Category: Animals

It is impossible to define the Japanese as purely Japanese. In this essay, I will explore how the Western cultural influence during the Meiji restoration from (1868 – 1889) and the Meiji era (1968 – 1912) of Japan (Weir, 2000) has affected and merged with traditional Japan. Thus creating a country of multi-layered culture, that cannot be reduced to just ‘Japanese’. Found in my primary readings, the works of Natsume Soseki, the importation, and assimilation of both western products and cultural ideology are illustrated in everyday Japanese life. Sanshiro (1908, Soseki) depicts a young Japanese protagonist confronted with the unfamiliar modernization of Tokyo and I am a Cat (1906, Soseki) illustrates the assimilation of Western ideology and literature of upper-middle-class intellectuals. During this essay, I will focus on chapters one and two of Sanshiro and the final third installment of I am a Cat, using this evidence alongside Watsuji Tetsuro’s ideas about Japanese cultural hybridity to support and develop my argument and explore whether I agree with his concepts about the Japanese spirit in relation to the presentation of the Westernisation and the modernization and the ‘Japanese’ in Soseki’s literary works.

Firstly, the Meiji restoration (1868 – 1889) had a significant effect on domestic Japanese life and civilization. In pursuit of development, the new Meiji government outlined its new objective fukoku Kyohei (a rich nation strong military). (Hane, 2013), stated how the Japanese government released they ‘must adopt Western science and technology’ (Hane, 2013), to develop power as a nation. Similarly, Barker argued that the strengthening of Japan required the pursuit of Western knowledge. Both technological and ideological advances followed, and Western technology, ideology, and literature were soon imported and assimilated into everyday life during the Meiji era. Technologically, steam engines, cameras, horse-drawn carriages, steamboats, etc… were imported, and culturally, Western books were translated and foreign languages taught (Hane, 2013). This can be described as the fulfillment of the objectives of the ‘fukoku (rich nation)’. I will focus on the presentation of these Western advances in domestic Japanese life and Soseki presents them within Sanshiro and I am a Cat and how they have led to Japan being a country of cultural hybridity, that cannot be described as inherently ’Japanese’.

Sanshiro is set in 1908, during the end of the Meiji era. Soseki explores the effect of western modernization on both Japan and the Japanese civilization as a ‘rich nation’. During chapters one and two, the young protagonist is thrust into the westernizing city of Tokyo, amid what (Weir, 2000) described as ‘scientific-technological Westernisation. Firstly, the immediate setting is a Train, a Western product, and throughout the next chapter trains and street, cars are frequently referenced in the narrative. Weir states how the modern train was initially viewed as an aesthetic abomination to the Japanese not situated in the capital, like Sanshiro. Soseki describes his struggle to accept the new, foreign technology. The protagonist complained that the more ’convenient’ it gets the more confused I get (Sanshiro, Soseki, P27)’ it refers to both the streetcars and the modernization of the city. Within the novel, scientific technology is a symbol of the West, and its fast integration in a rapidly expanding Tokyo (Burton,..). This is evidence of the fukoku (rich nation) being developed through the advancement of Western technology.

Furthermore, Soseki himself declared the Meiji era as a bridge between ‘old’ Japan and a new ‘Westernised’ Japan (Weir, 2000). This is evident in his description of a rapidly developing Tokyo, as ‘everything looked as if it were being destroyed, and at the same time, everything looked as if it were under construction.’ (Sanshiro, Soseki, P26). And in the intersection harboring two shops, one ‘handling imported goods’ and ‘one Japanese’ – the sensory description illustrates the diversity of the streets, which Sanshiro has yet to fully comparand and understand. However, his companion, the minor character Tetsuro, is not phased by the image of western goods. This illustrates the effect of the abnormally high rate of westernization in Tokyo. To him living in Tokyo, the west is completely assimilated, merged within his everyday life.

To further understand Soseki’s representation of Japan of westernization, I have looked at Watsuji Tetsuro’s ideas about Japanese cultural hybridity and how the importation and embodiment of foreign and Western thought, ideas, and products lead to a diverse modern Japan. Watsuji Tetsuro (1889-1960) was a Japanese philosopher who, like Natsume Soseki had a diverse educational background. Tetsuro received a balanced education in both western and Japanese subjects (Weir, 2000) and Natsume studied abroad (Hane, 2013). Keeping in mind that they had direct experience with both Japan and the West, makes their ideas and concepts more unbiased and rounded, speaking from first-hand experience, rather than relying on secondary sources, like my other references.

In, Watsuji stated that No matter how far we go back in Japanese culture we will not find an age in which evidence of admiration of foreign cultures is not to be found’ (Watsuji 1998, 250)

This quotation summarizes his view on how the Japanese throughout history demonstrated an intense curiosity and a robust desire to learn, and to learn from cultures quite different from their own. Though this statement risks the generalization of all Japanese into one category, I agree that Japan has imported ideas and products from the West in pursuit of modernization and national power. Evident in Soseki’s constant placement of western products in Sanshiro, and his constant reference to western literature and language in I am a Cat, Which I will explore in the next section. Suh’s assimilation and borrowing of foreign ideas and culture, suggests that Japan is a country of hybridity.

Furthermore, Watsuji Tetsuro also describes an authentic Japanese spirit. He suggests that the importation and humble appreciation of foreign culture makes Japan culturally unique and assumes to describe the unified group of people ‘the Japanese’ (Sakai, 2008). However, this notion I somewhat disagree with this, as diversity within Meiji japan is presented by soseki, despite all sharing the new western ideologies. For Example, Hybridity and social dis-unity are evident in Soseki’s works, the initial setting of the western train is a diverse collection of people and personalities, etc, I cannot agree all share the same, collective identities of a ‘Japanese spirit’. Noaki Sakai further supports my argument, suggesting that ‘the presence of a name in a certain historical period does not necessarily guarantee the presence of social unity, they do not form a single community’ Thus, the Westernisation in the Meiji era doesn’t define and unite the Japanese as a whole.

Having previously explored the technological westernizing presented in Sanshiro, I will now focus on I am a Cat, to explore the cultural and ideological Westernisation of Meiji Japanese civilization. During the third installment, Soseki explores the bourgeois upper-middle-class characters, particularly the protagonist Sneeze. He is I am a cat is an example of the effects of western cultural influence, harboring an obsession and appreciation of Western civilization, language, and literature. Though some critics (Fujii, 1989) argued that this was an ‘appropriation of Western literary conventions’ but I agree with Watsuji, describing it as evidence of admiration of foreign culture. As stated above, Barker argued that in line with the objectives of fukoku Kyohei (a rich nation strong military), the Japanese Government rapidly translated and adopted foreign languages, in pursuit of enriching western knowledge.

For example, through this section of the novel Sneeze references a vast variety of Western authors, etc., illustrating the influence of translated literature. The protagonist himself is a product of what Soseki described as a new ‘Westernised’Japan (Weir, 2000), an English professor, teaching and engaging in a foreign language. His character provides us evidence of how western thought began to integrate into Japan in the late Meiji era.

To conclude, I don’t believe that we can simply define the Japanese as ‘Japanese’. Firstly, I have concluded this through evidence of westernization and modernization in the works of soseki natsume, which, as Watsuki recognized, illustrates the integration of western technological products and thought. The streetcars and foreign goods in Sanshiro, and the literature and western language in I am a Cat provide evidence of a merging of the West and Japan. Secondly, Sakai’s idea about the Japanese not being defined as social unity by westernization further supports my argument that the Japanese cannot be defined as inherently Japanese, and Watsuji’s statement about Japan’s humble appreciation of foreign ideas and products, supports the argument. During the Meiji era, Japan imported so much Western idea and thought, today, one cannot define the Japanese as a singular identity. I’ve concluded that the country is one of hybridity, enriched and influenced by the ideology of the West.

As the Veterinary Officer in Dublin City Council, you are asked to explain to the general public, the public health risks associated with cat feces in public places

Introduction

The Litter Pollution Act 1997, Section 22, enforces the law regarding dog soiling in public areas. These laws are enforced by Dublin City Council’s Litter Warden and failure of compliance can lead to hefty fines and a possible court summons. In conjunction, various campaigns such as the ‘Anti-dog fouling awareness campaign’ are undertaken to increase awareness of the risks associated with dog fouling in public areas. Although much effort is put into protecting public areas from dog feces, the same measures are unfortunately not available regarding the fecal material of cats. This is undoubtedly partly due to the uncontrolled massive density of cats, however, there are nonetheless a plethora of risks associated with this material and it is empirical that the public is aware of these risks. Recent studies by (Szwabe and Blaszkowska, 2017) actually revealed that the potential reservoir of zoonotic parasites in stray cats was of more significance than that of the dog population.

Public areas, especially in urban locations are undeniably seen as commercial litterboxes for all felines and this is very difficult to control. Sandy areas are preferred as in the wild they used these sand-based areas due to the ease of burial. As a result of this, children’s sandboxes and outdoor play areas are the optimal locations for cats to deposit their waste. This has resulted in parents being very concerned and reluctant to let their children play in public parks. Whilst children are most likely to be exposed, they are also one of the most susceptible to infection. Other individuals at high risk of infection would include the elderly and immunosuppressed individuals, for example, chemotherapy patients or pregnant women, however, the likelihood of exposure to these individuals is much less.

In this presentation, I would like to inform you of what I feel are the main public health risks associated with the accumulating load of cat feces in public places. Infections can be broadly categorized as protozoal, helminthic, and bacterial.

