Anorexia Nervosa: Signs, Effects and Therapies

Introduction

Anorexia nervosa is a nutritional disorder depicted by excessive food constraint, unfounded phobia of weight gain and negative physical self-perception (Brown & Isaacs, 2008). It involves extreme loss of weight and is more prevalent in females than in males. People with this disorder often limit their intake of food resulting in acute hormonal as well as metabolic maladies. Anorexia is particularly life-threatening for pregnant mothers and their unborn children.

This paper looks at the signs of anorexia nervosa, its effects on pregnant mothers and delivery, as well as the nutritional therapies for patients suffering from anorexia. It also recommends healthcare professionals who should be incorporated in the treatment process.

Signs of Anorexia Nervosa

The indications of people suffering from anorexia include constipation, laziness, fatigue, drowsiness, headaches, brittle nails, and dizziness (Abraham, 2008). It is also characterized by osteoporosis, which may bring about fractured bones.

The most frequent causes of death in anorexia include electrolyte and body fluid disproportions, suicide and cardiac arrest. Many cases of anorexia are accompanied by psychiatric and physical disorders such as drug and substance abuse, neurological complications, anxiety, depression, cardiovascular complications, and obsessive behavior.

Anorexia, Pregnancy and Childbirth

Generally, pregnant women possess an inflated sensitivity to variations in the shapes of their bodies. For people suffering from anorexia, the elevation of the sensitivity can result in fatal actions such as starvation or purging (Ross, McMahon & Bernstein 2013). Anorexia poses a risk to the pregnancy since the mother does not consume the required nutrients.

A clear sign or anorexia in expectant mothers is failure to gain 25 to 35 pounds during pregnancy or acute hyperemesis. Most purging pregnant mothers hide their condition by attributing the vomiting to morning sickness.

Dangers of Anorexia to Pregnancy and Delivery

Anorexia causes difficulties during pregnancy and may necessitate delivery through cesarian section, breech delivery and the use of forceps. Nurses in the Labor and Delivery health department should identify the signs of anorexia early enough and should be prepared for any complications.

The mother’s eating disorder impedes the birth weight of the fetus. Anorexia during pregnancy may also lead to an infant with poor health (may show retarded growth and vitamin deficiency). Other dangers posed by anorexia in pregnant women include infant mortality, premature labor, gestational diabetes, stillbirth, respiratory complications, preeclampsia, and miscarriages (Bothamley & Boyle, 2009).

Nutritional Therapies used in Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa

Therapy for pregnant women with anorexia includes the restoration of the patients’ weight, handling the psychological issues linked with anorexia nervosa, getting rid of deliberations or actions that cause the disorder, and prevention of a relapse (Price, 2007). Nutritional supplements can be given to the patient besides a properly supervised diet. To do this effectively, nurses in the Labor and Delivery unit need to incorporate the services of other health professionals in psychotherapy and treatment.

To deal with anorexia in pregnant women, the services of certified mental health care providers are required. Different procedures of group and individual psychotherapy are required to deal with the psychological causes of the disorder. Family members may also be incorporated into the therapy sessions since they contribute partially to the disorder.

Physicians and assistant physicians should be contacted to ascertain the physical implications of the disorder on the mother and the fetus. Due to the essential nutritional demands of pregnancy and childbirth, the services of dietitians are significant as they can recommend alternative sources of nutrition to help the mother gain the required weight.

Conclusion

Though all people with anorexia need treatment, pregnant mothers are the most vulnerable due to the risks posed by such nutritional deficiency on the mother and child. Nurses in the labor and delivery units need to be trained on the proper way of diagnosing and handling anorexia patients to reduce cases of infant mortality. A combination of medical attention and accommodating psychotherapy is the most efficient form of treatment in anorexia nervosa.

References

Abraham, S. (2008). Eating disorders. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bothamley, J. & Boyle, M. (2009). Medical conditions affecting pregnancy and childbirth. United Kingdom: Radcliffe Publishing.

Brown, J. & Isaacs, J. (2008). Nutrition through the life cycle. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

Price, S. (2007). Mental health in pregnancy and childbirth. USA: Elsevier Health Sciences.

Ross, D., McMahon, K., & Bernstein, M. (2013). Discovering nutrition. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

The Problem of Anorexia in Modern American Society

Modern American society has faced a really severe problem of eating disorders which are mainly caused by Hollywood ideals of “beauty”. Nowadays more than 24 million Americans suffer from anorexia which leads to many fatal outcomes. However, in spite of frightening statistics, nowadays many sufferers have a good chance to recover due to increasing number of programs and campaigns aimed at overcoming this disease.

According to First et al. (2004) anorexia is “the refusal to maintain normal body weight, which is related to an extreme fear of becoming fat” (First et al., 2004, p.316). It has been suggested that this eating disorder prevails in the industrial countries where much attention is paid to thinness, thus, it is caused mainly by social and cultural reasons (First et al., 2004, p.315).

It is necessary to point out that this disorder leads to some severe complications, causing heart and kidneys diseases, blood pressure diseases, headaches, osteoporosis, depression and many others physical and mental disorders (“Eating Disorders Mirror Mirror,” n.d.). Admittedly, anorexia affects greatly sufferers’ personal and social life.

These people show low activity in work, education, etc. and due to the high comorbidity of this disease they are usually weak and frustrated (“Eating Disorders Coalition,” n.d.). Such people are preoccupied with their weight and do not try to participate social life.

According to the National Eating Disorders Association Statistics 10 million American females suffer from anorexia (“NEDA,” n.d.). It is necessary to add that the average adolescent age is about 15 years old (“The Renfrew Centre Foundation,” n.d.). Reportedly, 40% of cases identified in 2003 were in girls aged from 15 to 19 years old.

As far as ethnicity of sufferers is concerned, it is necessary to point out that more than 90% of cases are Caucasians, about 2.7% – Hispanic people, and the rest of cases of anorexia are identified in people of other ethnicity (“The Renfrew Centre Foundation,” n.d.). Besides, more than 60% of such cases are traced in single people (“The Renfrew Centre Foundation,” n.d.).

Admittedly, many people suffering eating disorders do not get the appropriate mental and medical care (“The Alliance for Eating Disorders Awareness,” n.d.). However, in recent years different non-governmental organization started paying a lot of attention to the problem. Thus, there are many centers which help people suffering from eating disorders.

Many of them offer different programs of effective mental care which enable people to become committed to overcome the problem (“Monte Nido,” n.d.). Fortunately, there are many centers which offer full-time treatment, others invite people for meetings aimed at discussion and overcoming the problem.

Many conferences are launched for therapists to share their experience and find new ways of helping anorexia sufferers (“Eating Disorders Coalition,” n.d.). In fact, at the moment many sufferers can find the professional help on the Internet. However, the main reason of low mental care is caused by ethical issues since far from all eating disorders sufferers admit that they need help.

Thus, it is possible to conclude that anorexia, being a very severe kind of eating disorders which often leads to fatal outcome, is widely spread throughout the USA, affecting, in the majority of cases, young female. However, recently an increasing number of programs and campaigns aimed at overcoming this problem are being launched. Fortunately, this positive trend is likely to maintain in future.

