Category: Anglo Saxon

Heroes have been depicted in writing across the complete timeline of literature. Anglo-Saxon and the Middle English periods are two important sections of this timeline. The hero changed detrimentally between these periods. The hero changed based on the two major writing styles: the Epic and the Romance.

The Anglo-Saxon hero was characterized as humble, courageous, valiant, strong, noble and many more similar traits. Beowulf is the epitome of this. Beowulf is blatantly intelligent, and even when doubted beyond belief, always rises to the occasion. Not only are these traits of an Anglo-Saxon hero, they are also traits of a great leader regardless of the time period. Another important quality was to be a warrior. To be an amazing hero in this time period, it was essential to be an amazing warrior. The hero had to be strong even to the point of it being supernatural. Beowulf is no stranger to this. He fights sea monsters, demons and dragons and destroys them without question (There is no need to mention how the dragon got lucky.) Going along with this, the hero must be proud of himself and his accomplishments. This is shown when Beowulf brags about his killing of nine sea monsters during his swimming challenge. As aforementioned, the hero was seen as a leader. The warriors in his tribe aspired to be him. Beowulf was challenged by the tribe members when he arrived but after being protected by him, they quickly succumbed to his leadership.

The romance hero shares qualities of the epic hero – courageous, noble, and loyal. However, there are evident traits that make the two different. This hero had to be in touch with his chivalry and courtly love side. While being a great hero is important to him, his emotions and love are also at the forefront of his story. Both have to prove themselves but the romance hero chases that approval. I compare the two to what would be considered the perfect guy, to the majority, in modern culture. A strong, athletic, handsome man who can carry himself in his battles but also unquestionably knows how to tone down his pride and turn on his romantic demeanor to win over women. Both are opposite sides of a coin with the romance hero being the latter. For example, Sir Gawain is not shy about showing his emotions but when faced with the challenge of the Green Knight, he is capable of overcoming these obstacles.

Overall, these heroes are very similar but as society progressed so did they. Society became more comfortable with men being assertive with their emotions but never lost the expectation of them to be strong warriors or knights.

The Dream of the Rood is an Anglo-Saxon poem written around the 8th century, which is of Christian value. Scholars are unaware of who the poet actually was, but due to other significant texts written at the time, it can be guessed to be written by poets such as Caedmon or Cynewulf, who have their names signed to other famous poems. The Dream of the Rood is one of the first Christian texts to be written in the English language as well as being one of the first to effectively portray a new genre of dream poetry. ‘Rood’ meaning crucifix, so immediately when a reader translates the title into modern English, they will have a fair judgement on what this poem may entail. A single section of ‘The Dream of the Rood’ was originally carved into a part of the Ruthwell cross, as an act of conversion to Christianity, but ultimately was destroyed during the protestant reformation. However, the poem was successfully persevered in the ‘Vercelli Book’ The poem has been granted its success and famous title due to the fact, it is the first of a dream genre but more importantly it brings the inanimate cross to life to tell its side of the story leading to the death of Jesus. The poet was able to dramatically convey that the crucifix was human like, and went step by step with Jesus, even before when the crucifix was merrily a tree about to be torn down and shaped to a cross. This poem would have been effective during the conversion of many people to Christians, as it helped the struggle to strip the image of the horrific death that Jesus died to, but instead stood as a symbol for faith, as it recognised the crucifix as something that held Jesus in his final minutes, therefore it is holy and almighty like him. This essay will therefore, analyse how the crucifix is characterised throughout ‘The Dream of the Rood’.

Firstly, one of the most effective and important techniques used in the poem is the ability to make an object tell a conveying moral story, that ultimately praises faith for Jesus and God and combines the two. This device of bringing inanimate objects is a classic technique used by the Anglo-Saxons which was referred to as ‘Prosopopoeia’ (Oxford reference) or commonly known today as personification. Moreover, surrounding the idea of the dream genre, from the titles itself, it is reinforced when the reader learns that the narrator is in the middle of a dream, and this entails having a conversation with the crucifix and how Jesus died. The poem is divided into different sections, and the first section the narrator or the person who is dreaming, is captured in a vision of the cross and its beauty, then in the next section the crucifix begins to tell its story of Jesus, and the final section is where the narrator develops his thoughts and feelings regarding the story he has been told, and of Jesus and Christian faith. The second section, the poet uses personal pronouns when translated like ‘I, and when the poet writes ‘he me wolde on gestigan’ (line 34, Dream of the Rood), which translates to ‘wanted to climb up on me’ in reference to Jesus about to be nailed to the crucifix. The poets use of personal pronouns in the sentence, explains how the crucifix was able to feel Jesus climb upon him, as if he had sensory abilities and feelings to remember, and be in this moment with him. It reflects the idea that the crucifix stood for Jesus, and was strong for him in his final moments.