Infectious Zoonotic Agents

1. Toxoplasma

Toxoplasma is by far the most important zoonotic agent excreted in the feces of cats. Cats are known as the final host and ingest oocysts in the environment accidentally or by ingesting a previously infected intermediate host. The cat will not show any clinical signs of disease but will nonetheless excrete 2-20 million oocysts per day for up to three weeks. Young children and pregnant women have the most extreme adverse effects following accidental ingestion of the oocysts. While most clinical signs are associated with that flu-like symptoms, muscle aches, fever, and headaches, studies suggest the occurrence of sub-acute meningoencephalitis, encephalopathy, or space-occupying lesions in immunocompromised individuals (Glaser, Angulo, and Rooney, 1994).

Pregnant women who get infected may miscarry, have a stillbirth, or have a congenitally affected child born with birth defects. Recent studies have shown that there is a possible correlation between individuals infected with Toxoplasma and those suffering from mental health issues such as Schizophrenia (Yolken, Dickerson, and Fuller Torrey, 2009). There have also been studies revealing a possible relationship between Parkinson’s disease which is a severe neurodegenerative disease and this protozoan parasite (Miman et al., 2010). In 2006 a terrible tragedy occurred in Letterkenny where a seven-year-old girl died following cardiac failure, which on postmortem was attributable to Toxoplasma.

2. Cryptosporidium

Cryptosporidium is another protozoan parasite passed in the feces of cats and transmitted to humans via direct or indirect contact. General malaise, diarrhea, vomiting, fever, abdominal cramps, and dehydration are just some of the general clinical signs seen both in cats and humans. Although not an infectious agent to ignore, recent genotyping studies have revealed there is a minimal risk of zoonotic transmission as they have demonstrated that Cryptosporidium in cats is caused by a host-specific C. felis whilst in humans C. felis is only responsible for a small number of disease cases (Lucio-Forster et al., 2010).

3. Giardia

Giardia is regarded as being highly significant in certain counties around the world. Environmentally resistant cysts which can survive harsh weather conditions for months are voided in the feces of domestic pets which allows for transmission via direct contact or indirectly via important vehicles such as food and water. Clinical consequences in pets appear minimal, however, there is much more speculation about the public health significance of this disease (Palmer, 1998). There are strong connecting links between morbidity and also severe growth and developmental retardation in affected children (Farthing et al., 2002). The only Giardia species recognized in cats is G. duodenalis otherwise known as G. intestinalis or G. lamblia (Swan and Thompson, 1986), this is the specie that also causes disease in humans.

4. Toxocara

Toxocara cati is a nematode parasite of the small intestines of cats. It has the potential to be zoonotic via fecal-oral transmission and is regarded as ‘an underestimated zoonotic agent’ (Fisher, 2003). Despite the wide availability of highly effective anthelmintics, human toxocariasis is still undoubtedly a hazardous problem (Overgaauw and van Knapen, 2019). The larvae can migrate causing visceral or ocular larva migrans (Eberhard and Alfano, 1998). Visceral larva migrans can involve the abdominal organs, the liver, or the central nervous systems whilst ocular migrans causes visual disturbances, abnormal eye movements, and discomfort.

5. Ancylostoma

Although mainly occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, the public should be aware of the potential pathogenicity associated with hookworm, Ancylostoma. Infection occurs via contact with an environment soiled with hookworm larvae from an infected feline. The larvae penetrate the skin causing cutaneous larva migrans otherwise known as itchy skin disease. The pruritus normally subsides within a few weeks, however, (Robertson, 2000) concluded that with a massive larval burden, there may be penetration to deeper tissues resulting in pulmonary and intestinal symptoms. Protein malnutrition and iron deficiency anemia are common issues within the infected children population while adverse fetal-maternal outcomes can occur in infected pregnant women left untreated (Crompton, 2000).

6. Salmonella

Whilst most Salmonellosis infections are considered to be associated with undercooked chicken and eggs, Salmonella can also be carried asymptomatically by cats and passed in stool with the ability to cause infection in humans. Clinical signs are similar to that caused by other routes of transmission and include diarrhea, nausea, and fever. While studies carried out by (Immerseel, 2004), concluded that healthy household cats are generally safe concerning the transmission of Salmonella to humans unless receiving medications that would result in immune deficiencies, the study, did not account for free-roaming cats who are possibly the main contributors to the public area pollution.

7. Campylobacter

Infected cat stool is undoubtedly a source of Campylobacter infection which in humans generally causes diarrhea which may be bloody, fever, and abdominal cramps. The inadvertent ingestion of cat feces is the route by which humans get infected. Campylobacter infection in pregnant women is of major concern as the transplacental transmission may result in abortion or the onset of premature labor (Simor, 1990) or enteritis and meningitis of the neonate (Gribble, 1981).

It is important to realize that the risk of disease is not the same for all organisms or for all individuals. Because not every infective agent has the same probability of being present or producing the same severity of illness, it is important to view these diseases on a risk-based approach. Without this approach, we would have to assume that every hazardous agent is present in every stool and that each agent causes the same degree of illness but instead we can look at the likelihood of an agent being present and concurrently the severity of the disease that would be present. (Stull, Brophy, and Weese, 2015) viewed the zoonotic agents in such terms and assessed the exposure likelihood and consequences to exposure in individuals who were in some way immunocompromised some of which are presented in the table above. Campylobacter was found to be highly prevalent in the feces of pets and therefore the probability of someone being exposed is exceptionally high. The disease caused by campylobacter is however of low severity in even high-risk individuals and therefore a medium-risk characterization would be considered.

Prevention and Take-Home Messages

Apart from Ancylostoma, the feline fecal pathogens listed above are transmitted to humans via the fecal-oral route.

There is often a misconception that only fresh pet feces pose a risk to human health. Although this may be true for certain agents, a general assumption should not be made as important zoonotic agents such as Toxoplasma oocysts only become infectious following a period of one to five days in the environment. Following excretion, Giardia cysts are immediately infective to humans, however, they can remain viable in the environment for months despite warm, cold, or wet weather.

Many articles such as that by (Beeler and May 2011), emphasize the general ways to prevent feline zoonotic disease transmission. The mechanisms recommended, however, generally apply to household cats as they emphasize the importance of optimizing the health status of the cat, protecting areas from wildlife, and also the daily discarding of stools.

In light of general public areas, the above measures will often not completely eradicate the problem given the fact that the current feral cat population is in the range of 20,000, a number which is rapidly expanding.

Optimum personnel hygiene is likely of greatest importance on the larger scale of things. Following any rummaging in the environment, hands must be thoroughly washed. The hand washing of children is advised to be supervised up to and including the age of five (Stull, Brophy, and Weese, 2015). Wounds should also be covered by plasters and optimally by gloves.

As a general public, we ourselves should share the responsibility of keeping our environment clean and as a knock-on effect, we will prevent the occurrence of zoonotic diseases associated with feline feces. The main issue with starting a campaign like this is that not many people will willingly give their time to clean up faeces from an animal that does not belong to them. Small tasks that could really make a difference include the covering of sandboxes when not in use and the reporting of outbreaks to highlight potential high-risk locations. The creation of shelters for stray cats could provide veterinary care and improve health status. Mass sterilization could help to reduce the increasing breeding problem. Eliminating the problem of abandoned animals would reduce the stray cat population also.

References

1. Beeler, E. and May, M. (2011). The Link Between Animal Feces and Zoonotic Disease.
2. BIANCIARDI, P., PAPINI, R., GIULIANI, G. and CARDINI, G. (2004). Prevalence of Giardia antigen in stool samples from dogs and cats. Revue Méd. Vét.
3. D.W. Crompton The public health importance of hookworm disease
4. Eberhard, M. and Alfano, E. (1998). Adult Toxocara cati infections in U.S. children: report of four cases. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 59(3), pp.404-406.
5. FARTHING M.J.: Tropical malabsorption. Semin. Gastrointest. Dis., 2002, 13, 221-231
6. Fisher, M. (2003). Toxocara cati: an underestimated zoonotic agent. Trends in Parasitology, 19(4), pp.167-170.
7. Glaser, C., Angulo, F. and Rooney, J. (1994). Animal-Associated Opportunistic Infections Among Persons Infected with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 18(1), pp.14-24.
8. Gribble MJ, Salit IE, Isaac-Renton J, Chow AW. Campylobacter infections in pregnancy, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 1981, vol.140 (pg. 423-6)
9. Lucio-Forster, A., Griffiths, J., Cama, V., Xiao, L. and Bowman, D. (2010). Minimal zoonotic risk of cryptosporidiosis from pet dogs and cats. Trends in Parasitology, 26(4), pp.174-179.
10. Miman, O., Kusbeci, O., Aktepe, O. and Cetinkaya, Z. (2010). The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience Letters, 475(3), pp.129-131.
11. Overgaauw, P. and van Knapen, F. (2019). Veterinary and public health aspects of Toxocara spp.
12. Parasitology, 121 (2000), pp. S39-S50
13. S.R. Palmer, E.J.L. Soulsby, D.I.H. Simpson (Eds.), Zoonoses: biology, clinical practice, and public health control, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1998), pp. 545-561
14. Simor AE, Ferro S. Campylobacter jejuni infection occurring during pregnancy, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 1990, vol. 9(pg. 142-4)
15. Stull, J., Brophy, J. and Weese, J. (2015). Reducing the risk of pet-associated zoonotic infections. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 187(10), pp.736-743.
16. Swan, J.M., Thompson, R.C., 1986. The prevalence of Giardia in dogs and cats in Perth, Western Australia. Aust. Vet. J. 63, 110–112.
17. Van Immerseel F, Pasmans F, De Buck J, et al. Cats as a risk for transmission of antimicrobial drug-resistant Salmonella. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10(12):2169-74.
18. Yolken, R., Dickerson, F. and Fuller Torrey, E. (2009). Toxoplasma and schizophrenia.

