Overuse of Antibiotics: Possible Consequences

Introduction

Despite the fact that antibiotics are effective in treating a variety of diseases, they can also be used improperly or excessively, which can lead to different complications. Importantly, prescribing antibiotics for a viral infection is not an effective treatment due to the fact that antibiotics are aimed at fighting bacteria (Adams 231). However, the symptoms of viral and bacterial diseases can be similar and, therefore, prescribing such treatment is frequently incorrect. The purpose of this paper is to consider the possible consequences of antibiotics overuse and to analyze the possible ways to minimize their effects on health.

Effects and Issues

It is crucial to emphasize that the use of antibiotics for erroneous purposes or their overuse can lead to several consequences. If the drug is used incorrectly, its effect becomes insufficient. This is due to the fact that over time the bacteria begin to mutate and develop a drug-resistant strain (Podolsky 93). The same occurrence happens when the treatment is wrong or with an increase and an untimely termination of the treatment. The patient becomes a carrier of resistant infections; accordingly, he or she can no longer be treated with the first-generation antibiotics, and the risk of complications or death increases.

One of the main issues associated with their overuse is that antibiotics created to fight infections give rise to new and more complicated infections, which require stronger medication. In addition, the inappropriate use of antibiotics can cause serious harm to the body of the patient. For instance, one of the most common complications is dysbiosis. Drugs like amoxicillin, doxycycline, chloramphenicol, and others are highly effective, but they have a negative effect on the intestinal microflora, which is responsible for the gastrointestinal tract (Tamma 136). As a result, the patients immune system gets weaker along with all the metabolic processes of the body. The other effects can be expressed in irritable bowel syndrome, allergies, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and even obesity.

Minimizing the Usage

To prevent the misuse of antibiotics, healthcare professionals should ensure that this course of treatment is necessary. It is important to confirm the appointment of antibiotics through analyses and other health assessments. It is necessary to inform the patient about when he or she needs to start the drug treatment or to observe whether the body can cope with the infection on its own. It is essential to take into account all the patients allergic reactions and chronic diseases (Blaser 16).

Each specialist should analyze the interaction of antibiotics with other drugs that the patient receives. This is especially important when a person takes antihypertensive drugs or anticonvulsants. Also, it is important to consider when the patient took antibiotics the last time as it is recommended to have this course of the treatment no more than once a year (Myers 108). Needless to say, patients should be knowledgeable about the necessity to not exceed or reduce the antibiotics intake without medical supervision and not to change the dosage without preliminary agreement with the health care specialist.

MRSA

MRSA is a strain of staph that is resistant to most of the known antibiotics. People with a reduced immune response (with HIV, cancer patients, transplant patients) are at risk and require special attention in respect to this dangerous illness. Antibiotics such as vancomycin and teicoplanin, which should be appointed by a doctor solely, are considered effective for this disease. In addition, cubits in (daptomycin), a cyclic lipopeptide of natural origin, is active only against gram-positive bacteria (Scuderi 252). This drug is sufficient for patients with complicated skin and soft tissue infections and methicillin-resistant strains; consequently, it will also be effective in the treatment of MRSA.

Conclusion

The overuse of antibiotics is rather a widespread occurrence. Healthcare specialists should raise peoples awareness regarding the consequences of incorrect drug intake and inform patients about the safe practices of medication usage. It is advisable to consider the alternative courses of treatment prior to appointing the antibiotics.

Works Cited

Adams, James. Emergency Medicine, New York: Elsevier, 2012. Print.

Blaser, Martin. Missing Microbes, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2014. Print.

Myers, Mark. Symptoms of Diseases, Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation, 2014. Print.

Podolsky, Scott. The Antibiotic Era, Baltimore: JHU Press, 2014. Print.

Scuderi, Giles. Techniques in Revision Hip and Knee Arthroplasty, New York: Elsevier, 2014. Print.

Tamma, Pranita. Antimicrobial Stewardship, New York: Elsevier, 2014. Print.

U.S. Tightens Rules on Antibiotics Use for Livestock

Summary

This article addresses antibiotic resistance in livestock in America (Harris, 1). The article appears in the New York Times and highlights the new regulations that farmers must adhere to before getting a prescription on antibiotics for animals. According to the article, on average, 2 million individuals become ill and an estimated 100,000 die from nosocomial infections resulting from microbial resistance to antibiotics. According to the article close to 80 percent of human antibiotics sold in the US are also used to treat animals (Harris, 1).

The FDA has proposed new rules that bar farmers from administering antibiotics to farm animals such as pigs and cattle. The other regulation the FDA is putting in place requires drug manufacturers to modify drug labels to include a prescription. These new restrictions are in line with the Obama administration directive to restrict the use of antibiotics in agriculture. The new law has been both welcomed and criticized. Critics of this FDA regulation ascertain that, because the regulations are to be enforced voluntarily, most farmers, especially small scale will have a hard time implementing the changes. On the other hand, supporters of the rule argue that the restriction will reduce drug resistance in America (Harris, 1).

Questions

How Does Antibiotic Endurance Happen?

Antibiotic resistance is a regular occurrence that has been happening from the time past of microorganisms such as bacteria. Research shows that some bacteria sequestered from glaciers, and that had not been in contact with humans or animals were found to be resilient to several existing antibiotics. In addition, research shows that a significant level of natural bacterial endurance to antibiotics must consequently be estimated but living microbial cells will be those that are of least sensitivity or are resilient. It is hard to calculate the rapidity of resistance in microorganisms as it is determined by among other things, the category of the drugs (antibiotic), the class of microorganisms, and the degree of contact the microorganisms have to drugs or antibiotics besides the capability of the resilient bacteria to endure and reproduce (Mayers, 25).

Following the development of microbial resistance, the particular microorganisms could become extinct, or the resilient strains may be substituted by vulnerable microorganisms. Although current research has made tremendous gains in the area of microbial resistance to antibiotics, there is still considerable information that is unfamiliar about what ensues to drug resistance when it advances.