This poem could be argued to be somewhat like a parable from the Bible itself, and could be argued to be ‘bibliomancy’ (https://www.crystalinks.com/bibliomancy.html) where a story from the Bible is retold to fit spiritual need . Depending on a person’s religious outlook, it could be viewed that this poem, is like a story which people can gain significant morals and lessons from, and give people insight into Jesus and God. For the poet to speak of the crucifix in such grace would have been a very bold move during the 8th century or before, as the ideologies regarding death by tree or cross, are quite significant in the fact that they are death penalty punishments for criminals. The poet conveys the crucifix as angelic, and subverts the criminal image when he writes ‘bearm beorhtost…begoten mid golde’, (lines 6,7, Dream of the Rood, The Vercelli Book) when translated the poet has used alliteration in; ‘brightest of crosses’ and ‘beautiful jewels’. Alliteration was a common Anglo-Saxon technique to use, as it beautifully helped the listener to capture the image that was being portrayed and continued to help the poem be spoken smoothly.

Furthermore, the reversal and the subversion of the once classified view that the crucifix was seen as a criminal’s death or would bring bad luck, is further reversed when the poet writes ‘Syllic waes se sigebeam’ (line 13, Dream of the Rood, The Vercelli Book) which translate to ‘tree of victory’. The poet’s way of describing the tree as a ‘victory’ suggests underling themes of championship and righteousness. The cross itself, describes himself as the ‘tree of victory’, as it alone carried Jesus, had his blood soaked through it and watched as his enemies murdered him. The tree is victorious as Christ is a King himself, and he was once at one with him; that it is something to be worshipped, and foretells the common idea that people pray and ask for protection of the crucifix that has been replicated worldwide. The crucifixes further characterisation is further analysed as supporting Christ when Robert. B Burlin writes;

‘…But with its selection as the instrument of the Crucifixion, this tone changes. What had been mere humiliation becomes, by association with the Creator, a plaintive yet triumphant humility. As the ‘retainer’ of the geong haled, the cross must stand far in obedience and loyalty to its Lord, though paradoxically the exhibition of these heroic virtues requires not only tolerance of, but complicity in the death of that Lord. While all the earth trembles, the Cross must stand firm, though it claims the power to strike down His enemies (35-38). It trembles only at the embrace at the Lord’ (line 13-21, Pg 28, Burlin)

Moreover, the crucifixes ‘victory’ as a crucifix to be worshipped through its association with Jesus, is further emphasised, as the it can convey how powerful Jesus’ death was. In many translations of the poem, the poet uses a wider range of verbs and adjectives to describe Jesus such as ‘Warrior’ and ‘God Almighty’ and other versions such as ‘young hero’ and ‘fair knight’. The crucifix is a symbol of Jesus’ strength, and how he gave his life for the sins of the world, which would have appealed to an Anglo-Saxon audience. The poem recognises that Jesus and the crucifix are connected but only in a warrior like way, and the poem doesn’t convey the brutality Jesus was subjected to as it is in some passages of the Bible.

As quoted in Jeannette C. Brock’s essay, (Pg. 4) ‘Michael Swanton, Professor of English Medieval Studies at the University of Exeter, suggests that’, ‘the extent of Christ’s physical condition [is] carefully masked in favour of his victorious rule from the cross.'(Swanton,100). The poem unites Christ and the crucifix, and without communicating how Jesus was severely abused, it instead adds strength to the cross’s champion victory, that it held the ‘warrior prince ‘who died for all humans. The referral to Christ as a warrior also parallels many other works of Anglo-Saxon literature such a Beowulf, and how they protect everyone for the better good of mankind, which suggests the power the cross has.