Cats are one of the most popular house pets on the planet. They can adapt to small living spaces, such as apartments, and are relatively easy to care for. Cats also rule the internet; they are present in many memes, and cat videos are one of the most prevalent videos on YouTube. The question, however, remains, how did the lovable mini house panther come to be; were they first domesticated in Egypt, or in the Near East, and how were they domesticated; did they migrate into farming areas because of the available rodents to eat, or were they attracted by trash; and did they have preadaptive genes that made them easier to domesticate? These and many more questions can be answered with research.

Introduction – Domestication

What is domestication exactly? According to Charlotte Cameron-Beaumont, author of Evidence Suggesting Preadaptation to Domestication Throughout the Small Felidae “The criteria for complete domestication, permanent isolation from the wild species, and human control of breeding, territory and food supply” (2002). Cats are only semi-domesticated, because some breeding populations are not separated from wildcats; and because humans do not provide food or control their breeding (Montague, M.J. et al. 2014). However, pedigree breeds, such as Siamese and Persian, are considered completely domesticated because they are under complete human control so the breed meets the domestication standards. The criteria for domestication are not met for the large populations of cats that have become feral. These feral cats select their own mates, scavenge for their own food, and compete for territories (Cameron-Beaumont, C. et al. 2002). Because of those traits, they are not considered domesticated. Some researchers say the African wildcat, Felis silvestris lybica, may have been meant for domestication because it is docile towards humans. This docile behavior distinguishes it from other Felis silvestris subspecies. The process of cat domestication was very slow progress (Linseele, V. et al. 2007).

The process of domestication should not be confused with taming, they are two different things where one affects an individual versus a group of animals. Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of an individual; domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to, among other things, a heritable predisposition toward human association. And domestics do not have to be ‘tame’ in the behavioral sense look at the Spanish fighting bull for example. Undomesticated animals can be tame, look at a hand-raised cheetah for example (Driscoll, C. A., Macdonald, D. W., et al. 2009). Cats are considered very unlikely candidates for domestication. Cats are solitary hunters and will fight other cats of the same sex to defend territories. Cats are obligate carnivores, meaning they can only digest meat, while most domestic animals eat plants. (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). Another reason why cats might not be considered fully domesticated is that they do not perform direct tasks like dogs can, their purpose is, even as mousers, debatable (Driscoll, C. A., Macdonald, D. W., et al. 2009). Cats most likely chose to live among humans because of the many opportunities they found (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009).

All domesticates have one thing in common; they are all very tolerant of people (Driscoll, C. A., Macdonald, D. W., et al. 2009). F. s. lybica is the only subspecies of the wildcat that was domesticated, but why? Evidence suggests that other subspecies of wildcats are less tolerant of people such as the European wildcat and the Chinese mountain cat. (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). Most domesticates were behaviorally preadapted to domestication.

After 10,000 B.P., cat domestication arose after humans built houses, farms, and settlements (Driscoll, C. A., Macdonald, D. W., et al. 2009). Felis silvestris catus, the ‘domestic’ cat, is the only member of its Family that was successfully domesticated. The cats’ domestication process should have been hindered for a few reasons as mentioned before: it is an obligate carnivore, and they do not form large social groups because of being extremely territorial, in addition, they are extremely agile, and they are wary of man (Cameron-Beaumont, C. et al. 2002). Knowing about the domestication of cats brings the question of where did the domestication of Felis catus first begin? Comment by Veronica Lovelace:

The History of the Cat; Where Cats Were First Thought to be Domesticated

Egypt

Scholars once believed that the ancient Egyptians were the first to keep cats as pets, possibly as early as 3,600 years ago (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). The exact place and date of the cat’s domestication are still undocumented, but their domestic status seems to have been reached by the 12th dynasty, during the Middle Kingdom period of Egypt, when cats begins to appear often in Egyptian art. However, there is an older painting of a cat with a collar around its neck from a tomb in Saqqarah, dated to the 5th dynasty (Linseele, V. et al. 2007). Some of these tomb paintings show cats positioned under chairs, sometimes eating from bowls, and they are often collared. The majority of these paintings show that cats were a common occurrence in Egyptian households (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). Many authors have written about the popularity Egyptian house cats gained by the end of the 1st millennium B.C. Some authors have also mentioned that the consumption of cat meat was considered a crime and that it was illegal to export cats outside of the country (Linseele, V. et al. 2007).

The Egyptians then took the love of cats to a whole new level. Nearly 2,900 years ago, cats began to represent the Goddess Bastet, which was the official deity of Egypt at that time. Millions of house cats were sacrificed, mummified in Bastet’s name, and buried in her sacred city, Bubastis (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). Cats were one of the most frequently mummified animals in Egypt. Studies on the cat mummies have shown that Felis silvestris, the Wildcat, was the main felid species mummified. Occasionally, the Jungle cat, Felis chaus, and the Serval, Leptailurus serval were also mummified. Other studies have shown that the Egyptian domestic cat was larger than their extant wild species. It is thought, however, that the large size of the domestic cat mummies is possible because of the special status and good nourishment they were given (Linseele, V. et al. 2007). The excessively large number of cat mummies found in tombs would suggest that the Egyptians were, for the first time in history, breeding domestic cats and not just harvesting wild populations (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). About 3,000 years ago, even though the cat trade was prohibited in Egypt, cats arrived in Greece and later arrived in Europe (Hu, Y. et al. 2014). However, the cats seem to have spread around the world faster after Egypt came under Roman rule when cats and religion were dissociated (Linseele, V. et al. 2007).

Cyprus

In 2004 on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus, a discovery of possibly the earliest findings of humans keeping cats as pets were found by Jean-Denis Vigne of the National Museum of Natural History in Paris and his colleagues (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009).

This archaeological evidence was dated back to 9,500 years ago, and shows that humans coexisted with cats (Montague, M. J. et al. 2014). In a shallow grave with an assortment of items, an adult human was laid to rest, and just 40 centimeters away in its own little grave a young cat’s body was arranged in the same way as humans (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). This evidence suggested that the cats were tame when brought to Cyprus. The burial of the cat points to having some sort of bond with the human. The burial of the cat also points to it having a role as an individual as well (Linseele, V. et al. 2007). Cats are not native to most of the Mediterranean islands, therefore people must have brought the cats from the adjacent Levantine coast by boat. The burial of the cat and the human, along with cats being transported to Cyprus shows that there was a special relationship between cats and humans nearly 10,000 years ago beginning in the Middle East (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009).

Near East – Fertile Crescent

James Henry Breasted invented the term Fertile Crescent by characterizing the region by its cultural and ecological features that were present during its early civilization. The Fertile Crescent is a region that is bound by the Mediterranean sea to the coast of the Levant and includes the Mesopotamian plains and most of the Taurus mountains. The Fertile Crescent does not include Egypt.(Driscoll, C. A., Macdonald, D. W., et al. 2009). About 9.500 years ago, cats entered human society around the time people first started farming in the Middle East (Grimm, D. 2014). For many years, it has been assumed that wildcats moved into these agricultural settlements because of their grain storages attracted rodents which wildcats liked to prey upon. Wildcats also liked to take advantage of the settlement’s trash heaps that provided easy year-round food supplies (Hu, Y. et al. 2014). Comment by Veronica Lovelace:

Eventually, Wildcats that were the most tolerant of humans moved into Fertile Crescent villages. The people of these villages saw that the wildcats did little harm and noticed that they were actually beneficial because they disposed of rodents and snakes. Villagers eventually encouraged wildcats to stay within the settlements. Agriculture eventually spread beyond the Fertile Crescent and with it, tame members of F. s. Lybica followed behind (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009).

China

Around 2,000 years ago, domestic cats appeared in Chinese settlements. However, a rare discovery of felid remains was found in Shaanxi, China. This finding dated back to 5,300 years ago, and showed that cats were present in early Chinese agricultural villages. Most interestingly, this discovery is outside of the range of F. s. lybica. If wildcats were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent more then 5,000 years ago cats showed up in northern China, then it is predicted that cats were transported from western Asia by intricate trading systems similar to how other animals ended up in parts of eastern Asia (Hu, Y. et al. 2014). Soon, isolated groups of domestic Oriental cats began to change from a process known as genetic drift, which gave these cats distinctive coat colors. These traits created by genetic drift were neither beneficial nor harmful and later became fixed in these populations of Oriental cats. Thus the Siamese, the Birman, the Korat, and many other “natural breeds” were born from this process. Many of these cat breeds were described by Buddhist monks in a book called Tamara Maew (meaning “Cat Poems”) that dated back to 1350 A.D. (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009).