Literature on ways to combat drug resistance indicates that it is essential to use drugs especially antibiotics at the precise prescription amount, as it ensures that the correct amount of the antibiotics reach the location of contamination within an adequate duration of time to guarantee retrieval from illness. If the accurate dosage is not administered, or if the antibiotic course is not finalized, several bacteria may persist and may be less vulnerable to treatment using the same antibiotics a second time. The less susceptible microorganisms replicate and their numbers proliferate within the microbial populace in total.

What Are the Consequences of Antibiotic Endurance?

When resilient microorganisms cause contagions, the range of drugs or antibiotics that can be employed to manage the infections or illnesses is narrowed. If instantaneously known, the clinician or veterinarian can apply other drugs or antibiotics with slight or no jeopardy to the patient or animal. If the resistance is not known until the course of the first drug fails to control the illness or infection, the interval between first diagnosis and the initiation of effective treatment can end up in needless suffering and a worsening of the patients state (Criswell).

How Comparable Are The Antibiotics Spent In Domesticated Animals To Those Spent In Humans?

Numerous infections in domesticated animals mimic those that originate from man, so it is no wonder that certain drugs used to combat infectious microorganisms in man are similarly useful in healing animal diseases and infections. Nevertheless, many chemical compounds employed in treating farm animals are dissimilar from those employed in humans. However, where there is a biochemical comparison in the drugs there is no proof that human beings use of drugs is in any manner influenced by their use in farm animals (Mayers, 25).

What Consequence Would Outlawing the Use of Particular Antibiotics In Farm Animals Have on Antibiotic Resilient In Humans?

There is no clear answer to this question. Nonetheless, broad exploration continues to be done in America and through the globe with the sole purpose of offering humanity an answer to the query. Despite the mystery, surrounding antibiotic and drug resistance, all the existing substantiation proposes that the usage of antibiotics and other drugs in farm animals has had a slight or no effect on the occurrence of antibiotic resilient in human contagions with microorganisms in the genus Enterococcus being transmitted by animals.

Undeniably, current research indicates that microbial resistance in human Enterococcus microorganisms to drugs in the antibiotic class, used in the last twenty-five years in fowls and other farm animals all over the globe is static. This is not astonishing because the enterococci strains from farm animals do not last in the human intestine. In the existence of man, it has protractedly been recognized that some genera and classes of microorganisms such as bacteria, for instance, Campylobacter and Salmonella can be transmitted from farm animals to humans (National Office of Animal Health).

Works Cited

Criswell, Daniel. . 2011. Web.

Harris, Gardiner. U.S. Tightens Rules on Antibiotics Use for Livestock. The New York Times. 2012: 1. Print.

Mayers, Douglas. Antimicrobial Drug Resistance: Mechanisms of Drug Resistance. Totowa, New Jersey: Springer, 2008. Print.

Quantitative Study on Antibiotics for Acute Bronchitis

The given research study critique will focus on the article by Smith et al. (2017), which investigates the impact of antibiotics on people with acute bronchitis. The study identified thoroughly what is known and unknown in the background section. For example, the authors state that acute bronchitis is the ninth most common outpatient illness recorded by physicians in ambulatory practice in the USA (Smith et al., 2017, p. 3). In addition, the researchers showcased the mismatch between antibiotic prescription and bacterial influence on the condition. It is stated that pathogens implicated in acute bronchitis are Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, and Bordetella pertussis, each of which has been identified in up to 25% of cases in various populations (Smith et al., 2017, p. 3). However, when it comes to antibiotics, it is reported that antibiotics are prescribed for 60% to 83% of people who present to physicians with the condition (Smith et al., 2017, p. 3). Therefore, in the case of what is not known, the authors state that there are no clinically useful criteria that accurately help distinguish bacterial from viral bronchial infections therefore some authors have called for physicians to stop prescribing antibiotics for people with acute bronchitis (Smith et al., 2017, p. 3). In other words, the study consults previously acquired data on bacterial involvement in bronchitis cases and presents contrasting evidence of antibiotic prescription but indicates that evidence is limited.

Purpose and Sampling

The purpose of the study was clearly presented and identified, which makes the research precise in its direction. The authors state that the purpose is to assess the effects of antibiotics in improving outcomes and to assess adverse effects of antibiotic therapy for people with a clinical diagnosis of acute bronchitis (Smith et al., 2017, p. 1). It is evident that the researchers want to know the effects of antibiotics on the condition, whether they are positive, negative, or neutral. It is important to note that this prospective cohort study included 18 trials and 5099 participants, where a simple random sampling method was utilized in order to include both antibiotic and placebo groups, and the latter acted as a control group. It is stated that randomized controlled trials comparing any antibiotic therapy with placebo or no treatment in acute bronchitis or acute productive cough, in people without underlying pulmonary disease (Smith et al., 2017, p. 1). In other words, the sampling plan was reliable in expecting to yield a representative sample due to a larger pool size as well as randomization. It should be noted that the sample size was sufficient to provide solid evidence for the study rationale and design since the core objective is to observe the effect of antibiotics on a particular condition. The control group did not differ demographically, and the key difference was the presence of the placebo effect, but bronchitis was present in both control and experimental groups.

Data Collection and Instruments

The data collection method was based on trial data obtained with a subsequent examination of the process. It is stated that we examined funnel plots for each of the analyses conducted and none indicated a significant level of reporting bias, and we included a range of outcomes under the broad definition of clinically improved. These were clinically heterogeneous, so we used a random-effects (Smith et al., 2017, p. 7). Thus, there was a step by step process in which the relevance and validity of data were verified for further inclusion. Therefore, considering the purpose of the study, such an approach is appropriate since longitudinal data is needed with large sample sizes in order to observe a statistically significant effect of antibiotics on acute bronchitis. The instruments included the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials or CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and LILACS databases. In addition, it is stated that the authors searched the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (WHO ICTRP) and ClinicalTrials.gov (Smith et al., 2017, p. 4). In other words, reputable instruments and databases were used to obtain the data for the cohort study. However, the instrument validity was not thoroughly and directly discussed since the databases are inherently valid on their own.