Furthermore, the crucifix is characterised as being quite emotional and tormented by the death of Christ, when the poet writes ‘Hwaeoere we oaer reotende gode hwile’(line 70) which translates to ‘Nevertheless, weeping, we stood there a good while’(line 70, Dream of the Rood). Looking through the crucifixes ‘eyes’ in this line, the poet portrays the cross as having emotions towards this incident like Mary in the Bible, watching her son die on the cross. The cross is among others who have witnessed his death penalty, and it too has wept for Christs death. The Crucifixes characterisation is further developed when the poet describes how several inflictions that would have caused grave pain to Jesus, actually caused the crucifix severe pain as well. This is evident when the poet writes ‘purhdrifan hi me mid decoran naeglum; on me syndon pa dolg gesiene,…opene inwidhlemmas;’(line 45,46, Dream of the Rood), this translates to in most translations, as ‘they drove dark nails into me; dire wounds are there to see, the gaping gashes of malice’(line 45, 46). The poets use of strong metaphorical images, shows how the crucifix felt the pain rather than Christ, to avoid an image of Christ anything less than strong and warrior like. In this poem, the crucifix takes the pain and suffering from Christ. Moreover, the crucifix explains how ‘Bareon me…’ (line 32, Dream of the Rood) or ‘men shifted me’. This is a great example of ‘anthropomorphism’ (https://www.britannica.com/topic/anthropomorphism), where an object is given the ability to speak about physical, mental or emotional pain. Due to the fact that men had shifted the crucifix already into position in the poem, it doesn’t refer to the many times in the bible, Jesus fell while carrying the cross, and how it had to be lifted off him. This helps to keep the ongoing image, that the crucifix knew itself it had to be strong for Jesus, and it was privileged to have such a prince be placed upon him. Highlighting and creating a perfect light for Jesus made this poem an epic story to listen to during the Anglo-Saxon period. Moreover, due to the fact that the crucifix lives the pain that originally is bestowed upon Christ, it unites them together, and because he poet or the ‘dreamer’ is witnessing this vision from the crucifix, he too is given insight into Jesus’ pain. This reinforces the common idea, that Christ and God are connecting to each single person, and they feel every humans pain and suffering and try to give some relief through prayer, just like the crucifix felt Jesus’ pain, and held him up.

In addition, the crucifixes’ strong and convincing speech, is foreshowed in the opening lines when the poet writes, ‘Hwaet, le swefna cyst scegan wylle…gesawe syllicre treow…’(lines 1,4, Dream of the Rood). This roughly translates to ‘Listen! I will tell the best of visions…more wonderful tree’. The strong ‘Listen!’, is very conveying to an audience listening; it is a command that wants the listeners respect and silence for this poem. Referring to a wonderous tree, foreshadows at how that tree will become the crucifix that Jesus will be nailed too. This sets a high tone for the crucifix’s speech, and how it will be wondrous, so the poet has skilfully captured the audience’s attention, and commands them to listen to how the crucifix is respectable and conveying. Moreover, the crucifixes speech is further convincing, through the poets use of rhyme and rhythm. There is no real rhyme scheme to the poem, other than the commanding opening lines, that further emphasis the foreshadowing of the crucifixes story. The poem would have been traditionally read aloud, as before poems were written into textual transcripts, they were passed down generations through oral tradition. The poet uses a rather musicality approach towards the poem, and this would have created a beautifully poetic narrative for audiences to listen to; therefore, enhancing the crucifixes story, for an audience to learn Christian faith lessons from. To appeal to the Anglo-Saxons, musicality helped, but the reference to the tree, and its journey from tree to crucifix, could showcase to the Anglo’s how they too can convert to Christianity, and follow Jesus on their path to strengthening their faith.

Furthermore, in the final section of the poem, which is the speaker/dreamer’s colloquy, it gathers the final thoughts regarding the crosses story, and how the speaker now feels enlightened. The crucifix in these final lines are furthered characterised as being ‘God-like’, as the crucifix acting symbolic for Christ gave his life for the sins of mankind, people will one day face the cross again. This is evident when the poet writes, ‘On me Bearn prowode hwile;…hlifige under heofenum…’(lines 83,84, Dream of the Rood’), which translates to ‘On me the son of God, suffered for a while…glorious now, towering under the heavens’. Here, it is visible that the crucifix now upholds itself with the stature of Christ. It knows it will be used to bow down and pray to, and it will serve as protection for anyone who asks. This is furthered emphasised when the poet writes ‘Nu ic…min se leofa…secge mannum’(line 95,95, Dream of the Rood) which translates to, ‘Now I urge you…to tell men about this vison’. This signifies an urgency to spread the word of God. God is almost using the crucifix to speak to mankind, and reassure them. The poets use of commanding language in these sentences engage the listeners, who as previously mentioned would have been Anglo-Saxons who may have been the position of converting to Christianity, to perhaps fulfil their conversion. The crucifix is characterised as being a physical reach to God, and it know people will bow their heads in prayer to it, as it has survived like Christ, for humans.