Comparing the House Cat to the Wildcat

It is not certain if all types of domestic cats descended from one species of wildcat, Felis silvestris, but many think this to be now true. The species Felis silvestris is found in many places in the Old World. Wildcat populations are found in Scotland all the way to South Africa, and as far east as Mongolia. In the year 2000, scientists were finally able to tell which wildcat populations turned into a domestic cat by a gathering of 979 DNA samples. These samples were collected from different wildcat and domestic cat individuals from southern Africa, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and the Middle East. If the samples of DNA from the wildcats populations distinguished them from one another and domestic cat DNA closely matched one of the wildcat populations, then scientists could find where domestication first started (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). It was discovered that the wildcat DNA of the subspecies F. s. lybica, collected from the deserts of Israel, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, is identical to domestic cat DNA. This means that the domestic cat was first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, and it is only grouped with the wildcat F. s. lybica (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). Comment by Veronica Lovelace:

However, the question remains, are domesticated cats a separate species from their wild counterparts? According to the Biological Species Concept, the answer is “no”. If given the opportunity, domestic cat populations will breed with wildcat populations and they will produce viable fertile offspring (Driscoll, C. A., Macdonald, D. W., et al. 2009). This hybridization, however, is a serious conservation issue in parts of Europe (O’Connor, T. P. 2007). In many of Scotland’s populations of European wildcats, hybridization has been detected (Witzenberger, K. A. et al. 2014). Furthermore, it is difficult to distinguish a purebred wildcat from a feral domestic cat because of the common mackerel tabby phenotype (Driscoll, C. A., Menotti-Raymond, M., et al. 2007). On top of that, modern data from archaeological samples proves that it is impractical to expect differences in biometric measurements between the two animals as well (O’Connor, T. P. 2007). Unless genetic screening is involved, hybrids are virtually impossible to identify (Witzenberger, K. A. et al. 2014). The average domestic cat has a few morphological differences from wildcats, but they mostly retain the wild body style. These differences are slightly shorter legs, a smaller brain, and as Charles Darwin noted, a longer intestine, which may have been an adaptation to scavenging kitchen scraps (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009).

Was F. s. lybica Domesticated by Commensal Means?

Current thinking emphasizes wildcat domestication as a mutualistic symbiotic relationship between humans and cats. It is thought that cats followed a commensal pathway, which led to domestication (Hu, Y. et al. 2014). It has been suggested that cat domestication happened in several steps. In the first step, wildcats were more than likely drawn to agricultural villages in the Near East by mice that were feeding on the grain storage. In the second step, wildcats began to pray on the commensal rodents in the villages and then may have become commensal themselves. The last step is that humans may have noticed the presence of the wildcats and realized that they were preying upon the mice that ate their food storage. Humans either tolerated or may have encouraged the wildcats to stay in their villages. Eventually, this relationship may have resulted in domestication (Linseele, V. et al. 2007)(Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). In northern China, a similar process occurred. Ancient Chinese millet farming, along with millet storage attracted mice. The mice in turn attracted wildcats, which led to cats becoming useful in early Chinese agricultural villages as well (Hu, Y. et al. 2014). Comment by Veronica Lovelace:

Rodents more than likely attracted cats to early farming villages, but the trash piles outside of the villages were even easier pickings, and they provided a year-round food supply for resourceful felines (Driscoll, C. A., Clutton-Brock, J. et al. 2009). The first domestic cats were a product of natural selection because early agricultural settlements would more than likely not have purposely sought out the wildcat to make them a pet (Driscoll, C. A., Macdonald, D. W., et al. 2009).

Was F. s. lybica Domesticated by Genetic Predisposition?

Scientists have recently begun to identify genes that may have helped wildcats to become domesticated (Grimm, D. 2014). The domestic cat’s genome was found to contain 19,493 protein-coding genes and 1,855 noncoding RNAs (Montague, M.J. et al. 2014). Researchers were able to uncover 13 genes that changed when cats became domesticated. Based on recent studies on knockout mice, a few of these identified genes may play a role in cognition, including fear response and the ability to learn new behaviors when given food rewards (Grimm, D. 2014). This means that because humans were being associated with food, docility may have unintentionally been selected for, and this may have been a major force that altered the first domestic cat genomes (Montague, M.J. et al. 2014). This high-quality sequencing of the cat genome may eventually reveal how other animals became domesticated (Grimm, D. 2014).

A research team also identified a few other genes in the cat genome that code for glutamate receptors. These receptors are associated with learning and memory. Five other genes in the domestic cat genome were found to influence the migration of neural crest cells, these stem cells affect everything from skull shape to coat color in a developing embryo (Grimm, D. 2014).

It is suggested that changes in these neural crest-related genes may have been the cause of the tameness cats developed during their domestication. These findings may also explain why many other domestic animals share common traits such as certain pigmentation patterns and smaller brain sizes, which was first noted by the famous Charles Darwin (Montague, M.J. et al. 2014) (Grimm, D. 2014).

Composite short tandem repeat genotypes have shown that wildcats from the Near East, along with domestic and feral cats, all fall within a large monophyletic group (Driscoll, C. A., Menotti-Raymond, M. et al. 2007). Studies of today’s wildcat and domestic cat mitochondrial DNA show that the ancient Near Eastern wildcat subspecies, Felis silvestris lybica, are their maternal ancestors (Hu, Y. et al. 2014). On top of this finding, hybridization has caused many domestic cat mtDNA haplotypes to be found within indigenous wildcat haplotypes in many wildcat populations around the world (Driscoll, C. A., Menotti-Raymond, M. et al. 2007). All of these genetic changes in the wildcat’s genome helped it to become domesticated.

Conclusion

This research shows that cat domestication has happened over many years because of commensal and preadaptive genes. When the first agricultural villages started to develop in the Fertile Crescent, rodents were attracted to the grain storages and trash heaps that these settlements produced. Felis silvestris lybica was attracted to the rodents and trash heaps in these villages due to them being easily obtainable food sources. Certain individuals of Felis silvestris lybica had preadaptive genes that made them tamer which made them prime subjects for domestication. When the ancient people of these villages saw that the cats were beneficial to them, they encouraged the cats to stay in their villages. Many years later, Felis silvestris lybica turned into the domestic cat, Felis catus, that we know and love today.

Researching the process of domestication can help gather information on evolutionary biology, animal welfare science, and conservation biology. Others are researching whether domestic cats have bred with Asian wildcats, or if they themselves have ever been domesticated at some point in time. Some research is being done on ancient felide archaeological finds because there seems to be a lack of research on them compared to studies on ancient dog archaeological finds.

The Cat Fancier’s Association, along with the International Cat Association acknowledge around 30 to 40 cat breeds. Hybrids of different cat breeds are being recognized by the Associations such as the Bengal cat, which is a hybrid between the domestic cat, Felis catus, and the Leopard cat, Prionailurus bengalensis. Other hybrids are also being developed such as the Chausie breed, a hybridization between the Felis chaus and Felis catus, and the Savannah breed, a hybridization between Felis catus and Leptailurus serval. Most of these cat breeds are not being developed for an actual purpose like dogs have been bred for, but rather for aesthetic reasons. This could lead to animal welfare concerns, as many pet owners may not know how to properly take care of these majestic animals.

Bibliography

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The domestic cat is now the world’s most popular pet, but cats were not always tame. The relationship between humans and cats began in the Near East about 10,000 years ago, when cats killed the rodents that ate grain stored in towns and villages. They were kept as pets in Egypt from about 2000 BCE, but the different breeds have only been created over the last hundred years or so

Evolution of the cat

The family history of the domestic cat goes way back in time, to long before the first humanlike primates walked the Earth. All cats—from tigers, jaguars, and other big cats to smaller lynxes and ocelots—belong to the family of mammals called Felidae, which contains 41 living species. The first catlike carnivores appeared around 35 million years ago. Fossil evidence suggests that modern felids arose in Asia about 11 million years ago. However, the big cats we know today, such as the lion, did not evolve until much later, between 4 and 2 million years ago, when a drier, warmer climate gave rise to open habitats and herds of soft-skinned grazing animals. The athletic build of big cats was ideal for catching such prey. Less agile cats, such as the saber-tooths, gradually died out. The most recent cats to evolve include the lynxes (US and Europe), the bobcat (US), the leopard cat (Southeast Asia), and the wildcats (Africa, Europe, and Asia). The domestic cat is descended from the African wildcat, and it is generally considered to be a wildcat subspecies.

Domestication

In the Near East, about 10,000 years ago, humans began growing cereal crops and storing grain for the first time. They found that rats and mice would get into their stores and eat the grain. However, the rodents themselves were eaten by small predators, such as the African wildcat. Soon a relationship between cats and humans developed: the cats had a ready supply of food in the rodents that humans attracted, and the humans gained a much appreciated form of pest control that lived alongside them in their towns and villages. Wild species of cats are naturally wary of humans, but over time natural selection favored those cats that were least scared of people and adaptable enough to change from being solitary hunters to living close to humans and other cats. By around 2000 BCE the cat had become fully domesticated and was living in the homes of the Ancient Egyptians as a much-loved pet that also kept rodents under control. From Egypt, the domestic cat would eventually spread to homes in nations around the world.

Cat breeds

In the late 19th century the breeding and showing of cats began in earnest, and cat enthusiasts became known as “cat fanciers.” Cat registries were established to set breed standards and to store the genealogies of purebred cats. Today, there are several international cat registries, and more than 100 different cat breeds, though not all registries recognize the same ones. Breeds are defined by characteristics such as body and head shape; coat color and pattern; eye shape and color; and temperament; as well as by unusual features such as hairlessness, short tails, and folded ears. Purebred cats have been selectively bred over many generations to perfect the desired characteristics of their breed. However, it is still possible for two cats in the same litter to be classed as different breeds, depending on which features they inherit from their parents.