Results, Variables, and Conclusions

The study results were presented clearly and succinctly, where the findings indicate that there is no statistically significant difference between the use of antibiotics for acute bronchitis and avoidance of its usage when it comes to clinical outcomes. However, antibiotics had a positive effect in the case of cough occurrence, night cough, and additional beneficial outcomes or NNTB (Smith et al., 2017). In general, antibiotics were useful for treating acute bronchitis since they led to the reduction of major symptoms, such as coughing. The limitations were identified and addressed in the potential biases section, where the authors claim that some patient subgroups are under-represented, as they may not have been recruited into the original trials (Smith et al., 2017, p. 14). Therefore, there is a possibility of faulty interpretation due to the database data provision patterns.

The researchers did not make major attempts to control for confounding variables since there are a number of such influences. In addition, the databases diverge in their data collection methods, which is why it is impractical to control all possible confounding variables. However, the use of a specific focus on specific outcomes provides a more precise and centered analysis of the variables, which is why some databases were excluded. The conclusions were appropriate, with an emphasis on practical and research implications. In the case of the former, it is stated that it is especially important for clinicians to share the decision about whether to use antibiotics or not with their patients, using the expected outcomes and their magnitude from this review as a basis for their discussion (Smith et al., 2017, p. 15). For research, the authors state that research efforts should also be directed at the identification of subsets of patients who are most likely or least likely to benefit from antibiotic treatment (Smith et al., 2017, p. 16). In other words, conclusions are comprehensive since they address both clinical and research implications.

Quality Rating

The research study can be considered as high quality because the literature review includes thorough reference to scientific evidence, consistent recommendations are provided based on the data, and it has definitive conclusions. In addition, there is an adequate control group, a large sample size sufficient to justify the study design, the results are generalizable, and the findings are consistent. In other words, the study itself is reliable and accurate, which means it can be used as core evidence for statements in regards to antibiotics utility against acute bronchitis.

Reference

Smith, S. M., Fahey, T., Smucny, J., & Becker, L. A. (2017). Antibiotics for acute bronchitis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 6(6), 1-59. Web.

Bacteria Antibiotic Resistance Development

Since their discovery, antibiotics have been used to kill bacteria. Such biologically active substances have additionally been employed in a wide range of other medical procedures. Antibiotics have undoubtedly benefited human civilization by saving countless lives in the fight against microorganisms. Numerous bacterial illnesses are treated with antibiotics. Nevertheless, as long as antibacterial medications are utilized to treat bacterial infections, bacteria continue to grow and employ resistance methods, such as genetic code exchange, agriculture, or antibiotic misuse.

Bacteria are living organisms that change throughout time, and their primary goal is to multiply, persist, and spread as quickly as possible. Genetic code exchange is one method the bacterium acquires resistance to antibiotics. A variant that was once vulnerable may now have gained resistance from some other family or genus (Uddin et al. 1754). Most of the genes that cause antibiotic resistance are found on mobile DNA components, which can and frequently do transfer to bacteria of various species and types (Uddin et al. 1754). A replica of the DNA from drug-resistant microorganisms could be transferred to non-resistant organisms. The bacteria that are not drug-resistant build new genes and become resistant to drugs. However, sometimes the reason behind bacteria developing resistance to antibiotics is the patients negligent medication use. Excessive and insufficient usage of antibiotics by a person is another way bacteria produce resistance (Uddin et al. 1755). Certain microorganisms may survive and acquire resistance to medication if a patient does not complete antibiotic treatment.

Lastly, a substantial application of antibiotics in agriculture can aid bacteria in building resistance. Antibiotics are utilized as synthetic chemicals and growth enhancers for livestock in industrialized and developing regions (Uddin et al. 1754). Similar to antibiotic use in people, it causes the emergence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in animals as well (Uddin et al. 1754). The organisms resistant to antibiotics found in cattle can be harmful to humans, are easily transferred from animals to people through food sources, and are widely dispersed in the environment by animal waste.

Hence, bacteria continue to develop and use resistance strategies as long as antibacterial drugs are used to treat bacterial illnesses. One process by which the bacteria develops antibiotic resistance is genetic code exchange. Sometimes a patients careless medicine usage causes microorganisms to become resistant to antibiotics. Lastly, using a lot of antibiotics in agriculture might help bacteria develop resistance since antibiotics reactions in animals might be similar to one in humans.

Work Cited

Uddin, Tanvir Mahtab, et al. Journal of Infection and Public Health, vol. 14, no. 12, 2021, pp.1750-1766.

Animal Pest Resistance to Antibiotics

The latest advances in such fields as biotechnology, genetic research, as well as pharmaceutical discoveries have resulted in a series of unexpected outcomes. Hence, scientists point out the increased level of drug resistance in certain bacteria and animals. In other words, some of the strains of bacteria have become completely resistant to antibiotics. As a result, fighting with pests is more problematic, as the poisons do not have the necessary impact. Therefore, the question arises concerning the scientific discoveries that might assist in resolving this problem.

First and foremost, it is currently critical to prevent the increase of the pest resistance. Specialists note that the number of pests that are resistant to all the chemicals is relatively small  as a rule, whereas, they do not react to one poison, the other antibiotic is likely to have the necessary impact (Wixted, Flashinski, & Boerboom, 2003). From this perspective, the most innovative technique aimed at preventing the development of the undesirable resistance in pests is the so-called negative cross-resistance. The relevant method implies using various pesticides in a particular manner to control the pests. The implementation of this technique will allow scientists to identify a second biocide  either a pesticide that would be effective in killing the resistant pest. As long as the second biocide is found, it can be used together with the first biocide, and the effect will be more powerful.