Lastly, the crucifix is also characterised as being something worldly; it was made from a tree that grows on earth, which is like mankind, they are not angels or other-worldly, they reside on earth. Jesus was born on earth, and was kike any other human, and he died like any other human. This is evident when the poet writes, ‘Dryhten freond…her on eorpan’ (lines 144, 145, Dream of the Rood), this translates to ‘he who on earth suffered previously’. This reinforces the idea that Jesus and the crucifix were both on earth like any other human, so we all or the Anglo-Saxon audience, can make that spiritual journey into enlightenment and to have faith in Christianity.

To conclude, over the course of the poem, the crucifix is characterised as going through a journey, quite like when someone begins a spiritual enlightenment journey. It showcases the hardship and brutality the crucifix has been subjected too. However, the crucifix witnesses Christ’s punishment, and knows he was not attached to a criminal but rather a prince. It adds value to the crucifix and it reinforces how people now pray and bow their head to a cross in times of need or to give thanks. Jesus and the crucifix both were on earth, and like them, many Anglo-Saxons began their journey to Christian faith.

Bibliography

1. Crossley-Holland, K. (1999). The Anglo-Saxon World. 3rd ed. Oxfords World’s Classics, pp.200-204.
2. Magennis, H. (2011). The Cambridge introduction to Anglo-Saxon literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Dream of the Road OE and MoE, Canvas, Queens University Belfast (2019), Cynewulf, ‘The Vercelli Book’file:///C:/Users/seanna/Downloads/Dream%20of%20the%20Rood%20OE%20and%20MoE%20(1).pdf

Works Cited

1. ‘prosopopoeia.’ Oxford Reference. . . Date of access 1 Dec. 2019,
2. Burlin, Robert B. “The Ruthwell Cross, ‘The Dream of the Rood’ and the Vita Contemplativa.” Studies in Philology, vol. 65, no. 1, 1968, pp. 23–43. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4173589.
3. Jeanette C. Brock (1998) ‘Dream of the Rood and the Image of Christ in the Early Middle Ages’ https://religiondocbox.com/91175399-Christianity/The-dream-of-rood-and-the-image-of-christ-in-the-early-middle-ages-jeannette-c-brooks-1998.html
4. Michael Swanton. English Literature Before Chaucer. (New York: Longman, 1987), 100.
5. ‘Bibliomancy’, https://www.crystalinks.com/bibliomancy.html
6. ‘Anthropomorphism’ https://www.britannica.com/topic/anthropomorphism

The Anglo-Saxon administration has shown that it is explicitly applicable of all the peruses of this material, as it is founded on rules that must be codified and that can ultimately be subject of substantive interpretation by the right adjudicating body. It seems to be variously levied and therefore replaced; and, in accordance with this usage, is there a willingness to control the violation which has been discovered within this administrative framework? They demonstrated the need for convergence between legislative and administrative problems. It added to the belief that there would be a good refining between the Two of them.

‘The point is that policy issues are related to resources where a certain group of people, expected to just be different and competitive, may perceive the package, For example, both the United Kingdom and the United States have governing mechanisms that render this split a success in their national governments and different procedures in each country but in all cases the difference is, in effect, constant blurred. Some would claim that separation is not possible since the third power element is ignored while it is more important. The Anglo-Saxon paradigm is bureaucratic, yet it allows and facilitates certain models of governance to operate within the context of the system. Therefore, the business form appears strongly in the Anglo-Saxon model while the network and consensus models can be found as well. It is also obvious that the Anglo-Saxon system is not perfectly captured by the system of governance; instead, it is the reliance on law. The Latin government structure seems to be less codified than the Anglo-Saxon structure and indicates that there is little need for adjudication processes. ‘This is because it is a couple of years away-in the past of both the families and the residents of both the area. Therefore, in a few ways, all other types of Anglo-Saxon are based on a bottom-up perspective rather than a conventional down-up.