Wild Behavior

Domestic cats display many of the same instincts as their wild relatives. For example, they stretch frequently, to keep their muscles limber in case they need to sprint after prey or away from danger. Early cat breeds were often natural breeds, typical of certain regions of the world. These include the Maine Coon (from the state of Maine) and the Turkish Van (from Turkey). Today, breeders understand how traits are inherited and use cats with novel characteristics to produce new breeds—for example, with curled ears. Newbreeds can also result from crossing domestic cats with wild relatives, such as the Bengal (part leopard) and Savannah (part serval). Most pet cats have randomly bred “moggies,” without any defined breed.

The founder effect

Domestic cats spread around the world from Egypt, traveling with humans along trade routes on land and also aboard ships sailing to newly discovered lands, such as the Americas. These cats soon established isolated populations in new locations. If any of the pioneer cats in an area possessed an unusual trait, that characteristic stood a good chance of becoming common in future generations. In larger populations of mixed cats, these traits would usually disappear, especially if they caused disease or a disadvantage. The genetic influence of these pioneering cats is known as the founder effect, and it explains why certain unusual traits still persist in some regions today. The best-known examples of the founder effect are the taillessness seen in the Manx cats of the Isle of Man and the polydactylism (a genetic mutation producing extra toes) that is common in cats along the East Coast of the US.

Cat genetics

Genes carry all the information necessary for life. They control not only the chemical processes in a cat’s body, but also the information that dictates the cat’s physical characteristics, such as eye color and shape, coat color, and coat length. Genes are found on structures called chromosomes, which are located in the nuclei of body cells. Domestic cats have 38 chromosomes—two sets of 19 corresponding pairs. One set of chromosomes is inherited from the father and the other set from the mother. Because there are two sets of chromosomes, a cat has two copies of every gene (one from each parent), and some genes have variants that may produce different traits or characteristics. If just one copy of a gene is needed for a trait to appear, that gene is called a “dominant” gene—for example, the gene for a tabby coat is dominant. If two copies of a gene are needed for a trait to appear, the gene is called “recessive“—the gene for a longhaired coat is recessive. If a cat has both a dominant shorthair gene and a recessive longhair gene, the recessive longhair gene is masked. The cat will be a shorthair—there is no intermediate effect (i.e., mid-length hair). Sometimes genes mutate—their structure changes—and they produce a different trait. Some of these mutations can then be passed down to future generations. By using cats with desirable genetic mutations, breeders can create new breeds of cats—for example, those with curly hair. However, many serious diseases are also caused by a genetic mutation, and focusing on breeding within a very narrow gene pool to promote specific traits can result in the appearance of new diseases and disorders

Animals use sound to communicate for reasons of survival, friendship, and breeding. Following the start of life on Earth 3.5 billion years ago, sound communication has since been a key aspect of animal lives, allowing for the enunciation of varying ideas to others. The conflicting purposes of auditory communication can be through several animals such as birds, chimpanzees, and dogs. The significant threshold moments will also be exemplified as the distinct effect of early life, early humanity and domestication will be explored. In examining these three case studies, we can attain a deeper understanding of the great significance of sound in the animal kingdom and how its evolution aids the survival and reproduction of species.

Birds use calls/songs and parts of their body to communicate via sound. Paleontologists have proved that birds originally evolved from dinosaurs during the threshold of early life, by finding a link between the fossils of birds and the dinosaur archaeopteryx. These two-legged hybrid creatures had feathered wings very similar to the structure of modern-day birds. Today, these wings and feathers play a crucial role in bird communication. Some birds produce non-vocal sound by fluttering their wings. Feather fluttering can be a sign to attract mates or portray signals such as courtship etc. An example of this is Wilson’s snipe which spreads its unique tail features during an eastward dive. As it plunges, it flutters its wings, creating a winnowing sound, occurring commonly during courtship. In addition, vocalization is also frequently seen amongst birds and is recognized as the most observable form of bird communication. Even though not all birds sing, the ones who do are all members of the class known as passerines. Some examples of songbirds include sparrows, wrens and thrushes. In most cases, it is the male of the species who sings rather than the females. The man sings elaborate songs as a mating call to the female and in defense of their territory. Other than singing, a more common form of auditory communication is bird calls. A bird call is shorter and less musical than bird songs. Each species of bird has a diverse range of call notes that each conveys different ideas. They can use these call notes to alert danger or threats nearby, as well as for mating purposes and flight calls. The call notes for birds of smaller size are often a chip, chirp or peep while bigger birds have a loud screech, caw or click. Since their evolution from dinosaurs, it is evident that birds have utilized sound as their main method of communication amongst each other.

Chimpanzees practice their vocals in multiple situations to express a message or emotion. Around 6-8 million years ago, chimpanzees first evolved from a shared common ancestor to humans during the early human threshold, before branching out to evolve into their modern-day form. As a result, they are genetically the closest animals to humans, sharing 98.6% of DNA. Humans and chimpanzees have many features in common, such as our body structure (e.g., opposable thumbs) and our body language. We are also both able to make and use tools, as discovered by primatologist Jane Goodall in October 1960 after observing a chimpanzee bend a twig and use it to fish termites. However, despite our similarities, chimpanzee’s application of sound to communicate is much less complex when compared to that of humans due to their lack of verbal language. Chimpanzees use varying sounds to indicate their emotions, e.g., they will whimper or cry when they are feeling distressed or laugh when they are excited. They also scream in anger and make a long “wraaaa” call when in danger. Additionally, each chimpanzee has its own distinctive ‘pant hoot’, similar to how humans have different variations of voices. These loud, long-distance vocalizations are communicated for multiple purposes such as alerting others about nearby food or proclaiming dominance and strength. Overall, the evolving of chimpanzees millions of years ago has allowed for their unique application of communication via sound today.

Auditory communication is employed by dogs to demonstrate their various emotions. Dogs have been domesticated by humans for thousands of years now. By digging up artefacts and animal bones, archaeologists discovered that dogs have been associated with human lives before the threshold of agriculture, therefore at least 10, 000 years ago. They were human’s first-known pets. It is believed that humans were still hunter-gatherers at the time the earliest dogs arose. These dogs may have followed their owners whilst hunting as a source of protection, barking or growling to warn the forager of dangerous animals or other tribes of foragers nearby. The introduction of domestication has emphasized sounds importance within a dog’s communication. Wild dogs are much less vocal than pet dogs. Common traits seen in pet dogs are barking, crying and whining, partly due to artificial selection. However, traits such as howling, travel over long distances and are majorly seen within wild dogs. These howls are mainly used to locate and attract other pack members. Furthermore, dogs also express other emotions such as distress or pain by yelping or pleasure and contentment by low pitched moaning. Some sounds such as whining have mixed meanings. Whining in dogs can be a sign of distress or a sign of happiness and excitement. They can be distinguished through the difference in pitch between the two sounds. Similarly, a growl can refer to a warning or threat or be used to communicate play and can be distinguished by the sound’s pitch. Following the advent of domestication, sound communication has altered and continues to play a vital role in communication amongst dogs.

In conclusion, animals utilize sound to effectively communicate with humans or others of their kind. Each sound communicates varying signals and messages and is essential to the living of all species of animals. By studying the auditory communication amongst animals such as birds, chimpanzees, and dogs, we are given a helpful insight into the deep complexity of nature and the development of life on Earth.

Our pets are not just our animals, they are part of our families. No matter which one you have, a dog, a cat, a bird, etc., they make us feel loved because their love is pure and kind. Therefore, the best way to give them back part of that love is to take good care of them.

Caring for a cat isn’t always simple. In the end, your cat can not speak to you and allow you to know what you are doing wrong, and cats are so separate that sometimes you do not believe that they want you whatsoever. This paper has some wise suggestions that will assist you take care of your furry friend in a manner they can enjoy.

First of all, it is very important to provide the cat with a place at home, a comfortable place protected from rain and sun, etc., with various toys.

Your cat’s health is crucial. You must ensure that he does not get parasites or other diseases because this will not only harm your pet but also endanger your family’s health. Your cat should be regularly taken to the vet for routine check-ups, at least once every six months, and must be vaccinated yearly to avoid diseases.

You need to ensure that your cat gets brushed. Do this regularly so as to assist in maintaining your cat’s outer coat healthy and clean. Additionally, it is valuable in reducing how much cats drop and how frequently they spit out these dreaded hairballs.

Maintain your kitty’s coat healthy by providing it with a nutritional supplement of nutrient yeast. Nutritional yeast is a cheap supplement that is available in many health food shops.

To make your cat healthier and happier, pick plain clutter within scented litter. Organize your cat’s litter box daily and alter it completely every 3 days. When you alter the box, then wash it out with warm water and dish soap. Do not waste your cash on liners as cats have a tendency to ruin them.

You should remember that exercise is good for your cat’s health as it benefits his body, helps him relieve stress, and expend energy. That is why spend time with them playing.

If you have kids, you need to teach them how to treat your cat, as sometimes kids can unconsciously hurt him, and he could react in defense and to protect himself he could bite or scratch your kids.

No one wants to think and believe that at some point our pet can escape and get lost, but sometimes it happens, so your pet must have an identification plate with your contact information, especially if he plays outside; this plate can save his life and recover your friend.

Like everything in life, if you do things with love and constancy everything will turn out well. Although your cat might never say thank you personally, if you apply the advice given here, you may know he’s well cared for. Only try each hint and watch your cat’s reaction. You are going to learn whether it’s working for your furry friend by his answer. Though it is not simple, everyone may be an excellent proprietor of a happy cat.