In the meantime, it is essential to note that the employment of the described method requires studying more than 100,000 compounds. Nerveless, researchers point out that despite a large number of the essential compounds, the method is highly emerging (Wixted, Flashinski, & Boerboom, 2003). Thus, it is capable of delaying resistance for decades in case it is properly applied.

Another field that offers solutions for the described problem is genetic engineering. The practice of creating resistant animals genes is rather wide-spread; however, little is said about the creation of anti-resistance in particular species. Thus, the latest discoveries in gene engineering allow modifying genes so that they initially have a maximally low level of resistance to the necessary pesticides. The key problem that exists within the relevant framework resides in the fact that the outcomes of any artificial intervention in gene transformation are impossible to predict accurately. Thus, there is a chance of making the situation with pests even worse in an attempt to resolve it.

Finally, two simple approaches can be applied to the solution of the relevant problem at the mundane level. Hence, to protect ones household, two techniques can be employed. First of all, in case the resistance to the employed pesticide is identified, it is recommended to reformulate its basis by adding a new pesticide. Also, specialists focus on the importance of a regular change of the pesticide patters. This can be performed by idea reducing or increasing the number of pesticides one employs for fighting with pests. The constant change of the dose does not allow pests to develop consistent resistance.

It is critical to take into account the fact that a large part of the pests restraining activity is carried out without a humans participation  the process flows naturally, and the excessively intense intervention might worsen the situation. Therefore, the principal target of a person is to focus on the preservation of the environment and reducing its intervention into its laws.

Reference List

Wixted, D., Flashinski, R., & Boerboom, C. (2003). Training manual for the private pesticide applicator: general farming. New York, New York: Pesticide Applicator Training.

Antibiotic Resistance: Effects of Antibiotic Resistance

Abstract

Antibiotic resistance has become a public issue that is both costly and horrifying.

The diverse studies undertaken have established this phenomenon is becoming hard to control due to what scientists define as mutation. Therefore, antibiotic resistance should be taken seriously. Also more appropriate measures should be put in place to sensitize both public and medical personnel on the best approach and method of using and prescribing antibiotics. This is for the purpose of decrease instances of emergence of drug resistant diseases.

Introduction

First, the human body as is as any other organism, secondly, it is prone to both external and internal influences caused by minute organisms.

Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the diverse attributes and causes which are correlated to antibiotic resistance and the possible remedies for this problem.

Antibiotic resistance thus can be said to be the ability of a given microorganism to stand against the impacts of a given antibiotic. The said resistance is established over the time through what is seen as gene activities or plasmid exchange involving bacteria within the same genetic pool. Thus, if a bacterium is in a position to carry multiple resistant organism or genes is referred to as multi-resistant or as is commonly known as superbug. Basically, antibiotic resistant has been established to be an act of natural selection. This is due to the fact that antibiotic act or activities is commonly an environmental manipulation and this has been know to allow bacteria with diverse rate of mutation to carry on and equally reproduce. The said phenomenon is transmitted to their offsprings and this creates a drug resistant colony. Diverse studies have established that individual pattern of using antibiotics can have a seamless effect on the occurrence of resistant organisms. Likewise, other factors playing role in the development of antibiotic resistance organisms encompasses misdiagnosis, improper usage of antibiotics, unnecessary prescriptions as well as the exploitation of antibiotics as animal feed additives (Salyers, et al 2005).

One of the most widespread resistant pathogen recognized is staphylococcus aureus. This bacterium is chiefly found on the mucous crusts including the skin and is also one of the most adjustable to the antibiotic manipulation. Strangely, just four years after mass production of penicillin began this bacterium was discovered and found to be extremely resistant to penicillin (Russell, et al 1990).

Natural resistance

It is widely accepted that antibiotic resistance is in essence achieved through a number of different and diverse ways. Some of these ways include genetic mutations which end up resulting into novel traits or activities that were not in the earlier generations related to that particular gene category. Though a number of scholars do believe antibiotic resistance develops or in essence involves the noble aspect of acquiring new DNA through incidence mutation, it is likely that the scope of resistant is an act of natural selection (Russell, et al 1990). This can be testified by the fact that lack of apposite control over the production of enzymes can trigger the growth of resistant bacterias. And this is well testified by the instances of penicillin resistance witnessed in staphylococcus bacteria. This illustrates that mutation can trigger loss of enzyme production in an organism and this would ascertain that bacteria producing greater quantity of pencillinase will automatically survive when exposed to any level of penicillin. (www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au ).

How they become resistant

Bacteria have shown to develop resistance through two major ways; either through mutation, or through exploiting their built-in design dynamisms to interchange DNA (horizontal gene transfer), bacteria basically share resistance organisms. In essence, an antibiotic eliminates or kills a bacterial cell simply by disrupting its principal functions. The fate is achieved in the cell in a similar manner that a saboteur can purposely cause an airplane to crash by simply disrupting its fuel mechanism. What the antibiotic does is to etch itself on the protein causing the protein to be dysfunctional. It ought to be noted that the typical protein is commonly encompassed in copying or duplicating the DNA, producing proteins or equally developing bacterial cell wall and all these are paramount to the growth and the reproduction of the bacteria (Russell, et al 1990). Thus, if the bacteria is involved or has instances of mutation in the DNA involved in coding for one of the given proteins, the given antibiotic cannot tackle or handle the modified protein, and in such a scenario the mutant bacteria moves on and survives. However, the process of natural selection may take place if antibiotics are available. This may be due to the availability of favorable environment which may ascertain the massive production of mutant bacteria (Amabile-cuevas 2007).

Conjugation

Conjugation is in essence a mechanism involving horizontal gene transfer. The procedure involves transduction as well as transformation. However, these tow principal mechanism do not entail cell-to-cell direct contact. Thus, in regard to antibiotics resistance, conjugation is presented as being a connector between two cells. This concept was discovered by Joshua Lederberg together with Edward Tatum in 1946 (Salyers, et al 2005).