Approach to me. Thus, this interpretation is largely focused on the fact that long-term households are related to all other approaches. This theory is also primarily based on the assumption that long-term relationships are associated with some other relatives. And therefore, felt it necessary to do so. The regular members of the social community are assumed to have important information and therefore assume a leadership role owing to the respect accorded to them by the other family circle. Consequently, there is no requirement for a comprehensive formalization of policy procedures so there’s no need to reformulate the internal review system.

It performs well on a confidential environment. In addition, this difference is generalized from residence to the general community and works on the same basis. In a variety of respects, the governing mechanism of the scheme alluded to in Section 1 focuses exclusively on the Latin version, as such it is focused on informal ties of mutual interaction without any requirement for general framework: this provision is also not necessary because of the hobbies of all tasks that exist in the management of operating relations. Therefore, it can be said that Confidence is mostly based on the way of life, because it has been effective in the past and can be predicted to continue functioning in the future. The type of the network focuses on the lack of big energy disparities, While the Latin model clearly has a structure in which force is distributed unevenly. Power is sent to the direction of development, but it is also suitable for all people as it is the same. Realize that, inevitably, they will raise the system by gaining electricity as they grow. The approach is thus inevitable and is believed to be practical and reasonable.

There have been a lot of debates about why the Anglo-Saxons migrated to Britain. First Saxon warriors raided England’s south and east coasts but they were defeated by the Romans. It is known that after Britain stopped being a part of the Roman Empire the Saxons attacked again and this time the British could not hold them back. That’s how the Anglo-Saxons settled down it England. Of course that whole process did not happen overnight but it took centuries.

The earliest sources of information we have about the Anglo-Saxon migration were written by two monks who were living at the time the events were happening, Gildas and Bede. Bede was an Anglo-Saxon monk while Gildas was British monk. Bede tell us that his ancestors come from different parts of Denmark and Germany and gives us more information about which tribes they originate from and describes the process through his own perspective. They both provide us with a lot of information but it’s still not enough to tell for certain why the Anglo-Saxons migrated to Britain. One possible reason for this might have been the rising sea-levels in the areas of the Netherlands Denmark and Germany where the Saxon traditionally lived. Another possible reason is the fall of the Roman Empire which caused movement of great number of people. And maybe the most obvious of reasons – as the population grew they needed new lands for farming and making villages. According to a slightly different theory some sources say that the Saxon warriors were invited to come, to the area now known as England, to help keep out invaders from Scotland and Ireland such as the Picts and the Scots. After that instead of going back home they settled down.

There are many different reasons why the Anglo-Saxons migrated to England. Different sources provide us with different information so we can only speculate about what exactly happened then. The Dark Ages are particularly dark in Britain, in the sense that written records almost entirely dried up between the fifth and eighth centuries. I personally believe that there were more than one possible reasons to cause the migration process. An opportunistic mix of invasion and settlement might be a possible explanation. Actually some Saxons may well have already been in Britain long before any part of it became Roman.

References

1. Schulz, Matthias. 2011. Britain Is More Germanic than It Thinks
2. Ben Johnson .2014. Invaders! Angles, Saxons and Vikings
3. Anglo-Saxons. Wikipedia. Retrieved March 7, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxons

Introduction

“… social … developments over the last two decades have combined to create a unified world marketplace…” (Organising). Every country has different methods of conducting business across borders. Some countries are similar while others are different. Everyday different businesses are continuously attempting to expand and reach consumers. The countries we are focusing on are the countries labelled Anglo-Saxon which are: the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Ireland. We will focus on how each country manages social differences across borders by understanding language, business ethics and multiculturalism.