Reference List

First, M. B., Frances, A., Pincus, H. A. (2004). DSM-IV-TR Guidebook. American Psychiatric Pub.

The Alliance for Eating Disorders Awareness. Web.

Monte Nido Treatment Center. Web.

Eating Disorders Mirror Mirror. Anorexia Statistics. Web.

The Renfrew Centre Foundation. Web.

NEDA. (2005). Web.

UCLA. Web.

Eating Disorders: Anorexia, Bulimia and Compulsive Overeating

Introduction

An eating disorder is a condition in which an individual develops abnormal eating habits. An affected person experiences extreme reduction or increase in food intake. Another major experience is the great anxiety about one’s body mass and/or shape. Eating disorders may develop when a person simply starts eating smaller or larger amounts of food than the normal intake. With time, the person develops a strong urge to eat more or less food which eventually becomes uncontrollable.

Eating disorders occur more during teenage years or early maturity though it can as well develop during childhood or late maturity. The most affected are women and girls since they are much more concerned about their body appearance than men and boys. This concern makes them change their eating behavior from time to time to those that will suit their desired body appearances.

Though treatable medically, eating disorders are complex with biological and psychological causes. In most cases they co-exist with other disorders such as anxiety, despair or drug abuse (Nagle 84). People suffering from eating disorders are more likely to suffer from complicated diseases such as heart or kidney failure which could be fatal.

Anorexia

Anorexia is a both eating and psychological disorder that is initiated as a person begins to diet in order to lose weight. The desire to become thinner drives the individual to continue with the restrictive eating which is most often accompanied by other behaviors that would enhance weight loss. Too much exercising and overuse of drugs are the most used ways of losing weight. Individuals may even go to the point of starving themselves just to feel the power of control over their bodies.

Anorexia is characterized by low levels of body fats which lead to alteration of body shape. Both girls and women may experience loss of their menstrual periods due to the drastic change in diet and/or amount of food taken. Affected individuals also have a strong fear to put on weight and this makes them have an uneasy eating habit. People with anorexia seem to pay more attention to food and weight control and they usually weigh themselves more often than those who are not.

Though anorexia has no definite causes, genetic composition may determine the vulnerability of a person to develop this disorder. Another possible contribution is a dysfunction of the hypothalamus in one’s brain. Other factors that are risky to anorexia development are poor feeding habits and general under eating as infants as well as maternal depression. Individual negativity and the desire to be perfect can result to the development of anorexia (Poppink 1).

A person with anorexia disorder may be treated as an outpatient or may be hospitalized in case of organ dysfunction resulting from severe weight loss. In such cases the treatment should begin in correcting the malnutrition and this should include feeding the patient by tubes that go through the mouth. Increased eating schedules and social activities accompanied by a decrease in physical exercise can contribute largely to weight gain.

The treatment of anorexia may require more focus on psychological and medical attention than on weight gain. It is therefore necessary to get medical provision and diet advice. Psychological therapy is also very important either as an individual or as a group or family.

Weight management by a nutritionist is recommended as a healthy alternative to weight loss. Any suitable treatment should deal with self control and most importantly, self esteem to help the individual to accept how he/she is in order to live a healthy life both emotionally and physically.

Bulimia

Bulimia is an eating disorder that is different from anorexia in that a person develops frequent “eating habits and at large amounts than usual” (Derenne 27). The person also feels that he/she lacks the power to control the over eating. Surprisingly, this over eating is accompanied by certain behaviors for compensation, such as exercising excessively, induced vomiting and fasting.

Just like anorexia, people with bulimia have a constant fear to gain weight and are so desperate to lose it. Because of this, they are very much unhappy about their body form and size. Bulimia disorder is often accompanied by mental illnesses such as anxiety, depression or abuse of drugs.

There are physical complications that result from the frequent vomits in people with bulimia, including gastrointestinal problems and oral-related problems. In some cases, bulimia development is related to gene composition hence can be inherited. Another very important factor determining the development of bulimia is culture (Jennifer 2). For example, in the modern society, there is the pressure to become thin and this can influence people greatly especially those that want to be accepted in a certain society.

Bulimia has some long time complications occurring as a result of the habits that an individual develops in order to compensate eating. They include chronic inflammation of the throat and swelling of neck and jaw glands as a result of frequent vomiting. Wearing out of tooth enamel and teeth decay may also occur due to contact with stomach acids during vomiting. Another severe effect of vomiting in people with bulimia is dehydration due to clearing of fluids (Dryden 1).

The treatment for bulimia depends on an individual and requires a combination of therapies which include nutritional advice, psychological counseling to establish healthy eating habits as well as medical treatment especially in patients who have developed serious health complications.

Antidepressants are recommended to help bulimia patients who have been depressed and/or anxious. Treatment of bulimia in many people is done in steps and should therefore be started early enough to increase the chances of the patient to recover.

Compulsive overeating

Compulsive overeating is an eating disorder where a person becomes literally addicted to food and uses food as a tool to control his/her emotions. Whenever they have problems or are stressed, people with compulsive overeating turn to food to console and control themselves. They use food to make them feel safe and in some kind of control. Unlike bulimia, people suffering from compulsive overeating do not try to get rid of the extra food they eat.

They end up eating large amounts of food repeatedly without purging and with time they gain a lot of weight and become obese. They feel shame for being overweight with general lack of self-esteem and this causes them to turn to food in order to deal with such emotions. They end up repeating this cycle over and over again. Unlike anorexia, compulsive overeating is common in both men and women.

The psychological problems that may result to food addiction include misery and pressure, tiredness due to overworking, anxiety and sadness. These problems make people develop behaviors such as eating even when they are not hungry, hiding themselves when they are eating, eating faster than usual, inability to stop eating no matter how full they are, embarrassment over eating in the presence of other people. Some may even go to the extreme of eating uncooked food.

Just like any other eating disorder, “compulsive overeating may cause other health problems” (McDonald 31). The complication of these problems is determined by the duration during which a person has had an eating disorder and how severe the disorder has been. Compulsive overeaters are at high risks of suffering from heart problems, kidney failure, high blood pressure and even stroke. The stomach may rupture and bones weaken in extreme cases of compulsive overeating.

Compulsive overeating treatment should aim at psychological and emotional therapy since this disorder is a result of mental problems and depression. Counseling programs are also important to help compulsive eaters learn better and healthy ways of dealing with stress and other problems in life.

Dealing with depression alone cannot completely end this disorder; clinical signs of depression should be treated medically as well. An effective program on weight loss, therefore, should consist of a good diet, change in lifestyle, nutritional advice, medication if necessary and support. Primarily, compulsive overeaters are treated with antidepressants which are as effective as psychological treatment in behavioral therapy.