Effects of antibiotic resistance

Anti-resistant organisms are becoming common in our lifes. These elements can either be classified as Gram-positive or equally Gram-negative. From the diverse studies undertaken by medical scholars it has been established that these organism can cause or lead to extreme morbidity, cost as well as high mortality rates. This feature regarding effects of resistance to antibiotic includes feeling sick, diarrhea and instances of being sick. Also fungal infections relating to digestive tract, vagina as well as the mouth may take place due to antibiotics for they do in one way or the other disrupts the normal growth of beneficial bacteria in the body (Russell,et al 1990). Thus, these observations are some of the commonly observed side effects linked to antibiotics resistance in the body. Having antibiotic resistance can be a threat to both man and animal. This can be allied to the fact that this can cause considerable damage and cost in regard to treatment (Russell, et al 1990).

The recent study has it that treating antibiotic resistant organisms is extremely difficult. Thus, the mutation of bacteria can only be checked in order to control the emergence of diverse bacteria strains resistant to antibiotics. Some of the dangers allied to this menace include loss of life as well as growth of terminal illness due to the antibiotic resistant bacteria (Salyers, et al 2005). Thus, it is prudence to note that excessive use of antibiotics in both man and animals has resulted in the growth of antibiotic resistant organisms. This trend has given room to the multiplication of different diseases which are becoming hard to treat. Some of these diseases include TB, HIV/AIDS, gonorrhea, malaria as well as staphylococcal infections among others. And this is also testified by resistance in treating staphylococcal infections (Russell,et al 1990). Developing stringent measures in regard to drug policies including the scope of usage and research can greatly help in controlling the growth of antibiotic resistant bacteria strains. It has emerged that the misuse or poor dosage of antibiotics do increase chances of preparing a suitable environment on which the resistant bacteria multiplies (www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au ). Thus, stakeholders as well as the government ought to establish core measures of dealing with the scope of dealing with antibiotics issues effectively. Where profound drug policies are established both doctors as well as the patients are given a room for thorough investigation before any type of antibiotic is given. Other measures include developing vaccines in order to minimize the chances of bacteria being treated from mutating.

Unlike conventional approach to treating bacteria infections, vaccines can be employed for they have proved to be more reliable than any other form of approach. This can be testified by the manner the global health body dealt with the issues of small pox and polio globally. Thus, the use of vaccines can be employed as principal alternative to the traditional usage of antibiotics and this can possibly reduce or eliminate the instances of antibiotic resistant strains (Amabile-cuevas 2007).

Equally, the use of mixed antibiotics can effectively eliminate the instances of gene mutation. In essence this can adequately deal with the issue of containing the emergence or the growth of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Consider the fact that there are instances such as witnessed in the treatment of E. coli and staphylococcus aureus which are resistance to antibiotics. And the use of mixed antibiotics has shown that they can be effective and the instances of antibiotic resistance bacteria are reduced (www.noah.co.uk 201

Antibiogram testing before prescription

Another key measure that can be employed in dealing with the issues correlated to antibiotic resistance is antibiogram testing before prescription. The significance of this approach lies in that the medical personnel can determine the nature of the bacteria being explored and the apposite antibiotic to be employed in order to deal with the problem. The utilization of this procedure would help in curbing the overuse as well as inappropriate exploitation of antibiotics. This includes the misuse of broad spectrum antibiotics which are available both in hospitals as well as over the counter prescriptions (Amabile-cuevas 2007). Thus, where testing is performed effectively equally the prescription would be appropriate and the medication can not be compromised and this could result in decreasing the instances of antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Infection prevention and control

If apposite drug policies can be established the growth of bacteria infection can be contained. This can be allied to the fact that personal hygiene does contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Thus, if the government through the appropriate agencies can sensitize the citizens on the dangers of misusing antibiotics as well as on the importance of observing personal hygiene can help in controlling the spread of bacteria allied infections as well as eliminating instances of bacteria mutation in order to curb development of antibacterial resistant strains in the community (Amabile-cuevas 2007).

Evaluation

The dangers fuelled by misuse of antibiotics are real. This can be allied to the fact that the growth of antibiotic resistant bacterias is becoming a threat according to the medical experts. This is being allied to the challenges experienced in the course of attempting to treat such resistant strains as is being witnessed in TB and HIV. Therefore, the scope of antibiotic resistant bacteria can be said to be a threat to the entire human race if allowed to advance. So apposite usage of antibiotic prescriptions should be advocated this is crucial in dealing with the issue of tackling growth of antibiotic resistant strains (Wiley,et al 1997).

Conclusion

Proper antibiotic use should be advocated. It has emerged that antibiotic resistant bacteria has become a principal public concern. This is being allied to the fact that most bacteria are mutating to be resistant to available antibiotics. However, it would be proper to prescribe the antibiotics that can employs the suitable agents designed to kill the identified bacteria, by doing this the instances of allowing the bacteria to be resistant to drugs is reduced. Also taking the appropriate medication and antibiotic dose within the specified duration is highly recommended (Salyers, et al 2005).

References

Amabile-cuevas, Carlos F. (2007) Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria. Horizon Bioscience. 24-27.

Antibiotic Resistance (2010). Web.

Antibiotic resistant bacteria (2010). Web.

Russell, A.D. & Chopra,I (1990). Understanding Antibacterial. Ellis Howood Limited. 45-59.

Salyers, Abigale & Whitt, Dixie. (2005).Revenge of the Microbes. NY: ASM Press. 80-84.

Wiley, John,et al (1997) Antibiotic Resistance: Origins, Evolution.NY :Ciba Foundation. 37-39.

The Use of Antibiotics in the Treatment

A 41-year-old female presents to the doctors office you work at complaining of a sore throat and headache. Upon examination, she is diagnosed with a virus that is currently prevalent in the area she works. She is told to rest and drink liquids until the virus has run its course. She becomes irate and tells you she wants an antibiotic. How could you explain to her why she does not need an antibiotic?