Language

Language is very important when it comes to discussing business. Without language, whether its verbal or nonverbal, it helps communicate the message you want consumers to hear. In this first section we will only talk about the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. The first country we will look at is the United Kingdom and how they conduct business through language barriers. It is widely known that English is the most common language spoken in the United Kingdom but business managers are very fluent in languages from Mandarin, Asian languages, French, Spanish, and more (Business). It is very important for business managers to know different languages to be able to communicate with people from different ethnicities. The United Kingdom is famous for the “Stiff Upper Lip” which means that they do not display emotions when a difficult situation pops up at work or during a meeting (Business). In particular situations that arise with complications, it is best to not let your emotions get to you. It is always best to act rational and think with a level headed mind. If a client observes you lashing out and not thinking critically in a serious situation then they known they cannot rely on you. The next country we will look at is the United States and how they overcome language barriers. It is commonly known that American English is one of the hardest languages to learn for foreigners mainly because of placing verbs and the different meanings of a few words. “ … phrasal verbs – a verb whose meaning is changed by a small word added to it” (Why). A lot of languages have words that do not have multiple meanings or have a two letter word change the meaning. So, when the United States conducts business overseas, they will either learn their language or simplify their proposal. One example is my job as an assistant manager at Rue 21. We have large numbers of clientele from different ethnicities that love to shop at our stores. Because of this, my coworkers and I try to look for numerous ways to communicate with our customers. Our methods are writing down our questions, translating, simplifying our sentences, non-verbal language or having a conversation and getting to know them. Businesses in the United States are constantly looking to expand and make a profit to have that “American Dream.” This also includes hiring staff that are bilingual so that they will have different clientele from all over the world. “The potential loss of trust — and commensurate loss of business — underscores the importance of a full knowledge of the language and culture for external communications, marketing, and branding, as well as for handling government and media relations” (What). When a company does not take the time to have patience and learn a countries culture then that company will waste time and money when the deal doesn not succeed. The next country we will look at is Canada and how they overcome language barriers. The country of Canada has five languages that nearly all or most of the citizens know, they are: English, French, Mandarin, Cantonese, and Punjabi (Top) (appendix one). Cantonese and Mandarin are similar languages with just a couple of differences. Cantonese has been around longer than Mandarin but Cantonese is an oral language while Mandarin is a written language (Cantonese). Punjabi is a, “descendent of the Shauraseni Prakrit, a language of medieval northern India that was used primarily in drama and plays during the 3rd to 10th centuries” (History). People from India that migrated to Canada and have descendants primarily use this language as a way to write and speak to one another. Richard Slingerland, a businessman from Canada, has said even though Canada is home to all of these dialects, it still makes it hard to close a business deal because of language barriers (Doing). His company mainly uses visuals and presentations when dealing with new clients because of this barrier: ‘Sometimes we’ll be in a meeting and it will be 45 minutes of pure Japanese or Mandarin and there’s nothing coming back (in English),’ (Doing). One important aspect that he uses to help his employees to overcome language barriers is that he pays for each of them to take an English class one hour each morning (Doing).

Business Ethics

It is important for a business to have a code of ethics when hiring employees, difficult situations pop up or new clientele from overseas. A company needs to prove that they are reliable and loyal to their customers and employees (Appendix two). No matter what language everyone speaks or ethnicity, a company will not work with you if you do not stick to your code of ethics. In this section we will only talk about New Zealand, Australia, and Ireland. The first country we will talk about is New Zealand and how they use business ethics to achieve their goals. Companies in New Zealand have made ties between ethical leadership and the financial ties that come with it. Numerous businesses have been incorporating the four P’s of business: Purpose, Principles, Practices, and Performance management “fairness, caring, honesty and courage guide individual and business behaviour” (Ethical). They also address concerns for stakeholders, employees, customers and the environment along with involving quantitative and qualitative data to measure performance for the year (Ethical). The next country we will talk about is Australia and how they use business ethics to achieve their goals. There are numerous business ethics that each business in Australia uses to show their customers how much they respect them. A few examples of these ethics are: equality, corporate structure, and, gender roles. When it comes to equality, Australians treat everyone the same regardless of gender or demographics. If they treat someone different in the workplace, it would happen if they were to brag on their accomplishments. Business in Australia do not like it when their employees brag because it gives them a bad image and it is not respectful. Even though business have ranks and have the hierarchy of their employees, they still treat each other with respect. “Upper-level managers … seek input and advice from their subordinates, and there is … no … distinction between upper- and lower-level employees. Employees at lower levels frequently have considerable decision-making power” (Australian). Another important business ethic that Australian businesses practice is gender equality. A lot of positions have an equal amount of men and women in high positions in different companies. Women are highly valued in Australia and are treated with respect and nearly all high-ranking positions are employed by women (Australian). The final country we will talk about is Ireland and how they use business ethics to achieve their goals. One major business ethic that Ireland practices is punctuality. “Being late is seen as impolite and inconsiderate” (Business Etiquette). It makes your company seem disrespectable when you are late for a meeting with a client and do not call ahead or warn them. When having a business discussion they do not want opinions they wants facts and they do not rule with their emotions but with their mind (Irish). “During … negotiations, you should speak plainly and appreciate that what you say will be taken literally. Similarly, you should interpret what your Irish counterparts say in the same direct manner” (Business Meeting). Each country practices very important business ethics to help them keep old clients and find new ones. It also helps if their employees supports these ethics to help the company to meet its quarterly goals. An unpopular opinion is that if you practice ethics in every aspect of your life, you will have more respect for everyone and it will help you to be a kind person in general.