Conclusion

Eating disorders are very serious mental situations. The affected individuals are obsessed with eating and are more concerned about their physical appearance to the extent of allowing themselves to suffer and risk their health in the long run due to poor diet. Eating disorders take decades to treat; treatment should therefore start as early as the disorder is diagnosed. Recovering from eating disorders involves long-term changes and professional assistance as well as support from family and friends is necessary.

Works Cited

Derenne, Lillian. Body image, the media and eating disorders. California. Barnes & Noble, 2001. Print.

Dryden, Roxanne. “.” 2010. Web.

Jennifer, Stevens. A Note to Self. New York Times, 2006.

Poppink, Joanna. “What happens to Anorexic girls when they become anorexic young women?” 2008. Web.

McDonald, Jerry. Reducing the number of deaths with Anorexia Nervosa. New York Times. 2005.

Nagle, Marianne. Eating disorders. New York. Wordsworth Publishers, 2004. Print.

Anorexia in Teens: Media Impact

Executive Summary

With the current advancement in the information technology, social values have been easily relayed through the media. As a result, various unhealthy practices have been triggered among the current teenagers, resulting into their development of various disorders. Particularly, anorexia has become a very popular disorder among many teenage girls in the society today in their efforts to develop the best body shape associated with thinness.

As a result, many young ladies have been revealed to exhibit unsafe eating habits, which endanger their health largely. According to the recent research about 1 out of 100 ladies today in US are anorexic in their pursuit for beauty associated with body slimness. More so, it has been revealed how high school girls perceive eating negatively, with about 40% of such girls over-relying on junk foods.

Though family and peer influences have played significant role in the development of anorexia among many teenagers, the social media has largely been attributed to the current situation. As the media concentrates on beauty advertisements, slimness among the advertisements is brought out as the focal measure of beauty, triggering many teenage girls to initiate unhealthy eating habits with an aim attaining the anticipated body shape.

This research focuses on the impact of the media as the ultimate key player for the development of the dangerous disorder among the contemporary young girls in the society. This study is very significant in the sense that, it will bring into focus the adverse effects associated with poor eating habits, and subsequently facilitate the change of attitude towards eating among teenage girls.

Anorexia in Teens

Background Information

Anorexia is an eating disorder in which individuals tend to consider junk foods as their major part of their diet in fear of excess weight gain. According to Brooks (38), people with anorexia tend to be much obsessed on being thin, since they seek to acquire the best body shape and appearance.

On this basis, anorexia has been a major problem among teenagers, especially girls, who tend to pursue the beauty associated with thinness. It has been revealed that, anorexia is becoming an eminent issue among teenage girls today, since their efforts to attain thin and beautiful body shape triggers them to avoid healthy foods. In America today, about 28% of the young girls are in ceases war against weight gain. On the process of trying to avoid weight gain, many of these teenagers expose themselves to unsafe self-starvation.

In this regard, there has been rising need of public persuasions among the teenagers to guide them on how to avoid such dangerous eating habits. In fact, the media can be associated with the massive development of anorexia conditions among young girls. As revealed by Steele (1), anorexia is largely associated with social practices which necessitate thinness, which is mostly associated with beauty.

As a result, the study of anorexia among teenagers has found its significance in the contemporary society dominated by social interactions through the highly sophisticated information systems, which promotes the urge of young girls of becoming slim.

Research Hypothesis

With the advancement of social media through the internet and the television, many teenage girls have developed the tendency of acquiring beauty through unsafe eating habits. Particularly, many of the contemporary girls at the teenage stage have developed the notion of pursuing slim bodies, since it is largely associated with beauty.

As a result, these teenagers have developed poor eating habits, since their largest proportion of their meals is junk foods. In this regard, the media can be considered as the main cause of the unhealthy and dangerous eating habits among the young girls toady, in their pursuit for beauty (Brandenberg and Andersen 97).

This study aims at establishing the relationship between the media and the rising number of young girls with anorexia. Since the contemporary society considers thinness as being directly proportional to beauty, this study seeks to establish the ultimate relationship between the advancing social media, and the increasing number of anorexia victims in the contemporary society.

More so, this study will establish the other factors contributing to the development of anorexia among teenagers, besides the media. Generally, this study seeks to establish the ultimate impact of the social media to most young girls, triggering them to develop unsafe eating habits in search of beauty (Groshan 1).

As it has been revealed, there chances of the media being the key player to the increasing rates of anorexia cases in the contemporary society. Since the media has become highly sophisticated with the massive advancement of the information technology, many teenagers’ exposure to the media has largely triggered their desire to become more beautiful through body weigh loss by becoming thinner.

As a result, many attributes have been associated with the media, since the number of anorexics in America has been increasing proportionally with the advancement of the information system (Hall 37).

Literature Review

The issue of girls becoming increasingly concerned about their weight has remained an eminent issue in the contemporary society. According to Breen (122), the society today perceives beauty as being extremely thin and having low weight. Particularly, the social media has largely played a central role in influencing many teenage girls to become anorexic. The images being presented in the social media like the internet and the TV are becoming extremely influential to young girls at their adolescence stage.

Though the images being presented are unrealistic and more often unattainable, their impact on young girls’ eating habits has remained remarkable. As revealed by Claude-Pierre (77), 75% of most beauty advertisements seem to revolve around thinness and slimness, which triggers most of the teenage girls to starve themselves by having very poor eating habits to reduce their weight, in search of beauty.

As reported by Tchanturia (42), individuals with anorexia are associated with deficiencies in emotional functions since their body becomes extremely weak due to their poor diets. On this basis, anorexia seems to expose individuals at risk of body complications in cases of conditions adversity. As reported by Fisman (939), many teenagers suffering from anorexia tend to have discrepancy in certain emotional functions, which makes their social relationships unfruitful.

On this basis, the impacts of the anorexic conditions are more complex than just mere starvation. It is important to note that, people with anorexia tend to deny themselves food, even when they feel hungry, in fear of gaining weight and the desire to become slimmer. With reference to Brooks (40), the high rate of anorexia among young girls is an alarming condition, since they are at high risk of body complications at their early age.

Though Steele (1) considers peer pressure as the ultimate cause of anorexia among teenage girls, social trends in the global society can be considered as the aggregate key determinants of the lifestyle. In this regard, the social media is brought out as being the key player for the overall tendency of many young girls wanting to become slim or thin.

Despite being attributed to psychological behaviors, social norms and values have been key determinants of the development of anorexia in the society. Since individuals’ self actualization is largely based on social context, anorexics tend to consider themselves as remarkable in the society by attaining the most treasured shape and size of their body for beauty. As a result, individuals suffering from anorexia have the neurosis of remaining thin always through unhealthy eating habits.

Despite being a personal eating disorder, anorexics have been revealed to have social phobia, in which they fear being in situation of ‘eating’. As revealed by Brandenberg and Andersen (99), anorexics are usually very sensitive to social situations associated with any eating situation, since they perceive their own eating habits as being the best to realize their self actualization.

In this case, anorexia emerges as a very severe condition associated with anti-social behaviors and practices. According to Groshan (1), young girls tend to avoid social gatherings in fear of being exposed to eating practices, and tend to control such stresses by confiding themselves to lonely life. In cases of failure to realize the desired body shape, many anorexics develop depression and subsequently become at risk of committing suicide.