Mediating a conflict between a doctor and a patient has to consider several key issues: the objective of conflict mediation, and the establishment of truth (McKibben, 2017). In this scenario, the objective is to have the patient comply with the prescription and not attempt to obtain an antibiotic when she is having a viral infection. At the same time, the possibility of the patients reactions being justified should also be considered.

The presented case raises several questions about how the doctor handled the situation prior to the patients demand for an antibiotic. Modern-day healthcare is expensive and often time-consuming, so a patient that came for an appointment with a doctor has managed to set aside time and resources to do so. The woman in this situation is clearly expecting the doctor to give her some sort of prescription to mitigate the symptoms of her infection, which are bothering her (McKibben, 2017). Instead of providing her with an antiviral medicine or a set of drugs to manage her symptoms (headache, sore throat), the doctor essentially told her to wait it out and do nothing except drink lots of liquids (something the patient likely already knows).

In demanding an antibiotic, the patient does not specifically wish to receive one, instead, she shows protest towards the perceived lack of interest and concern for her wellbeing (McKibben, 2017). From her point of view, the doctor just told her to get lost. Therefore, explaining to her that she does not need an antibiotic should not be difficult. Instead, the doctor should prescribe her a medicine against the virus and a few cheap and available drugs to manage the symptoms. That way, the patient will be placated and her condition would be managed better. The fault in potentially escalating conflict, in this situation, lies with the doctor.

References

Fleischli, J. W., & Adams, W. R. (1999). Use of postoperative steroids to reduce pain and inflammation. The Journal of Foot and Ankle Surgery, 38(3), 232-237.

Gardiner, D., McShane, B. J., Kerr, M., Agarwal, P., Saylany, A., Sharma, N.,& & Welch, W. C. (2020). Low-dose steroids to decrease postoperative pain and opioid use. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 16(7), 523-527.

McKibben, L. (2017). Conflict management: Importance and implications. British Journal of Nursing, 26(2), 100-103.

Polderman, J. A. W., FarhangRazi, V., van Dieren, S., Kranke, P., DeVries, J. H., Hollmann, M. W.,& & Hermanides, J. (2019). Adverse sideeffects of dexamethasone in surgical patients. Anaesthesia, 74(7), 929-939.

Antibiotics: The Use in Healthcare

Medicine is constantly developing as a sphere, introducing new technologies and methods of cognition of problems and phenomena. One of the most important tools for evidence-based research is the development of a PICOT question by experts. This aspect is intended to give the most accurate picture of a particular health issue, including all relevant information. It is necessary to analyze in more detail how the PICOT question is composed and what criteria it includes.

It is worth highlighting a topical issue for society in order to begin the process of compiling a PICOT question. Recently, parents of sick children, as well as treating doctors, are increasingly prescribing antibiotics as the most effective method of dealing with complex diseases (Boswell & Cannon, 2018). However, antibiotics, in addition to their advantages, also have disadvantages, primarily expressed in a weakening of immunity and a negative effect on certain organs (Boswell & Cannon, 2018). This area will be analyzed to form a PICOT question. However, the problem should be narrowed down to more specific criteria in order to properly design the research vector.

The relevance of this problem is due to the complexity of the interpretation of antibiotics as a method of achieving recovery. On the one hand, these drugs are the most effective and able to quickly restore the patient. On the other hand, due to their characteristics, they reduce the immune system and adversely affect the functioning of the liver (Richardson-Tench et al., 2018). The situation is aggravated by cases when the patient is a child whose body is weaker than that of an adult (Richardson-Tench et al., 2018). Despite the fact that the nurse does not prescribe treatment and medicines, this problem is vital for the specialist. The fact is that it is the nurses task to clearly and clearly convey to parents information about the negative effects of antibiotics.

In recent years, the use of antibiotics has increased markedly in all countries. Now 40% of adults and 70% of children in the world use antibiotics at least once a year (Richardson-Tench et al., 2018, p. 56). If such drugs are used correctly, they destroy life-threatening human infections. However, in 10% of cases, antibiotics lead to negative side effects (Richardson-Tench et al., 2018, p. 72). Drugs, especially when used in large quantities, affect glucose metabolism, the immune system, digestion, and human behavior. Over the past ten years, several effects of antibiotic use have been discovered (Richardson-Tench et al., 2018). The effect of these drugs on the intestinal microflora and on the human gastrointestinal system has not yet been fully studied.

However, the problem is compounded by uncertainty about the treatment of otitis media in children. The fact is that this disease is complex, which means that its treatment has not been fully identified. Therefore, the challenge for public health and nurses is to determine the effectiveness of the fight against otitis media without the use of antibiotics. In order for the study of this issue to be the most effective and substantive, it is necessary to formulate a specific PICOT question. It is also worth emphasizing that this evidence-based medicine tool should be compiled as correctly as possible. It contains 5 components:

  1. P (patient)  The patient, problem, and population to be addressed in this study. This is necessary in order to determine the risk group and potentially identify the root causes of the occurrence of a clinical case (Illigens & Fregni, 2018).
  2. I (intervention)  Establishment of a specific intervention or influence in a specific clinical case (Illigens & Fregni, 2018). It includes management strategy, diagnostic test, drug effect size, drug information.
  3. C (comparison)  This criterion analyzes alternative options for conducting procedures. In addition, there is a comparison of existing processes and mechanisms with potentially possible ones (Illigens & Fregni, 2018).
  4. O (outcome)  Sets what outcome of the whole process is expected by both the patient and the specialist. Characteristic of the effects in which the parties to the treatment process are interested, for example, recovery or a reduction in the risk of major and minor complications (Illigens & Fregni, 2018).
  5. T (time)  Determines the time intervals of either the disease or the action of the drug (Illigens & Fregni, 2018). In addition, it is necessary to establish consistent boundaries of the study.