Understanding Multicuralism

Multicuralism is the celebration of human diversity by promoting legal, political, and social recognition of cultural, ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences (What is). This can lead to employees being comfortable with sharing their ideas and feeling appreciated. Many places of business uses multicuralism as a way to help their employees grow and succeed within the company. In this section we will only talk about the United States, Canada and New Zealand. The first country we will talk about is The United States and how they use multicuralism. A few business leaders have commented on multicuralism in the workplace including overseas business deals. The founder and CEO of Unbabel, Vasco Pedro, has stated that it is dangerous to assume everyone speaks English and that countries who speak the same languages make twice the amount of money versus other countries who do not (How). One of the chairmen of CUBE, Dr. Torsten Oelke, has said that half of their team have different cultural backgrounds and it is beneficial for any businesses deals with different countries (How). “Diversity is a high-performance fuel – and our strength’ (How). Even though multicuralism has worked in the workplace the past few years lets hope it reaches to everyday life in and outside of work. The second country we will take a look at is Canada and how they use multicuralism. Compared to the United States and Europe, Canada is doing pretty well on the multicuralism frontier regardless if it is business or personal. Multicuralism has been a very important part of Canada’s history ever since 1971 because they believe everyone should be treated with respect. They also apply their multiculturalism with their immigration policy by using a point system based on: “age, work experience, language ability, education and much more” (Why Does). Since Canada is constantly looking for people around the world to work for them, they use this point system as a way to give them citizenship without paying a lot of money out of pocket. Other countries have been influenced by this point system such as: Australia, several Scandinavian countries, and the Trump administration in the United States (Why Does). The last country we will talk about is New Zealand and how they use multicuralism. Just like Canada, New Zealand established the Treaty of Waitangi which explains why this country needs multicuralism and how their law reflects it. This treaty is a step for New Zealand to change from being a biculturalism country to multicultural because of the different cultures migrating to New Zealand (Our). This will also help to prevent racism and other forms of discrimination in and out of the workplace along with enabling social development for business overseas.

Conclusion

Each of these Anglo-Saxon countries demonstrates in different ways on how they conduct business overseas. Whether it is paying for a language class, helping immigrants gain citizenship or making multicuralism an important aspect of business it helps better the future for young kids. In this day and age it is very important to know more than one language in order to obtain an excellent paying job and to help communicate with people from different ethnicities. There are many benefits to knowing another language such as: boosting your brain, meet interesting people, and having amazing job opportunities (12). What is also beneficial in a business environment is business ethics. Business ethics are very important when having clients, employees and the employees families. When a business upholds its ethical standards in any situation it attracts the attention of people who need jobs. It also attracts potential investors and customers because of a companies great reputation and ethical standards. “Unethical behaviour or a lack of corporate social responsibility, by comparison, may damage a firm’s reputation and make it less appealing to stakeholders. Profits could fall as a result” (The importance). Multicuralism is very important when having groups working on different projects because it leads to great outcomes. Multicuralism just like diversity leads to people of all ages, sex, and ethnicities working together to meet company goals but diversity goes just a little further into details (Multicultural). In the end, multicuralism ties language and business ethics all together in the business setting. Multicuralism starts a business off with wanting diverse employees. Language helps businesses to communicate with one another to help understand each other better. Business Ethics proves to customers, investors, and employees that they are valued and companies will protect their interests and safety. Each of these Anglo-Saxon countries focuses on managing social differences across borders by understanding language, business ethics and multiculturalism.