With respect to Hall (45), anorexia is a condition among teenage girls in their efforts to cope with the social phenomena happening in their life. In addition, () considers family environment as very influential in the development of anorexia among young girls. In cases where relatives criticize young girls of becoming over-weight, higher chances of such girls to develop anorexia are high. According to () about 40% of young girls are triggered to starve themselves as a result of negative comments from their relatives on their body weight.

This has been a chronic disorder in their pursuit for beauty, without considering the high mortality rate associated with poor eating habits. Since only 10% of anorexics receive treatment, very high rates of morality associated with anorexia are expected among the young girls in the near future.

As revealed by Steele (1), 85% of anorexics patients develop the habit of unhealthy eating habits at the age of 13-18 years. With 50% of high school girls believing that are overweight, their desire to loose their excess weight develops. It is also important to note that, 90% of high school girls over-rely on the social media for beauty tips. Since the media advocates for beauty by sliming or becoming thin, most of these high school girls end up depriving themselves healthy foods, and end up over-relying on junk foods.

As a result, many of these girls end up developing health complications as a result of poor eating habits. According to Andersen (100), death rates as a result of anorexia are more than 10 times higher than the death rate of the overall causes of death among young ladies of the age of 15-24 years. This is an implication that, anorexia is a very serious eating disorder among the young girls, despite its social benefit of beauty and self esteem and actualization.

According to Steele (1), about 20% of people suffering from anorexia will end up dying at their early age as a result of complications associated with poor eating habits.

On this basis, maintaining body weight is very important and healthy practice, as it facilitates the capacity of the body to endure illnesses and other disease attacks. Since the media has largely played significant role in the development of anorexia among young girls, there has been rising need for the same media to develop strategies to facilitate healthy eating habits among such girls.

Through healthy dieting, early deaths and the adverse impacts associated with anorexia would be minimized, which will enhance posterity of the contemporary teenage population. As a result, many scholars have found the study of eating disorders among the teenagers as quite important, with the aim of identifying the key players for the development of the disorder, and subsequently develop mitigation measures.

Methodology

The main research methods to be used in this paper are interviews and questionnaires. Since interviews are qualitative study approaches, their use in this study will give detailed information about the ultimate causes and impacts of anorexia among teenagers (Fisman 943).

The interviews will be conducted to medical specialists in both private and public health institutions. Though there are not selected organizations yet, the number of interviewees for this study will be 10, where five will be from public health organizations while the other five will be from the private medical sector.

Notably, the interview schedule will be prepared in order to harmonize the entire research and avoid any bias in terms of data collection. Notably, the main issues to be covered in the interviews are entirely based on the major causes of anorexia among young girls, and subsequently degree at which such victims seek medical advices or treatment.

More so, questionnaires will be conducted among young girls aging 13-21 years, preferably schooling girls. Since questionnaires are both qualitative and quantitative, their use in this study will facilitate deeper understanding of the current trends of anorexia with regard to the changing social conditions. In this case, questionnaires will be prepared on the basis of their perception of thinness as a measure of beauty, and their subsequent tendency to eat or eating habits (Hall 71).

Throughout this research all the girls administered with the questionnaires will be assured of the confidentiality of the information given, by having them not to reveal their identities. Since the population involved will be high school girls, permission from the administration will be requested in advance, so as not to incur inconveniences during the time of actual study.

Generally, the main ethical issues to be involved in this research concerning the privacy of the respondents will be a major area of consideration among all the respondents. Particularly, the medical officers will be assured of the confidentiality of the information they give, considering the confidential nature of health care records. More so, the school girls will be required to fill the questionnaires without giving their names. In addition, the results of the population will not be revealed to the public (Tchanturia 59).

This research will be conducted in 10 weeks, where the time schedule will be presented in the Gantt chart. Gantt chart has been found quite reliable in this study, since it clearly tabulates all the activities clearly and precisely to avoid confusions, as well as to ensure systematic study.

Works Cited

Brandenberg, Bliss and Andersen, Andrew. Unintentional Onset of Anorexia Nervosa. Eating and Weight Disorders. 12.2, (2007): 97-100.

Breen, Hine. The Social Force behind Eating Disorders. Eating and Weight Disorders. 9.2, (2007): 120-127.

Brooks, Sykes and Stahl, Daniel. A systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Cognitive Bias to Food Stimuli in People with Disordered Eating Behavior. Clinical Psychology. 31.1, (2010): 37-45.

Claude-Pierre, Peggy. The Secrets of Eating Disorders. London: Longman Publishers, 2007.

Fisman, Shylock. Anorexia Nervosa and Autistic Disorder in Adolescent Girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 35.7, (2007): 937- 946.

Groshan, Fabiola. . March 2, 2008. Web.

Hall, Lindsey. Anorexia Nervosa: A Guide to Recovery. New York: Prentice Hall, 2009.

Steele, Melisa. . Dec 12, 2008. Web.

Steele, Melisa. . Dec 10, 2008. Web.

Tchanturia, Knorr. Cognitive Perception of Eating Disorders: Anorexia. San Francisco: Wiley and Sons, 2008.

Anorexia Nervosa (AN) and LGBTQ Suicide Awareness

1st Peer: Anorexia Nervosa (AN)

I found the explanation of the findings clear, understandable, and well organized. Concerning content, the presentation is comprehensive and covers vital points about AN, including its causes, risk factors, signs, and symptoms. AN’s pathophysiology, including the biologic and psychosocial processes involved, is clearly stated, giving the audience a clear picture of the condition. In practice, clinical evaluation of eating disorders requires objective data obtained using validated instruments that assess the core domains of the condition (Surgenor & Maquire, 2013). The poster gives three such assessment tools – EAT-26, CHEAT, and ABOS. While these screening measures are critical in measuring AN psychopathology, including the DSM-V diagnostic criteria for this disorder could improve the explanation further.

The use of statistics helped enforce the significant points in the presentation. In particular, data on AN prevalence (0.4%) and evidence-based treatment and hospitalization guidelines can inform care planning and intervention. Using graphs could be a better way to summarize these data. The therapeutic options – psychotherapy, pharmacological agents, and combination therapy – are explored in great depth. The criteria for hospitalization of AN patients for inpatient treatment are a vital inclusion. They highlight the need for psychiatrists to work with internists and nutritionists to recognize and treat AN (Watson & Bulik, 2013). The major complication of AN treatment identified, i.e., refeeding syndrome, has implications for patient management and follow-up.

Concerning the format, the design of the poster is good and the words are readable. It also readily attracts the audience’s attention. The colors and contrasts enhance the readability of the content and stress the key points, such as AN indicators, risk factors, and treatment. The graphics enhance the poster’s visual appeal. Including more pictures could improve the presentation even further by making it concise and less wordy.

2nd Peer: LGBTQ Suicide Awareness

The poster gives an excellent explanation of the LGBTQ suicide issue in a simple and clear manner that is appropriate for experts and lay audience. It includes a concise, informative title and its content is not too technical or theoretical. Thus, one can easily grasp the key message.