In order to most clearly illustrate the formulation of the PICOT question, it is necessary to consider the intended clinical situation. For example, the patient is a 5-year-old girl diagnosed with otitis media. Her mother says that the childs ears used to hurt, but the disease went away on its own, and sometimes doctors prescribed antibiotics. In this case, the following data appears in the question formulation matrix:

  • P Patient (problem, population)  child with otitis media.
  • I Intervention  antibiotics.
  • C Comparison  the absence of antibiotic therapy.
  • O Outcome  symptom relief.
  • T Time  six months.

The totality of the above data is complete, covering all the main criteria. Based on this, the specialist can draw up a final question for further study of the problem. Thus, the PICOT question  In a child with otitis media (P), does the administration of antibiotics (I), compared with the absence of antibiotic therapy (C), lead to a decrease in the frequency of complications of the disease (O) within six months (T)? This question will help specialists assess the risks relevant to this problem, make a forecast and explore solutions. Thus, due to the correct formulation and implementation of each criterion in this issue, the research will be effective. This is explained by the fact that specialists will study a specific risk group (children), a drug (antibiotics) and conduct a comparative analysis (with no antibiotic therapy).

References

Boswell, C. & Cannon, S. (Eds.). (2018). Introduction to nursing research. Incorporating evidence-based practice. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Illigens, B. M. W. & Fregni, F. (Eds.). (2018). Critical thinking in clinical research. Applied theory and practice using case studies. Oxford University Press.

Richardson-Tench, M., Nicholson, P., Taylor, B. J., Kermode, S., & Roberts, K. (2018). Research in nursing, midwifery and allied health: Evidence for best practice. Cengage Learning Australia.

Antibiotics for Beef Cattle: Usage Ways

Antibiotics were previously used to treat ailments in humans but the latest advancements in medicine has shifted their use to focus on animals especially poultry and livestock. They are employed to induce the cows to eat more thus add mass body faster. However antibiotics can be used to treat ailing cows by injecting them or by giving them orally.

This means that beef cattle mature faster than usual and thus the beef market is flooded which causes the cost of beef to go down. This trend favors the farmers but the long term use of these drugs can cause problems to humans. This is because the cows mature faster and the residues of antibiotics are least likely to have been exhausted by the time they reach the slaughter house.

These residues bring the same results for humans and that’s why there are so many people in America who are obese compared to other countries that don’t use chemicals to induce growth of animals. People from other continents such as Africa argue that fast food joints in America serve beef and chicken in big portions which causes people to eat more junk food. But the issue here is not about junk food but the nutritional value of beef.

When people eat such beef they add weight which makes them prone to diseases like high blood pressure and diabetes. Additionally when these antibiotics are given to animals they may transfer deadly bacteria to humans during their consumption. These bacteria are perceived to be very strong hence they can not be treated with the usual antibiotics. That’s why medical experts are against the use of antibiotics in animals.

Farmers are being blamed for the emergence of these bacteria because they are thought to have used these antibiotics for the wrong purpose. Initially antibiotics were used to treat diseases in animals but nowadays farmers are giving this medicine to their farm animals even when they are not sick because their aim is to sell cows within the shortest period possible.

Farmers on the other hand value these medicines because if the growth of beef cattle was slow they would incur more losses because they would spend more money to buy food for their animals thus inputs would be more than the expected outputs. They also argue that more animals would die because of diseases due to overcrowding hence antibiotics improves cattle’s immunity system.

In fact most people are going for organic foods because they don’t have any chemical compounds. Most general practitioners are advising their patients to avoid red meat because it has large volumes of cholesterol.

Some countries have declared the use of antibiotics in livestock illegal and reports from such states including Europe imply that the existence of drug resistant bacteria has reduced. Although farmers may win this battle they are bound to lose in the future because more people are avoiding beef and are going for alternative sources of protein such as fish and beans.

Most consumers are not well informed when purchasing beef products because most people have this perception that the huge an animal is the healthier it is which is very wrong. This attitude is not applied in this industry alone but also when people are buying vegetables. They go for the bigger ones because they assume they are the most nutritious but what they don’t know is that they have been induced by chemicals because the producers know that consumers judge products by their size.

Bacterial Susceptibility to Antibiotics and Disinfectants

Introduction

Antibiotics are antimicrobial agents that aid in the treatment or deterrence of bacterial infections (1). These chemical agents are sometimes referred to as “antibacterial.” Their mode of action entails either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth. Antibiotics that prevent the growth of bacteria are called bacteriostatic antibiotics, while those that kill bacteria are known as bactericidal antibiotics (1). Bacteriostatic antibiotics interfere with the essential physiological processes of bacterial cells including the production of proteins, as well as the replication of DNA and RNA. By doing so, the bacteria are unable to multiply and carry out their metabolic activities, permitting the body’s immune system to clear the infection. Bactericidal antibiotics, on the other hand, kill bacteria by destroying the cell membrane or cell wall, thus allowing the cell contents to leak out and leading to the death of the bacterial cells.

Disinfectants are described as antimicrobial agents that are applied to non-living objects to get rid of any microorganisms present on the objects. The mode of action of disinfectants involves interfering with the metabolism of bacteria and the integrity of the bacterial cell walls. However, disinfectants are not one hundred percent effective as they are unable to eliminate resistant spores.

Antimicrobial susceptibility testing is a process of finding out which specific antibiotics a given bacterial species is sensitive to. Different bacterial species demonstrate different sensitivities to various antibiotics. For example, the emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is a global problem in clinical medicine due to the bacterial species’ resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics and penicillin (2). Therefore, susceptibility testing is beneficial in determining the most effective antibiotic to manage a bacterial infection in a living cell. This method can also be used to identify certain bacteria. One of the commonly used techniques for determining antimicrobial sensitivity is the disc diffusion method.

The benefits of this approach are that it is convenient, effective, and economical. To complete this test, a growth medium is poured evenly on a plate alongside the bacterial isolate of interest, which has been watered down to a standard concentration. Commercially made discs pre-infused with a known strength of a specific antibiotic are then spread evenly and pressed lightly on the surface of the agar. The antibiotic diffuses outward from the discs, creating a gradient of antibiotic concentration in the agar such that the highest concentration is located near the disc, while lower concentrations are found further away from the disc. The bacterial growth around each disc is then observed following incubation. Susceptible isolates show a clear zone devoid of growth around a given disc.

