanitizing gel is a disinfectant, which is composed of surface agents, ethanol and natural softeners. A sanitizing gel has the capability to kill 99.8% germs from the skin’s surface. (Diana, 2005).The purpose of this topic is to talk on the role of antibiotic resistant bacteria. In order to get rid of bacterium, you need to make use of a soap and water solution for over 30 seconds (Pyrek, 2001).According to Alibaba.com “like any other product, a hand sanitizer gel is manufactured through a systematic procedure in a mechanized factory.”

The FDA Rules

In order to avoid individuals as well as commercial establishments from being transformed into vehicles of communicable diseases, the FDA often takes strict measures by introducing new health care products in the market. The 1998 CPF meeting had a food code, in accordance to which, people had to follow norms. These rules were pertaining to an individual’s hygiene. Hand sanitizers often break the cycle of person-to-food and fecal-oral-transmission through a hands-down, non-residual, cleansing technique (Hubbard, 1999).

Pointers on Hand Sanitizing Techniques

The first question which comes to an individual’s mind is whether a double hand wash is better than a single hand wash. People also like to check the effectiveness of hand-wash machines. Some individuals wish to gain an insight on the use of hand sanitizers. You need to understand whether the skin can be sanitized, or whether chemical hand sanitizers are effective in eradicating all pathogens (Hubbard, 1999).

Conclusion

Hand sanitizing gels are essential for cleaning the germs from a human skin. Even a soap and water solution is equally beneficial but for that you need to leave the soapy application for over 30 seconds. Hand sanitizing gels are easy to apply and as they are devoid of any residue, they prove beneficial in situations wherein an individual is habitual of interacting with scores of acquaintances on a daily basis (Hubbard, 1999).

Work Cited

1. Diana, Mahoney. “Hand sanitizing gel cuts spread of stomach bugs.(Infectious Diseases) ”. Pediatric News Aug.2005: High Beam Research.
2. “Hand Sanitizing Gel”. Alibaba.com: Global Trade Starts Here.2009. Web.
3. Hubbard, William.” Department of Health and Human Services: Food and Drug Administration”.1999.
4. Pyrek, M. Kelly. “Are We Too Clean or Not Clean Enough? Antimicrobials Scrutinized for Their Role in Hand washing Compliance, Antibiotic Resistance “ICT: Infection Control Today.2001.
5. Rulon, Steve. “Product Analysis Project”.Sas.upenn.edu.2006.

Introduction

Speaking about the problems of utmost importance that are related to medicine and the production of pharmaceutical drugs, it is necessary to pay attention to certain changes in the effectiveness of medications. Resistance to antibiotics presents a significant problem due to its effects on mortality rates and the increasing costs of healthcare services. Drug resistance crisis severely impacts the quality of services, and it is the responsibility of healthcare providers to reduce the misuse of antibiotics and prevent medication mistakes through education.

Antibiotic Resistance and Its Status of a Health Crisis

Antibiotic resistance is linked to a never-ending process – the evolution of living organisms and microorganisms. As for its definition, the discussed phenomenon manifests itself when pathogenic bacteria or other organisms that lead to diseases acquire an ability to develop resistance to antibiotics and continue to survive and proliferate despite the use of drugs (Ventola, 2015). Along with other factors, the ability of bacteria to use mutation as a means of becoming resistant to various threats and develop new features contributes to antibiotic resistance.

Without exaggeration, the problem presents a health crisis due to several reasons. To begin with, an emphasis should be placed on the scale of the problem. Antibiotic resistance affects people in any country regardless of their sex, ethnicity, and socio-economic position. Some drugs that used to “save millions of lives” gradually became ineffective, which can potentially become a cause of old disease recurrence (Ventola, 2015, p. 277).

Apart from the decreasing effectiveness of antibiotics that threatens people’s health, drug resistance presents a crisis due to its global financial effects. The need to conduct research and invent new drugs that will be better than their analogues involves significant expenses, thus impacting the costs of healthcare services and medications. Theoretically, to overcome the crisis, it is necessary to design and implement the universal rules of antibiotic use, which can be difficult due to international inequality and the peculiarities of healthcare systems in different countries.

The Causes of Antibiotic Resistance

There is a range of factors that contribute to the existence of antibiotic resistance and its being a health crisis. First, resistance to drugs is caused by mutations: according to the principles of natural evolution, bacteria can change and adapt to the environment, which helps them survive and increase in number (Rote, 2017). Secondly, drug resistance occurs when bacteria produce specific enzymes that help them inactivate antibiotics and continue to proliferate (Rote, 2017). Thirdly, there is a large group of issues related to healthcare systems, treatment options, and research. These factors include the misuse or overuse of medications, prescription mistakes, and a limited supply of new drugs (Ventola, 2015). Given that the first two causes are quite difficult to impact, reducing the cases of drug misuse and treatment errors is the task of healthcare systems.

The Role of Healthcare Providers in Solving the Crisis

As a healthcare provider, I am responsible for the provision of high-quality services and patient education. Informing patients about the threats of antibiotic overuse and the need to follow doctors’ prescriptions can become a significant contribution to improvement. Apart from working with their clients, healthcare specialists can participate in regional events aimed at raising people’s health literacy concerning the use of antibiotics. Also, it is of great importance to constantly develop one’s professional skills and encourage other specialists to do the same since good knowledge prevents medication mistakes.

Conclusion

In the end, resistance to antibiotics presents a significant concern that impacts both healthcare providers and patients. Its negative effects are numerous, ranging from increases in healthcare costs and the length of hospital stays to the growth of mortality all over the world. Some factors that cause drug resistance relate to the problems of healthcare systems, and providers can use patient education and skill improvement to reduce the misuse of antibiotics.

References

Rote, N. S. (2017). Infection and defects in mechanisms of defense. In S. E. Huether & K. L. McCance (Eds.), Understanding pathophysiology (6th ed.)(pp. 176-213). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.

Ventola, C. L. (2015). The antibiotic resistance crisis: Part 1: Causes and threats. Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 40(4), 277-283.