As in real life, the human-animal relationship in children’s literature is often antagonistic. In the two texts, ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies,’ and Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH, the hostility is not only felt in one direction, but is experienced by the animals and the humans toward each other. However, because Beatrix Potter wrote ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies’ for a younger audience, she handles the human-animal enmity in a more simple and comforting manner. Her words along with her self-illustrations work together to present a straightforward story. In Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH, author Robert C. O’Brien opens with a story similar to Potter’s featuring an animal family, but then, by adding a second plot about lab rats, complicates his narrative and engages older readers as well. Along with the introduction of scientific experimentation, O’Brien adds different forms of hostility, not only instinctual, to create a complex story of human and animal relationships. When the humans inject the rats with fluid to make them more intelligent, it goes beyond the typical antagonistic relationship and creates a whole new dynamic. Analyzing Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH in light of ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies’ enables a reader to understand levels of complication in a children’s book that can win it a Newberry Medal.

Even during points of human conflict, the prose in ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies’ is written in a comforting manner for children. When Mr. McGregor first approaches the bunnies, they are not frightened at all, but rather are “smiling sweetly in their sleep under the shower of grass” (Potter 47). Potter uses soothing alliteration along with carefully chosen words to infuse the story with a feeling of sleepiness and comfort. Then, when Mr. McGregor actually kidnaps the bunnies and drops them in his sack, the bunnies aren’t even awake; instead of sensing the danger they are in, they peacefully dream that it is their mother turning them over in bed (Potter 48). By doing this, Potter is alluding to Mrs. Flopsy, who is a reassuring figure in the story. Potter purposefully keeps the Flopsy Bunnies sleeping throughout most of the story so that they never feel real pain or fear. Throughout the tale, Potter repeatedly uses words such as soporific, sleepy, and slumber to lull children into a tired state. In fact, she makes no less than eleven references to the act of sleeping in her short story. These words contribute to a feeling of comfort for the young reader.

Additionally, Potter uses specific word choice to inject humor into her books as well as warmth, to reassure the reader. When Mr. McGregor actually spots the bunnies, he only sees “funny little brown tips of ears sticking up” through the grass (Potter 47). Potter deliberately writes the scene in an amusing way to delight her readers rather than scare them. The scene ends up reading more like a playful game of hide and seek than a predator situation.

The accompanying images in the ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies’ story are comforting in times of conflict as well. When the bunnies are being kidnapped, the illustration is surprisingly one of the most tender pictures in the story (Potter 48). Instead of being shoved into a dark, wiry cage, the sleeping bunny is gently being scooped into a soft-looking sack. The colors of the illustrations are warm and mellow, which reflect the Flopsy Bunnies’ overall emotional state, despite their dangerous predicament. The bunnies are also always seen together, evoking a feeling of family warmth and support even through scary moments. Even after they’re rescued, the Flopsy Bunnies never seem especially alert, instead retaining their sleepy facial expressions. These soothing images alleviate any type of concern a reader may have for the fate of the bunnies.

Perhaps the greatest indication of a younger audience is the absence of any real trauma during or following the interaction between the bunnies and the humans. Throughout the entire ordeal, the bunnies never show real signs of fear. When they do finally manage to get free, they do not run in the opposite direction and lay low in their house. Instead, their curiosity and mischievous spirits leads them to follow Mr. McGregor back to his home. They even go as far as to creep up to his window to better see what’s happening (Potter 51). Only after satisfying their curiosity, do the bunnies go home. In the end of the book, what is not written is more telling than what is on the page. The bunnies never think of themselves as victims nor do they stress about the situation in any way afterward. The fact that the bunnies feel comfortable enough to follow the human that wanted to have their fur skinned shows that they never felt they were in any real danger. Because of this, the child reader does not worry about the fate of the bunnies either.

The child also does not fear because ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies’ is the third story in the series. After reading the two other stories, the child is well aware of the patterns in Potter’s stories. The rabbits may get into some trouble, but it never lasts long. The reader ultimately knows that all will end well for the bunnies and they’ll be safe and warm.

Similarly to ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies,’ the book Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH, is also partly intended for a young audience. The younger child will enjoy the simple ideas of warmth and family that is also present in ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies.’ Yet, the most important part of Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH is intended for an older audience. O’Brien begins with a family story, but develops the novel with a more complicated study of scientific experimentation on rats. This is done through flashbacks which take up a large chunk of the book. The complexity of the rat storyline can only appeal to an older reader who can understand the complicated human-animal relationship presented.

The language used in Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH during the interaction between the humans and animals is insidious and frightening, especially compared to ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies.’ Like the Flopsy Bunnies, the rats are enticed by the food, which ultimately leads to their downfall. But unlike the bunnies, the rats are not asleep when being kidnapped, instead they are frightfully aware of their surroundings. O’Brien devotes a lot of space to the kidnapping scene, using harsh, jarring phrases such as “bright, blinding searchlights” and nets that “entangled my legs, then my neck” (O’Brien 102) to set the mood and paint a scary picture. He deliberately takes a few pages to fully describe the terror of the rats. O’Brien repeatedly uses the words “prison” and “cage” to evoke a feeling of tension and being trapped. Adding to the terror, is the suspense of the scene. The reader and Nicodemus have no idea why they’re being kidnapped. The rats just know that this is not a typical situation between rats and humans. Because of this, they’re powerless over how to proceed.

Unlike ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies’ and even the Mrs. Frisby portion of the book, the flashbacks are written in first person point of view. This places the reader directly in the action, and makes them feel the terror along with the narrator. This type of narration also allows the reader to discover the human purpose for kidnapping the rats along with Nicodemus.

When Nicodemus describes Dr. Schulz, his captor, he uses specific word choices to highlight his fear and also emphasize their complicated relationship. “I did not know it then, but I was to be his prisoner (and his pupil) for the next three years,” he says (O’Brien 107). In this statement, Nicodemus takes on two roles. He identifies himself a prisoner, because he is trapped against his will. Yet, more interestingly, he also calls himself a pupil, because Dr. Schultz has become his teacher and is teaching him information. However, by putting “pupil” in parenthesis, Nicodemus makes it very clear that being a student is only a secondary function. While he may be learning important information that would ultimately lead to his release, he felt like a prisoner, at the mercy of the human. By using both terms, Nicodemus is imparting to Mrs. Frisby that he and the humans did not have a typical relationship. It was a relationship filled with learning, but also permeated with fear.

Like the words in Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH, the images in the book do not serve to create any sense of comfort to the reader. Instead, the images convey a realistic story of uncertainty and danger. Unlike ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies,’ there are no warm colors. Instead, all the images are black and white, which creates a colder, more serious feeling. Also unlike the bunnies, the rats are not drawn in an especially cute way. Instead, they are skinny and their fur texture looks rough and prickly. Additionally, great many of the illustrations depict the animals in precarious situations. There are images of a crow entangled and trapped in string, Mrs Frisby frighteningly close to an owl, a rat trying to escape through a vent with a human on his tail, Mrs. Frisby stuck in a cage, and many other sticky situations (O’Brien, 23, 57, 118, 191).

One specific image in the book is intended to show the human-animal relationship in the harshest light. It depicts the scene where Dr. Schultz is preparing to trap Nicodemus in his cage. The image takes up the entire page for maximum effect. It shows a human hand tightly gripping the rat, seemingly crushing its bones. The angle is strange and tense, with the rat being held upside down and his feet and tail sticking up in the air. This dramatic image is quite a departure from Mr. McGregor gently scooping of the bunnies. In ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies,’ the bunny being kidnapped looks comfortable and is asleep whereas in this book, the rat’s eye looks huge and alarmed. The image shows the distressing mood and raises the tension in the story. The human is forcing the rat to do his bidding, while the rat cowers in fear and confusion.

The greatest sign that Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH is primarily intended for an older audience is that the reader needs to be able to comprehend the great trauma that the rats live with after their interaction with humans. While, the rat-human relationship is often instinctually hostile, the relationship presented in the book is entirely different. Instead of a typical predator-prey situation, the humans inject the rats with an intelligence serum, altering them and their relationship to humans forever. Though the rats manage to escape the laboratory where they were imprisoned, they never manage to escape the memory of it. Unlike the Flopsy Bunnies who quickly recover from their kidnapping, the rats can’t seem to shake off their encounter. They ruminate on it and it plagues their days and consumes their thoughts. They readily admit that the experience with the humans forever changed them. Though they only spent a few years at the lab, Nicodemus tells Mrs. Frisby that for “twenty of us those injections were to change our whole lives” (O’Brien 111). Not only did it change their mental capabilities, but the injections had made their physical appearance change as well. Because of these changes they isolated themselves not only from humans but from other animals as well. As Nicodemus tells Mrs. Frisby that “although the world outside the laboratory was the same, we ourselves were different” (O’Brien 143).

A significant proof that the human interaction forever changed the rats lies in the very name they choose to call themselves afterwards. They refer to themselves as the “Rats of NIMH.” NIMH stands for the National Institute of Mental Health, and it was the laboratory that they were experimented on. After escaping, they do not expunge the memory from their minds. Instead, they define themselves by this experience. It is not just the original rats who do this, but their descendants too. When Isabella sees Mrs. Frisby, she asks her immediately if she’s a spy from NIMH. The children of the rats have been conditioned to be suspicious of the humans in the lab. Before this incident, the rats never probably thought about scientists at all. After the experimentation, they develop a whole different type of unusual distrust of humans that is passed down through the generations. The story of the lab has become integrated into the rats’ life narrative and also forever cemented into their history. Isabella even tells Mrs. Frisby that the NIMH lab “is where we come from” (O’Brien 86). This statement is not true, as the rats actually lived near the farmer’s market before being taken. Yet, it’s the most salient experience for the rats and is where their lives were changed irrevocably. Isabella saying that the lab is where she came from, signifies that NIMH is the place where the rats took on new identities.