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the susceptibility of three bacteria to different antibiotics and disinfectants. It was hypothesized that S. aureus and Pseudomonas aureginosa would exhibit similar patterns of antibiotic and disinfectant susceptibility.

Materials & Methods

Different antibiotic solutions including ampicillin (AM10), chloramphenicol (C30), kanamycin (K30), nalidixic acid (NA30), novobiocin (NB5), gentamicin (GM10), tetracycline (TE30), penicillin (P10), sulfamethazole/trimethoprim (SXT), CID5, CF30, and S10 were prepared. Bacterial culture tubes containing three bacterial strains—Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aureginosa—were flicked to mix the contents. Cotton swabs were aseptically dipped one time in the bacterial broth, after which the swabs were spread uniformly on three Petri dishes containing agar.

Twelve discs were aseptically transferred to the 12-well tray by placing one disc per well. One drop of disinfectant or antibiotic was added to each disc. The impregnated discs were then placed on the plates following bacterial plating of the bacteria in such a way that each disc centered one quadrant per plate of the three square plates. The plates were then inverted and incubated at 37° C for three days. On the third day, the diameters of the zones of inhibition of all antibiotics and disinfectants were measured in millimeters and recorded. The inhibition zones were then compared to a standard interpretation chart and used to classify the bacteria isolates as sensitive, intermediately sensitive, or resistant.

Results

Table 1: The mean zones of inhibition for the three bacterial species growing on different antibiotics.

Diameters of zones of inhibition (mm)
Symbol Antibiotic E. coli S. aureus P. aureginosa
AM10 Ampicillin 0 19 + 0
C30 Chloramphenicol 24 + 17 * 17 *
K30 Kanamycin 22 + 27 + 18 +
NA30 Nalidixic acid 22 + 0 21 +
NB5 Novobiocin 0 12 15
GM10) Gentamicin 19 + 25 + 22 +
TE30 Tetracycline 23 + 29 + 20 +
P10 Penicillin 0 16 0
SXT Sulfamethazole 19 + 30 + 19 +
CID5 29 26 23
CF30, 0 29 0
S10 0 12 21

Key: + sensitive; – resistant; * intermediate.

Petri dishes indicating zones of inhibition of different bacteria growing on media impregnated by antibiotic discs.
Figure 1: Petri dishes indicating zones of inhibition of different bacteria growing on media impregnated by antibiotic discs. The plate on the right shows E. coli.

Petri dishes indicating zones of inhibition of different bacteria growing on media impregnated by antibiotic discs.

The clear regions surrounding the discs indicate the zones of inhibition, whereas the opaque areas around the discs show that the bacteria are resistant to the antibiotics.

Discussion

E. coli is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium prevalent in the lower intestines of most endothermic living organisms (1). E. coli is a facultative anaerobe. S. aureus, on the other hand, is a Gram-positive bacterium whose cells have a round shape. S. aureus is a common microflora of the skin, nose, and respiratory system. P. aeruginosa is a Gram-negative bacterium that is responsible for plant and animal disease. Its cells are rod-shaped. All three of these microbes were resistant to penicillin and novobiocin. In contrast, they were all susceptible to gentamicin, kanamycin, tetracycline, and sulfamethoxazole. There was an intermediate sensitivity of S. aureus and P. aureginosa to chloramphenicol. S. aureus was the only microbe that was susceptible to ampicillin and resistant to nalidixic acid. The findings supported the hypothesis that E. coli and P. aureginosa would exhibit similar antibiotic susceptibility patterns given that they are both Gram-negative.

The mechanisms of different antibiotics determined which microbes were susceptible to it. For example, ampicillin irreversibly inhibits the enzyme transpeptidase, whose role is critical to the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. Transpeptidase inhibition interferes with the final step in bacterial cell wall synthesis during binary fission. Consequently, cell lysis occurs, leading to cell death. Chloramphenicol slows down bacterial growth by preventing protein synthesis, particularly the elongation of the protein chain, by blocking the peptidyl transferase action of the bacterial ribosome. Kanamycin and gentamicin are aminoglycosides whose mode of action entails binding the bacterial 30S ribosomal subunit and thwarting the actions of t-RNA. Consequently, protein synthesis is inhibited. Aminoglycosides are useless against anaerobic bacteria, which explains why the two antibiotics were effective against all three microbes.

Nalidixic acid hinders DNA synthesis in Gram-negative bacteria, which accounts for its inhibition of E. coli and P. aureginosa (3). Conversely, novobiocin is an aminocoumarin that impedes the action of DNA gyrase in bacteria, thus impairing the transduction of energy. Tetracyclines inhibit protein synthesis and are effective against most aerobic bacteria. Penicillin exerts its bactericidal actions by hampering the cross-linking of peptidoglycan during cell wall synthesis. Therefore, it is effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim obstruct bacterial production of dihydrofolate, thus affecting the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids (4), which explains its effectiveness against these three bacteria. The data in this experiment are consistent with the literature, and it was concluded that E. coli and P. aureginosa demonstrated similar antibiotic sensitivity patterns.

References

  1. Tortora GJ, Funke BR, Case, CL. 2015. Microbiology: An introduction. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
  2. Tang SS, Apisarnthanarak A, Hsu LY. 2014. Mechanisms of β-lactam antimicrobial resistance and epidemiology of major community and healthcare-associated multidrug-resistant bacteria. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 78: 3-13. Web.
  3. Aldred KJ, Kerns RJ, Osheroff N. 2014. Mechanism of quinolone action and resistance. Biochemistry 53: 1565-1574. Web.
  4. Livermore DM, Mushtaq S, Warner M, Woodford N. 2014. Comparative in vitro activity of sulfametrole/trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim and other agents against multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria. J Antimicrob Chemother 69: 1050-1056. Web.