Organizing the content around three LGBTQ issues – prevalence, causes, and prevention – made the poster more focused. A viewer can immediately see how risk factors such as stress, mental illness, lack of support, and victimization account for high LGBTQ suicide prevalence among the youth. The specific preventive measures given in the poster address these causes. Interventions for reducing suicide risk in the LGBTQ population are lacking, hence, an unmet need (Marshall, 2016). The three pillars of the prevention framework, i.e., advocate, educate, and support – give a concise take-home message to viewers. The design and contrasting colors emphasize these points.

Overall, the content is brief. The section on the LGBTQ youth suicide by the numbers is an excellent way to communicate numeric patterns. It quickly reveals the severity of the problem, including suicidal ideation, plan, and attempt in this population. Specifically, the comparative levels of these outcomes highlight the need for interventions. According to Figueiredo and Abreu (2015), elevated suicide rates in this group is due to social stigma and prejudice.

Some of the evidence-based interventions presented in the poster, such as community education, promoting discussions on suicide, and creating inclusive and safe spaces for LGBTQ youth, address these issues. The design considerations for improving this poster include using contrasting shades to stress the main points in the text bullets and separating the content into vertical sections.

References

Figueiredo, A. R., & Abreu, T. (2015). Suicide among LGBT individuals. European Psychiatry, 30(1), 28-31. Web.

Marshall, A. (2016). . Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 89(2), 205-213. Web.

Surgenor, L., & Maquire, S. (2013). Assessment of anorexia nervosa: An overview of universal issues and contextual challenges. Journal of Eating Disorders, 1(29), 1-15. Web.

Watson, H. J., & Bulik, C. M. (2013). Update on the treatment of anorexia nervosa: Review of clinical trials, practice guidelines and emerging interventions. Psychological Medicine, 43(12), 2477-24500. Web.

The Portrayal of Women With Anorexia

Introduction

Anorexia or anorexia nervosa is characterized by abnormal concepts of body image that cause changes in eating behavior and results in significant physical and psychological impairment. Hence it is a component of the eating disorders that afflict women predominantly. The concern associated with anorexia stems from the fact that besides comorbid psychiatric conditions, it has an impact on the health status if the individual afflicted with the disorder, resulting in long-term health consequences like heart disease, kidney failure and the increased risk of an early death. Knowledge of anorexia assists in understanding the disease and the means to the evolving of effective treatment strategies to combat this disease.

Overview of Anorexia Nervosa

Knowledge of the existence of the disorder goes back to the 1600s, when it was described as a nervous condition that caused sadness and anxious cares. The term anorexia nervosa was given to the disease in 1873, when it considered a perversion of the ego. Levey, Williams-Wilson, and Curfman, 2006, currently define anorexia nervosa as “characterized by the individual’s refusal to maintain minimally normal body weight, an intense fear of gaining weight, and significant disturbance in the perception of the shape or size of the body. Additionally, postmenarchal females with this disorder are amenorrheic (ie, exhibit the absence of at least 3 consecutive menstrual cycles)”.

The DSM –IV characterizes anorexia nervosa as a refusal of the individual to maintain body weight at or above minimal normal weight for age and height. This has led to the general practice of considering an individual to have anorexia nervosa on the basis of individual weight basis, when weight drops to less than eighty-five percent of the ideal body weight based on height and age. Body image distortion, wherein the individual has an inaccurate perception of body shape and size is considered to be the cause of the intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat witnessed in individuals with anorexia nervosa. Anorexia is subdivided into two types. The first is the restrictive type, wherein intake of food is severely limited. The second type is the binge-eating or purging type that is characterized by on a regular basis indulge in gorging on food or binge-eating followed purging behaviors through self-induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives, diuretics or enemas.

Anorexia is not a very common disorder with between five to ten cases per hundred thousand people being the incidence rate. However in present times this incidence is found to be increasing. Females account for more than ninety percent if the incidence of anorexia, and hence anorexia has been essentially considered a disease of females. In the United States of America one out every one hundred to two hundred females in late adolescence or early childhood are found to be affected by with anorexia. Generally anorexia is seen to start in early adolescence or teenage and in early adulthood, but this does not rule out an earlier or later occurrence. The mortality rate associated with anorexia is quite high ranging between six to twenty percent of individuals afflicted with it. The usual causes of death in due to anorexia nervosa are starvation or suicide. Additional causes of death include electrolytic issues or infections arising from the vulnerability of the weakened body of the individual afflicted with anorexia. With anorexia essentially a disease associated with females, it is the female population that suffers mostly from the consequences of anorexia nervosa.

Females and Anorexia Nervosa

With anorexia nervosa founded in distorted body image perception, it is natural that women are more prone to anorexia than men. The importance of physical appearances goes back to ancient times, wherein beauty, size and muscularity were considered elements of health and fertility in the culture of ancient societies. In those times beauty in women was not restricted to being slim, but rather a more ample physical appearance. This was due to the requirements of manual labor being a part of the daily routine of a woman, and the need to produce many children. To the ancient Greeks the perception of an ideal lay in small chin, delicate jaws, full lips, a small nose, large and widely spaced and a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7.

From that has evolved the moral worth that has been assigned physical appearance in societies around the world. Individuals with good looks are believed to be able more easily to get married, be hired, get better wages or salaries, and get promoted earlier. Pretty women find it easier to get help, when in distress, and are less likely to be reported, caught, accused, or punished for minor and major crimes.

Current western cultures have placed great emphasis on the value of women’s bodies and appearance above any other attributes of a woman. Slimness in body shape is the attribute of value for females in modern society. This emphasis has been disseminated through the ever pervasive mass media to saturate every segment of society, such that females living in this culture are largely affected by it. Pervasion of this value of a woman’s body has been so intense that females indulging in diet, exercise, applying cosmetics and even bewildering range of surgical procedures are commonly seen in many cultures around the world. Medical technology has provided the means and women are willing to go through the painful procedures like surgery for the correction of body shape and liposuction for the removal of fatty deposits in the craving for the ideal body shape. This high value given to body shape has reflected in an increasing distortion in the perception that women have of their bodies and the enhanced desire to do anything to have and maintain a slim body. Such is the pervasion of the value for a slim body that anorexia, which was traditionally considered an affliction of teenage and young adult females, no longer holds true, as women of all ages living in Western societies are at potential risk for anorexia.

In a female with anorexia it is believed that disturbances of the serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) pathways have occurred. This belief stems from the understanding that the modulation of a number of behaviors normally associated with anorexia, like behavioral inhibition, obsessionality, anxiety and fear, depression, and appetite regulation are contributed to by the serotonin pathways. This reasoning for the basis of the addictive eating behavior associated with anorexia has found support in recent research findings, wherein stimulation of serotonin 5-HT receptors led to anorexia-like behavior in mice.

Genetics has a role play in the development of anorexia nervosa in females. Evidence to this is emerging, and potential risk for females developing anorexia, as an attribute of the influence of genetic factors has been placed at a high of fifty-six percent.