As a result of the human experimentation, the rats develop a whole new outlook on life, seeing the world as a dangerous place for them to live. They experience a constant state of fear and anxiety that the humans will come back and recapture them. They’re scared to make a move for fear of being killed or sent back to the lab. Because of this, they’re forced to become militant creatures. They train an army for self-defense and have installed alarm signal protocols. Gone is their sense of freedom. They eventually come to the conclusion that the only way to live life would be to create a whole new civilization, away from all other creatures.

The epilogue in the story is the final way that O’Brien shows the effects of the rats’ relationship with the humans. Typically, an epilogue is a literary tool that the author uses to tie up loose ends. The book does this for Mrs. Frisby and her children, but leaves the rats’ ending completely open-ended, stripping readers of a sense of closure. The reader never learns if the rats are successful in their new civilization or if the humans ever find them. Readers also do not get a sense if the rats ever recover emotionally from their trauma. Because of the open ending, it feels as if that the rats never truly get over what happened to them and will forever carry it with them.

“The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies” and Mrs Frisby and the Rats of Nimh both deal with the exploitation of animals. Readers of both texts are supposed to take note of the human-animal dynamic and think about why this opposition exists. Yet, because of the intended age differences the texts serve different purposes. “The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies” is meant for younger readers to subconsciously contemplate the instinctual hostility between animals and humans. In contrast, Mrs Frisby and the Rats of NIMH expects older readers to consciously grasp a more complex aggression. They’re encouraged to think for themselves about human control of animals that goes beyond survival, and the fairness of that control.

Work Cited

1. O’Brien, C. Robert. Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1970.
2. Potter, Beatrix. ‘The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies.” The Complete Adventures of Peter Rabbit, Warne, 1909, pp. 41-54.

Abstract

Human Animal interaction is a wider concept then it sounds. There are many behavioural aspects that can be learned from animals or which are shaped in the presence of animals like Patience, caring and protecting behaviour towards others, loving others before self. Animals presence help out in coping with many unfavourable situations like low mood or bad mood, low self-esteem panic situations. Corona Virus disease made many changes in animals’ as well as human behaviours.

Studies conducted on different issues related to animals and human behaviour and factors causes them, explored different aspects of the interactions of Human and animals.

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Human behaviour is a continuous process of development and has been an issue for debate to psychologists that how much of behaviour is influenced by heredity factors and how much by environmental factors. Today most of the psychologists believe that behaviour is an interaction of heredity and environmental factors [1] consequently, Human behaviour is influenced by a large number of elements and results into varied reactions and responses towards atmosphere and other living and non-living beings. Human behaviour plays an important role in sustainability and effective co-existence of diversity of species. Evidences are found since prehistoric times about the co-existence of animals and humans within the same living society or same area without much distinct boundaries. But nowadays it seems difficult to carry on this culture of co-existence of different species on same energy, attachment, and affection humans shared earlier. Earlier men used to be more pro environmentalists then today, reason behind this change could be the busy life schedules and more concerns about hygienic and germs protection. These behavioural and attitude patterns for different animals can be tried to explain with the living standards and images one owns in terms of society. Nowadays people use to buy and arrange everything they wish to keep around them instead of improving the standard of free existing things and beings. Current scenario of less interaction involvement with surroundings and other living beings is also a cause of lesser involvement with environmental and so with the nature. There could be many possible reasons for this lesser interactions such as less free time to invest and experience the diversity, lesser interest in exploring things, fear of getting hurt from animals or getting infections from them [2].

1.2 Need for Study

Here in this study we will discuss what are the components that influence human behaviour towards animals and if there is any difference noticed in human animal interaction and relation before and during covid-19 if yes then what could be the most probable causes for differences in human animal interaction. If this is related to a particular age group or economic group or influenced by the locality of living. We will discuss in details about many aspects which can affect Human animal interaction, with their origins and causes.

Literature of Review

2.1 Description

Human Animal interaction has always an important role in social, emotional, and cognitive aspect in human of all ages. Encouragement regarding more involvement in animal care (pets and strays) will lead to improving attachment and knowledge about animals consequently which lead to better prediction of animal and human behaviour. Animals can be provided with the appropriate care giver badge, as animals has been proved to possess and show their care giving and protecting behaviour. Behavioural development is a continuous process thus starts at early stage of one’s life.

Many life skills and characteristics become part of behaviour by regular practicing them like patience of learning something new, nurturing other living beings, moral values about what is right and what is not right, positive attitude and attitudes like empathy, compassion and better social interactions. People have cited that their companionship with animals in all forms which include their pets as well as strays they found on streets and outside their houses have altered their low self -esteem, low mood and loneliness and provided them with social support[3] and patience to deal with many obstacles they face in life. In recent time of Covid-19 when Full and partial lockdown was announced by the governments by the all most all the countries of the world to prevent the spread of novel corona virus. People had to stay wherever they were for months and follow the isolation norms for their as well as the betterment of people around them. In such situations when people could not reach out each other and had stay within the same environment of their home or accommodations, it became very usual and people found that difficult to deal with. In those times it was a rough experience to almost everybody. At some point of time everyone was in need of some social and emotional support. Animals were the most easily available source of interaction for support and change of usual pattern that everybody followed. To analyse the impact of animal interaction with human many studies have been conducted so far and many more are being in the process of evaluation. Many studies are used in this review which include different studies conducted on different age groups including children of age 6-12 years and adults of minimum age of 18 years etc.

Variable One- Animals’ presence affect Attachment and affection.

Variable Two- how Human’s presence affects animals

Variable Theories- Interaction affects the bonds. Human Animal Interaction also has some positive and some negative impacts on both the sides namely Humans as well as Animals. Animals’ presence is likely to have more positively effects on humans then Human’s presence on Animals. Animals have been found as a source of comfort and affection

Research Framework

To conduct this research, the interaction issues facing by Human and Animals during the covid-19 times was opted. The reason behind the choice of topic was to explore more about the Human-Animals as due to Covid-19 interactions with other beings was greatly affected because of the concerns of spread of Corona Virus and Lockdown implemented b government to prevent the spread of virus.

This topic was chosen after being inspired with the surroundings to diagnose more about the impact of animals’ presence on humans and impacts of presence of human contact on animals.

Information was collected from people who have adopted pets and who wish to adopt and people who feed strays, research papers available on internet, text materials available in books and articles.

Important and relevant information was tried to draw from those data sources.

From the collected data Conclusion was made and Drawn Information was arranged in a manner of ascending complexity.

Proper order of references was kept in record to use in later part of this review articles.

Aim: To explore the impacts of Human-Animal Interaction on Animals and humans individually.

Review Objective: The objective of this research is to know more about the effects of Human-Animal Interaction on Humans and Animals relations in times of Covid-19 and the cause of those particular effects.

Review Method: data was collected from several research papers, articles, and books.

Studies that support and Cite Human-Animal Interaction

Study 1 conducted on 1217 primary school children of age 07-12 years in Scotland. Majority of children had pets around 67%. The data collected from them included about pet ownership, family affluence, attachment to pets, attitude towards pets, compassion towards animals,

Outcomes: When data was analysed it was found that majority of children displayed high attachment to their pets. 83% or children reported their pets make them happy, the findings support the significance of pets and that pets provide a source of comfort and affection. [4]

Study 2 A 10 min survey was designed which included 21 questions in four parts namely; (1) residence and cats information, (2) change in cats care behaviour and health during pandemic, (3) difficultiesadvantages of having cats during pandemic, (4) the owner and the household. This survey aimed at cat owners in any country. The survey was completed by 325 participants from 25 different countries. Most of the respondents had cats with mixed breed (not sure about breed).

Outcomes: Majority of people didn’t notice any change in behaviour of cats during pandemic. But 33% or respondents noticed changes in cats behaviour of their cats during pandemic. These changes were positive changes like more playful and calm[5]. This could be due to the presence of their owner and more people in the house.

Study 3 The survey was conducted on 100 people in many states of India like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and other states in 2020 when covid-19 lockdown was implemented. The Survey targeted both urban and rural people and included questions regarding behavioural changes in their pets, availability of veterinary clinic and animal abuse in their region for both pets and strays. The survey also conducted descriptive questions for the similar issues.

Outcomes: Survey found different results for pets and strays. For pets, 89.1% of people felt that the presence of pets has calming effect on their owner. The aggressive behaviour was mainly due to no outing and space. Majority of people didn’t find any difficulty in taking care of their pets. Some reported difficulties like walking outside and bearing the expenses of their pets in lockdown situations.

For strays, it was evident that lockdown caused absence of human and consequently lack of food and other necessities like medications etc. [6]

Discussion:

Through the studies cited above it is found that Pet animals help their owners in many aspects and situations. There are not much differences in Interaction relationship between Humans and Pet Animals while a difference in situation of stray animals can be found as they are getting lesser concern and care from people as expected and as they were receiving before covid-19 times. There are many reasons behind these outcomes like spending more time with animals strengthen the existing bond between pets and owners on the other half covid-19 virus made situation worse for strays as people were isolated and quarantined so there was a lack of food and other necessary stuff they were getting before the pandemic. The major reason behind this was fear of getting infections from strays, unhygienic condition of strays as most the people were not coming out for their regular care routine and reducing the expenses used to done on stray animals’ care.