In its early stages there are no external manifestations of anorexia, and it is the physical signs that make it possible to identify anorexia in women. These physical signs include an obvious low body weight with a body mass index that is less than 17, loss of muscle mass, dry hair and skin, an unusual growth of body hair called lanugo, and cold hands and feet. Abnormal vital body parameters normally seen are a slower than normal heart beat and low blood pressure. Anorexic females who binge eat and indulge in vomiting display swollen lymph nodes and dental caries.

The consequences in the later stages for females with anorexia are severe and result from starvation and malnutrition. Amenorrhea is a cardinal sign of anorexia and results from the decreased production of estrogen, as a result of the increased production of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. Estrogen deficiency coupled with inadequate calcium intake is the common cause for osteoporosis seen in female anorexic patients. In anorexic females there is a reduction in vasopressin secretion, causing difficulty in concentrating urine and hence the appearance of diabetes insipidus. Reduced food intake leads to deficiencies in zinc and magnesium, causing gastric distention and depression. The cardiovascular changes are also significant and include shrinking of the left ventricle, decrease in cardiac output, bradycardia, hypotension and a range of arrhythmias. Renal effects are seen in the decrease in glomerular filtration rate, leading to swelling particularly in the lower limbs. Other clinically significant manifestations include a generally diffused fatty liver, anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia. All these complications make anorexia a female psychiatric disorder with one of the highest mortality rates. Less than fifty percent of females afflicted with anorexia recover from the disorder, and those that demonstrate poor capability of social and work functioning possibility from the anxiety and depression that persists. The shorter the duration the disorder the better chances of recovery, making early detection and adequate treatment important.

Several treatment options like hospitalization, family therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and pharmacological therapy are available for treating female anorexia. However these treatment options do not fulfill the requirements and gaps in the treatment options are present. These treatment options appear more useful in treating the other eating disorders, and prove less promising for females with anorexia nervosa. Yet Ben-Tovim, 2003, points out that treatment programs have essentially remained the same for decades.

Conclusion

Anorexia nervosa is caused by the distorted perception that a female has of her body size and body image. Such a craving for an ideal body shape and size has been enhanced, because of the social value that has been provided to it by society, and disseminated by mass media. The concern for anorexia in women stems from the poor recovery rate and severe complications associated with it. The poor recovery rate may lie in the gaps in treatment options available for anorexic female. The treatment options, however, have remained the same for many years.

Works Cited

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Anorexia Nervosa and Its Perception by Patients

“Perceptions of illness in individuals with anorexia nervosa” is a study conducted to examine how individuals with anorexia nervosa (AN) perceive the illness as compared to laymen and women. According to the authors, understanding the way psychological factors function to influence the way individuals respond to illnesses is important in explaining variations in behaviors related to illnesses and in developing effective intervention measures to improve patient outcomes.

In addition, there are gaps in knowledge because the available literature mainly focuses on illness perceptions in conditions such as diabetes and asthma, but little focus has been dedicated to mental illnesses. This assertion justified the need to conduct the study. 95 participants with eating disorders were selected randomly from two sources and completed the Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ-R) (Holliday, Wall, Treasure, & Weinman, 2005). In the control group, 80 laymen and women were selected randomly to participate in the study and they completed a modified IPQ-R questionnaire to elicit their perceptions towards AN.

Data were analyzed using SPSS version 10 for Windows. The results showed that people with AN see their condition as chronic and highly distressing with numerous associated negative consequences. In addition, they held the view that it was difficult to prevent or cure their condition. On the other side, the control group perceived AN as a highly preventable and curable health condition. These findings are important because due to their perception, individuals with AH had associated poor mental health and poor functioning.

This understanding could be applied in the management of AN. The laymen and women in the control group conceptualized AN as simply a “sliming disease” that can be changed easily (Holliday et al., 2005). However, such perceptions can contribute significantly to stigmatization associated with AH leading to poor patient outcomes.

“Anorexia nervosa in young men: A cohort study” is a cohort study conducted to assess the background and outcomes of AN among young men. This study was necessary to fill the current knowledge gaps as the available studies on AN approach =a 10:1 female-to-male prevalence ratio” (Lindblad, Lindberg, & Hjern, 2006). In other words, AN in males is normally considered as a copy of the same in females and this assumption can affect treatment approaches and outcomes. 61 men born with a history of AN were selected randomly and compared with the general population, specifically based on social outcomes, socio-economic backgrounds, health history, and other variables. Data were analyzed using the SAS 8.0 software package for Windows.

The results showed that some differences exist between men suffering from AN and the general male population without AN. Differences were seen in social backgrounds, the capacity to take care of oneself, and living with other people, especially family members and partners. In other words, the study showed that social backgrounds could be used for AN prognosis. However, some similarities were noted as psychiatric hospitalization of males with AN was almost the same as that of the control group (Lindblad et al., 2006).

However, the study had a major limitation in that the participants were drawn from a pool of hospitalized males due to AH, which means those that sought outpatient services were not captured. Therefore, it means that the cases considered was severe and thus the findings may not be generalizable in other set-ups. Nevertheless, the study’s findings add to the available literature on this topic given that AN in men does not have robust data in literature as opposed to AN in women.

References

Holliday, J., Wall, E., Treasure, J., & Weinman, J. (2005). Perceptions of illness in individuals with anorexia nervosa: A comparison with lay men and women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 37(1), 50-56. Web.

Lindblad, F., Lindberg, L., & Hjern, A. (2006). Anorexia nervosa in young men: A cohort study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39(8), 662-666. Web.

Eating Disorders: Anorexia and Bulimia

Abstract

In this study, there is detailed information on three cases, two of Karen Carpenter and Louise Gluck, who suffered from Anorexia Nervosa and one of Princess Diana, who suffered from Bulimia Nervosa. Anorexia Nervosa is the disease in which the patient avoids eating because of the fear of getting fat. It is more related to aping the bodies of film stars or suffering from a personality disorders in reality. The case of singer Karen Carpenter brought this disease to limelight.

The case of Louise Gluck presents a more positive preview of this disease. It killed Karan while Louis survived and led a healthy life. Bulimia on the other hand is a disease which is related to Binge eating. Princess Diana suffered from it for most of her life.

Introduction

Eating disorders have now plagued the world for a long time and in recent times they have spread like epidemics. The affect of eating disorders on the economy and society is clearly visible. The impact of diseases like obesity, anorexia and bulimia is hitting us hard. Today, these diseases have become more devastating than other diseases. This is so because with eating disorders come other diseases like depression, heart disease etc. Also these diseases tend to weaken human immunity and their impact is far greater than many other diseases. Diseases like obesity have a clear visibility. But let us cite these two diseases through the means of an example. They are not so well known but nonetheless, they are equally deadly in nature. First one is Anorexia nervosa and the second one is Bulimia nervosa.

Explanation

Firstly, Anorexia Nervosa.It means, in medical terminology, the disease of not eating because of nervous causes. A person is generally diagnosed with this disease when his/her weight goes below 85% *of the minimum required bodyweight. Anorexia refers to, in layman’s terms, not eating because of the fear of getting fat.

Anorexia, in recent years , has been found in women of all ages with most of the cases being between the ages of 12 and 18.Anorexia also originates from personality disorders. The parents of such persons are likely to be caring but very possessive and are often considered as control freaks.

One case that brought this disease to public notice was the case of Karen Carpenter. Carpenter was a world famous singer. She had been overweight in her childhood.When she was 17, Karen Lost 25 pounds of weight and stayed 120 pounds from the age 17 to 23.Karen’s lack of love and excess of control in her family led to Karen becoming compulsively obsessed with her weight (Shaw, Stice & Becker,2009).This obsession later developed into Anorexia. At 26, her immunity started to fail her. She began to fall sick one day after another.At 30; Karen married, even this time to a control freak, her husband. Although the stay at the hospital made her healthy, she decided to leave New York and became addicted to the drug Ipecac, which eventually led to her death because of a heart attack.

The other case is of Louis Gluck who developed Anorexia but recovered from it to become the poet laureate, the highest honor in the country (Gluck, 1994).

Now coming to Bulimia Nervosa.Bulimia Nervosa refers to the pattern of binge eating. The general symptoms are regular binge eating, incomplete attempts to compensate and the distortion of self image. Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by repetitive and often occurring binge eating, followed by compensatory behaviors The most commonly found form—practiced by more than 3/4th of people with bulimia nervosa—is self-induced vomiting, sometimes called purging; fasting, the use of laxatives, enemas, diuretics and over exercising are also common.. Bulimia nervosa was coined and put into description in 1979 by the British psychiatrist Gerald Russell ( Stice, Presnell, Groesz & Shaw, 2005)

The paper is going to provide an insight into the effects of binge eating by taking up the case of Princess Diana. Princess Diana was a merman of the British royal family and the most beautiful woman in the world. She suffered from tremendous turmoil in her private as well as public life and as a result suffered from Bulimia Nervosa (Campbell, 1993)

The paper is also going to describe her life and her struggle with this disease in three parts.

Psychological Factor

As a child Diana suffered from guilty conscious. Her parents were disappointed at her not being born a boy who would inherit the vast Spencer fortune. Her father suffered from hot rages and a drinking problem. Her father and mother broke out and divorced which led to her living an isolated and rejected life (Morton, 1992)

Diana also suffered from obsessive compulsive disorder and stressed on keeping things neat. She was also a compulsive talker and socialized. Diana’s problems continued even after her marriage to Prince Charles, the Heir apparent to the British throne. Price Charles apparent adultery led to Diana going on binge eating and then vomiting to stay thin. Overtime, she even became suicidal. Then she began to express her anger through vomiting.

She also repeatedly tried to suicide in different ways. Diana also suffered from stress while dealing with the press who labeled her in different ways. Diana also suffered from post partum depression after the birth of her first son and then, the royal family became increasingly threatened by her, because of the changes in Charles attitude towards her. With time, her Bulimia continued and her self- esteem plummeted.

Social factors

Diana led a very social life from the early ages of her life. In addition from social pressure to be thin, what triggered her Bulimia was extreme stress from the factors like social outlook of her family. But, what was most responsible for triggering her Bulimia were sudden demands from the press, the public, and the royal family to present her best appearance and be on her best behavior while at the same time harboring fears about Charles’s commitment to her.

Biological factors that led to Bulimia

Biological factors in Diana‘s case were intense hunger and weight related thoughts. Essential nutrients are removed from the system during frequent vomiting, which increases the tendency to feel tired and depressed. Vomiting is reinforced because it alleviates both the pain of having too much food in the stomach and the guilt of having consumed too much food. In addition, the pain of vomiting causes the release of endorphins, which are chemicals that create a mild “high.”

Thus, the frequency of vomiting usually increases (Stice& Shaw, 2004).After vomiting, the system attempts to return its pH balance back to normal, but it is interrupted by the next bout of vomiting. All of this causes chaos in the system, which ultimately provides a basis for physical and emotional instability. Frequently, the bulimic will suffer from some related physical disorder.

Conclusion

Diana’s case demonstrates that both biological and psychological science need to be more mentioned in describing this condition. The psychological origin of such diseases needs to be investigated. Diana used many kinds of doctors and changed many therapies to get rid of her Bulimia. Cases like that of Princess Diana need to be investigated more skillfully and the proper treatment can be done only if the causes are thoroughly ascertained and precautions made public.

Likewise, Karen Carpenter and Louise Gluck suffered from Anorexia Nervosa, which stopped them from eating normal food, for they feared that the food would make them obese. While Karen lost her life, Louis managed to survive and lead a healthy life. Nonetheless, they were responsible for bringing the diseases into the eyes of the general public, which in turn led to a reformation of sorts.

References

Shaw, H., Stice, E., &Becker, C. (2009). Preventing eating disorders. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 18(1), 199-207.

Stice,E.,& Shaw,H. (2004). Eating disorder prevention programs: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin,130(2), 206-27.

Stice,E., Presnell,K., Groesz,L.,& Shaw,H. (2005). Effects of a weight maintenance diet on =bulimic symptoms in adolescent girls: an experimental test of the dietary restraint theory. Health psychology: official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 24(4), 402-12.

Anorexia Nervosa and Life-Sustaining Treatment

Background

Anorexia nervosa is a psychiatric health complication characterized by poor eating habits, weight loss, and development of serious medical symptoms, which are sometimes treatable if detected in the early stages of the illness. Therefore, the primary care for patients with anorexia nervosa requires administration of various dietary and mental medical interventions and a clear understanding of different concepts and ethical issues related to the treatment of the disorder (Mehler, 2009, p. 1050). As a result, this essay analyses issue 2, ‘Should individuals with Anorexia Nervosa have the right to refuse life-sustaining treatment?’ relative to the effectiveness of the pro and con sides in exploring various concepts related to the issue. Subsequently, the essay reviews contemporary studies on the same topic, which supports the con side of issue 2.

Facts

Heather Draper who represents the pro side of the discussion is quick to note that it is not right to refer to all patients with anorexia nervosa as being mentally unstable because some of them may be competent enough to make rational decisions. Therefore, it is unethical and unlawful to force competent patients to undertake certain medical interventions contrary to their wish. In addition, Draper notes that health professionals should respect the decision made by competent patients to refuse therapy by considering certain ethical considerations, which respect the patient’s autonomy (Draper, 2000).

Conversely, James Werth and other researchers representing the con side of the discussion note that since most patients with anorexia nervosa are known to suffer from serious cases of thought disturbances, their competency in rational decision-making is questionable. Therefore, there is the need for health professionals to decide the most appropriate medical and dietary interventions for such patients. In so doing, the patient’s weight stabilizes to allow the restoration and stabilization of the patient’s cognitive capacity, which influences the success of the subsequent psychological and pharmacological interventions (Werth et al., 2003).