Conclusion

Animals help human in learning many useful aspects of daily life behaviour and routine like patience, helping out others, social support etc. Many research conducted on animal human interactions shows different results mostly positive for pets like they make their owner happy, and their owner loves them. But it is also found that situation is not similar with strays. For pets mostly things were as same as during covid-19 and before covid-19, but for stray animals’ situations were worse during covid-19 in terms of food availability, care they were receiving like medications reduced to noticeable extent

References

1. Developmental psychology, Ignou. block-1. P.06-07
2. https:doi.org10.7717peerj.7328
3. https:journals.plos.orgplosonearticle?id=10.1371journal.pone.0239397
4. https:www.mdpi.com1660-4601145490
5. https:journals.plos.orgplosonearticle?id=10.1371journal.pone.0257671
6. https:www.vpmthane.orgBNBJBNBjbnbSpecialIssue2021JBNB21_1.pdf

Human beings have been around for a rather short period of time; only about 300-200,000 years when compared to animals who have been around for much longer; approx. 500 million years (‘History of Life on Earth’ Smithsonian). Although the difference in years, animals and humans are similar but we as humans have rights, so why not animals? All animals should have rights to protect them, not from the dangers they face as being part of the food chain, but from the dangers humans expose them too.

Animals being granted a bill of rights would protect them further from the cruel and corrupt underworld of animal trafficking, and “implement stricter regulations on factory farms, and on laboratory experimentation” ‘Animals Don’t Need a Bill of Rights’ P.4. I can’t think of any humane, right-minded person who would oppose this. Although one argument against it is that a bill of rights for animals ‘reduces [humans] to the level of animals or [attempts] to raise them up to ours’ according to David Linker (P.6), I argue that animals can’t communicate their pain and suffering, their issues or concerns; for their habitat or for their fellow wildlife. This ‘bill of rights’ for animals would relieve them of the impossible task of rising up and protesting, and establish rights for their own well being and preservation.

Animals are important not only to preserve nature, but for the well being of their environments, their habitats-the same ones that we as human beings have intruded on, and that have built on. Pollinators are crucial mutualism partners with humans. Without their hard work many of our crops-that we consume on a daily basis-would perish. A bill of rights for animals will secure their well being and the future well-being of our crops. They deserve good, equal treatment for their work. There should be a bill which protects more animals life. The bill will reduce animal deaths and further protect them as previously mentioned. Animals should have a secure chance to continue living in a fast developing environment alongside humans.

Animals have, for so long, been used for the testing of many products that we humans, hence the term ‘lab rat’, a term that resonates with great pain in the hearts of many animal rights activists and although this might seem like an animal activist’s biased claim, it is a fact that many animals have died ‘for science’. Yes, animal testing has helped to determine the severity of many drugs, but it has diminished withtin the last couple of years becuase we have found newer and better, less harmful ways to test products. Computer-modeling techniques are cheaper and less harmful, much less harmful -PETA.org (Alternatives to Animal Testing). We need to permanently secure the well being of animals, regardless of it meaning that we ‘raise them to our level’ or “reduce us to their level”. We should respect animals as we do one another and treat them how they should be treated. I firmly believe that animals deserve a bill of rights, for what they have done and for what they will continue to do for the world in future generations for our future generations.

Animals of all species have played an important role in human combat since they were first domesticated by people of the Mesolithic period. Although an industrial war, World War One still utilized many animals to assist the soldiers on the battle field. Countless species such as horses, donkeys, mules, dogs, cats, parrots, pigeons, elephants and even slugs performed jobs that humans were unable to do. Carrying supplies for the soldiers was just one of the uncountable jobs that were accomplished by animals who served. A few newspapers from the time of the war state that “When the historian writes the story of the world war, he will devote several chapters to the work of animals” (Newspaper: ‘The Saint Croix Courtier’. Thursday, April 19, 1917), yet the horrific conditions these creatures endured along with human soldiers are often overlooked. Most of these courageous animals, some of whom never returned, died forgotten heroes when in fact they should be recognized along with the lost soldiers.

The horse, along with the donkey and mule, was the most widely used animal in human battle. They were usually sold to armies in very high numbers. Headlines from the era read “Equine Heroes in War, Numerous as the Human’ (Newspaper: ‘The Saint Croix Courtier’. Thursday, March 15, 1917). There were an estimated 500 000 horses called for during World War I, and 80 000 donkeys and mules. These animals were mostly used as they were better than vehicles when it came to traveling through deep mud which covered most of the battle fields. They would pull the intense weight of artillery, ambulances, and supply wagons. Donkeys were even made to carry more than three times their own body weight. To get the soldiers to the front line, horses were also used. When there, the soldier would dismount fight on foot. Occasionally, mules were used instead of horses as they required less food, had more stamina and they were more tolerant when it came to extreme weather conditions. About 7000 horses were killed during a single day of battle. Enemies would deliberately target them, they would get poisoned by gas, or they would die from skin diseases due to the mud. Without horses, donkeys and mules, soldiers may have been forced to carry their own supplies or left without if vehicles got stuck in the mud.

Dogs and cats are normally recognized as your everyday household pets, but they had a huge responsibility in helping soldiers at war. The best breeds of dogs were usually sheep dogs, collies and Irish terriers. These breeds of dogs were usually demanded for as they were brave, strong and dedicated to completing their assigned tasks. Dogs were mainly donated to the army by families, shelters and police stations. In order to prepare for the war, after being donated they would go through series of very precise and fast training. Each new dog was given a new collar and number and then sent off to battle. The most common job for dogs was a messenger. When phone lines had failed due to damage, messenger dogs oversaw delivering these extremely important messages. If these messages were not delivered, soldiers could mistakenly shoot their allies. Messenger dog were required to work alone without a handler in sight. Dogs would also carry medical supplies to injured soldiers on the battlefield. Over 20 000 dogs served alongside frontline soldiers. Casualties among these dogs were small. Along with the dogs, there was an estimated 500 000 cats brought to the trenches. These cats kept the soldiers happy as they acted like a mascot for support. At the same time, they would prevent rats from infesting the trenches and would also detect gas earlier than any human could. These cats eventually earned the nickname ‘trench cats’ from their fellow soldiers.

Birds had an important role in the Great War too. Birds such as pigeons and parrots had thousands of lives depend on them. Armies viewed these birds as an important attribute to their military. A popular bird that was used during the war was the homing pigeon. Their job was to carry messages from up to 300 miles at a speed of up to 68 miles per hour. Their missions usually succeeded 95% of the time. These magnificent birds were so important to the military that if a military pigeon was harmed or killed there was a fine of $100. Pigeons were extremely useful for when telephone wires were damaged during battle. These birds carried a message within a small cup in a cylinder which was strapped to its leg. The routes in which these birds were to travel in the trenches was learned quite fast. Over 100 000 pigeons were used in World War I. An example of just one of these incredible birds was Cher Ami. When delivering a vital message through crossfire, she was shot through the chest, lost an eye and her leg was hanging on by a tendon. Despite her terrible injuries this bird still managed to make it to her destination and deliver the message. By delivering this message, Cher Ami saved over 200 soldiers from dying from friendly fire. This bird illustrated how dedicated most of the other pigeons in war were too. Although not as common as the pigeon, parrots were used in World War I as well. Parrots were most commonly used at the Eiffel Tower early during the war. They would warn soldiers of an enemy aircraft that was approaching. The parrots were used as they could sense an aircraft 20 minutes before any human could. They would then warn soldiers and they could prepare fight. Soldiers could also guess when there could be gas on its way as the birds would act wild in their cages. They could then put on their gas masks ahead of time. Usually when the gas was sensed by a human it was too late. Without these impressive birds, many more soldiers could have died from friendly fire, gas attacks, or a surprise attack from an enemy aircraft.

Some of the species used in World War I may come to surprise you. For instance, elephants were taken from zoos and circuses when there was a lack of horses in the war. These exotic creatures were mainly wanted for their intelligence, trainability, size and strength. Their jobs were very rough and straining as they were commanded to haul 8 tons loads of tree trunks and supplies through terrible conditions. Without these intelligent giants many supplies for soldiers would not have been transported when the number of horses were low. Not all species used in war were as big as an elephant in fact, slugs were even brought to the trenches to help. It is exceptional that something so small managed to save countless men on the battle field. As the slug could sense mustard gas much quicker than a human, their job was to alert the soldiers of gas before it was too late. These slugs would physically demonstrate their discomfort by shutting their breathing pores and squeezing their bodies. When soldiers saw this, they would quickly apply their gas masks. These tiny creatures, that are commonly deemed useless today, managed to save so many people from dying from gas attacks during the war.

Animals, both great and small, served together with humans in World War I. Many sacrificed their lives completing jobs that managed to save countless soldiers from being killed by many different causes. These animals were made to travel through terrible environments to deliver lifesaving messages, endure the horrific conditions of the trenches to kill rodents, to pull injured soldiers to safety, and to pull full loads of supplies bigger than themselves! By comparison, today it is considered only ethical that horses should carry 10 to 15% of their own body weight and only ever pushed to a maximum of 20%, anymore is considered inhumane. In World War I we forced animals to carry more than 100% of their body weight combined with the brutal and muddy grounds of the battle fields, yet these creatures continue to go unnoticed by many. Both humans and animals suffered the exact same brutal torture that the Great War brought, so why not remember the humans and animals who sacrificed their lives? Animals played a very important role in World War I and deserve to be remembered alongside the soldiers who sacrificed their lives during the war as well.