Opinions

To support his case, Draper posits that the dietary interventions provided to patients with anorexia nervosa, which involves forced feeding, is ineffective in terms of reversing the medical condition. As a result, the author notes that most patients may be much better if they are allowed to choose the most desirable quality of life relative to their health condition thereby leading positive and confident lives (Draper, 2000). On the other hand, Werth and his team note that allowing patients to make decisions regarding therapy exacerbates their current health condition. Therefore, they predict that most patients will be grateful for the decisions made by the health professionals regarding their treatment (Werth et al., 2003).

The strengths and weaknesses of the pro side

Draper presents a strong case to support the issue by making a logical argument, which is characterized by a clear understanding of the concepts and issues regarding the disorder. In addition, Draper demonstrates an excellent review of the most recent research studies that support his case and therefore he does not use vague statements to run across different arguments. However, Draper underemphasizes some statements, which appear to be contrary to his argument. Additionally, the case presented by Draper lacks important statistical data to support the conclusive arguments and evidence provided.

The strengths and weaknesses of the con side

Werth and his colleagues present a much stronger case characterized by a clear and in-depth understanding of the issue. In addition, the con side demonstrates that the case presented is based on an extensive research study that reviews the most recent research studies and case studies on the same topic. Conversely, the authors are keen to note the practical implications of their case and in so doing; they demonstrate a clear understanding of the paramount need for health professionals to address the issues regarding the disorder. Furthermore, the authors provide a clearly defined thesis statement and a strong conclusion that draws from the main discussions.

However, the con side fails to use statistically analyzed data to support some of the conclusive statements described. On the other hand, the con-side reviews published materials only thereby failing to review unpublished sources, which could be having supportive or contradicting information regarding the current issue.

The credibility of the Authors

The authors of both sides can win the confidence of readers relative to their reliability because they both present strong arguments based on credible evidence. However, Draper’s case may pass as an expression of wishful thinking to a critical reader because it lacks the vigor and the professional quality of presenting strong and convincing arguments. On the other hand, the con side presents a much stronger and reliable case considering that it covers a wider scope and defines several concepts and ideas regarding the current issue as opposed to Draper’s case.

Therefore, based on the statements presented in issue 2, I subscribe to the arguments presented by the con side of the issue because Werth and his colleagues are keen to provide a strong argument for each possible counter-argument. In so doing, the case presented by the con side is much stronger and it reflects an evidence-based analysis of a critical issue. In addition, the authors consider most of the ethical issues involved in the current issue besides noting the flexibility allowable on some of the issues when caring for patients with anorexia nervosa. As a result, the authors demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the current issue.

Conclusions

Overall, this essay analyzes issue 2, ‘Should individuals with Anorexia Nervosa have the right to refuse life-sustaining treatment?’ in the context of the issues presented by the pro and the con side of the issue. From the discussions above, it is notable both sides present strong arguments based on various studies on the current issue. However, contemporary research studies regarding the primary care for patients with anorexia nervosa supports the con side of the current issue. For instance, Mehler, (2009, p. 1048) notes that most patients with Anorexia Nervosa disregard the severity of their health conditions due to their altered ability of judgment and cognition. As a result, the patients will seek psychiatric attention when their health condition has worsened and in this situation, most patients are unable to make rational decisions concerning therapy. Therefore, it is the duty of the primary care giver to develop the most appropriate dietary and medical interventions relative to the severity of the patient’s condition (Mehler, 2009).

Reference list

Draper, H. (2000). Anorexia Nervosa and respecting a refusal of life-prolonging therapy: A limited justification. Bioethics, 14 (2), 261-278.

Mehler, P.S. (2009). Diagnosis and care of patients with Anorexia Nervosa in primary care settings. Anals of Internal Medicine, 134 (11), 1048-1059.

Werth, L.J., et al. (2003). When does the “Duty to Protect” apply with a client who has Anorexia Nervosa? The Counseling Psychologist, 31 (4), 42-58.

Controlling the Problem and the Treatment Anorexia Nervosa

Introduction

Anorexia nervosa is an emotional problem, where the victim tries to acquire self esteem and perfectionism through weight control. This research paper will be focusing on the general information about this disorder, the mostly affected group of people and the reason behind it. Finally, the paper will be looking at the possible measures of controlling the problem and the treatment of the victims.

Information about anorexia

Anorexia nervosa is marked by excessive weight loss (Watson, 2007). Even for the victims who are thin they tend to exercise excessively, and others vomit after eating as they keep on insisting that they are overweight. Other physical symptoms of this disorder include; low blood pressure, abnormal heart beats, and fatigue which they can turn to be chronic (Pierre, 2004). Some of the behavioral signs are refusing to eat, easily forgetting things, depression, and distorted self perception. This problem is feared to be caused by emotional stress like that of loosing a loved one, depression out of brain abnormalities, and an environment that values thin bodies.

Some of the known risk factors of anorexia nervosa are; when a person has experienced a great life transformation, a new participant in sports, and those people who are not good in dealing with stress (Watson, 2007). When a victim is suspected of this disorder the SCOFF questionnaire is applied to determine the condition. This questionnaire was originated from Great Britain. This disorder can be prevented by the close family members and close friends from avoiding discussion concerning anorexia at mealtimes. Frequent signs check ups by a qualified physician (Watson, 2007). Both family and cognitive behavioral therapies may help to control that condition. Nutritionally, the victim is advised to take food rich in vitamins and minerals to boost the memory, and to avoid caffeine and alcoholic drinks.

People who are affected by anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa mostly affects female especially in their teenage years. The research done confirms that, most of the women suffering from this disease live in societies where thinness among female is highly valued (Pierre, 2004). Another factor which makes women to fall victim of this disorder is places where violence against women is very common. Most of the women do not have the best ways of dealing with stress, and when they become distressed they are likely to be attacked by anorexia nervosa (Pierre, 2004). When female are in their teenage, most of them are affected by the problem of poor self image perception and a feeling of low self esteem. As a result, most of them fall victim of the disorder as they attempt to change their image through starvation. Most of the young people especially female, believe that thin bodies are a sign of beauty and are attractive.

Conclusion

In conclusion, anorexia has become a common problem and should never be taken lightly any more. The people affected each year are increasing at a high rate. Most health care services have now started realizing the serious impacts of the disorder to the victim and the family as a whole. Any person can get this disease although the majorities are female at their teenage (Lucas, 2004). This disease should be taken with a lot of care as it has both physical and mental affection. If at all people especially the young generation should change the idea of perfect image, many people would be saved from this disease.

Reference list

Lucas, A.R. (2004). Demystifying Anorexia Nervosa: An Optimistic Guide to Understanding and Healing ISBN0195133382, 9780195133387. Oxford University Press US.

Pierre, J.V. (2004). Medical Management of Eating Disorders: A Practical Handbook for Health Care Professionals, ISBN0521546621, 9780521546621. Cambridge University Press.

Watson, S. (2007). Danger Zone: Dieting and Eating Disorders, ISBN140421996X, 9781404219960. The Rosen Publishing Group.