References

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3. Business etiquette in Ireland. Retrieved April 28, 2019, from https://businessculture.org/northern-europe/ireland/business-etiquette/
4. Business meeting etiquette in Ireland – Irish business culture. Retrieved April 28, 2019, from https://businessculture.org/northern-europe/ireland/meeting-etiquette/
5. Cantonese: About Cantonese. Retrieved April 28, 2019, from https://cantonese.ca/intro.php
6. Doing business abroad? Here’s how to get around language barriers. Retrieved April 28, 2019, from https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/small-business/going-global/how-three-global-small-businesses-surmount-language-barriers/article17718444/
7. Ethical business need not dent profitability. (2019, April 26). Retrieved from https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=109577
8. History of Punjabi Language & Gurmukhi Alphabet | Trumbull, CT . Retrieved April 28, 2019, from https://patch.com/connecticut/trumbull/history-of-punjabi-language–gurmukhi-alphabet
9. How Multicultural Business Relationships Can Make You A Better Professional. (2019, April 26). Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesagencycouncil/2017/03/24/how-multicultural-business-relationships-can-make-you-a-better-professional/#7bec12eb46c4
10. The importance of ethics in business – Ethical business practices . Retrieved April 28, 2019, from http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/cadbury-schweppes/ethical-business-practices/the-importance-of-ethics-in-business.html
11. Irish business culture: Advice on work, study and life Ireland. Retrieved April 28, 2019, from https://businessculture.org/northern-europe/ireland/
12. Multicultural Workforce. Retrieved April 28, 2019, from https://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Mor-Off/Multicultural-Workforce.html
13. Organising Across Borders: Differences in British and French Conceptions of Management and their Impact on a Management Development Programme. (2019, April 26). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228684346_Organising_Across_Borders_Differences_in_British_and_French_Conceptions_of_Management_and_their_Impact_on_a_Management_Development_Programme
14. Our multicultural future New Zealanders talk about multiculturalism. (2019, April 26). Retrieved from https://cdn-flightdec.userfirst.co.nz/uploads/sites/multiculturalnz/files/events/NZFMC_Our_Multicultural_Future_FINAL_07.07.15.pdf
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The earliest known records of the English language, date back to 449 AD and were derived from many different influences including but not limited to Latin, Danish, French, Dutch, Spanish and German and has been proven to the hardest language to master due to its’ many influences. (Rockett) The name of the Anglo-Saxon’s language, Englisc, gives us our term of “Old English”. The Wanderer is a tale about a lone hero, who is the last of a group of warriors, searching for a new home. Although the original date it was written and its author is unknown, this popular poem from the Anglo-Saxon period was surprisingly well preserved in an “anthology known as the Exeter Book dating back to the 10th century”(Gray) and has been translated into modern day English. Throughout this poem, the author conveys the message of The Wanderers’ longing for kinship and for his sorrow to subside with the use of imagery and personification, but despite this want, he is filled with a hopeless abandonment.

The Wanderer refers a great deal to his fellow soldiers, his kinsmen. The more he thinks about his men, the more the “Sorrow returns.” (The Wanderer, Line 50) Though he feels this way, he seems to find some comfort when he thinks of the times spent with his men, “pass memories of kinsmen- / joyfully he greets them, eagerly gazes- / his fellow warriors” (The Wanderer,51-53). Here it seems as though he is missing the companionship of his former men, and when his mind visualizes them, he seems pleased. Our memories can produce the most vivid images and the author does a great deal to convey the Wanderer’s memories in a way that the audience is able to picture. I feel as though I can relate to these lines in way, not in death but rather distance from family and friends. Being alone can often make you miss those whom you call your friends, your family and you produce images and memories in your mind of the times spent with them. In the case of the Wanderer, it is his fellow soldiers whom he is longing to be with, however, “They fail to bring / much familiar talk” (The Wanderer, 54-55). This could be referring to memory loss in a way since they have been gone and he feels as if he does not know them or is connected to them anymore and those voices, images and memories begin to depart.

The author also seems to use a lot of personification as it relates to the Wanderer’s travels and his “wandering” mind. This poem is full of sorrow as times are recalled to when he was not alone, or out searching for a new home. Along his journey, his heart never seems to heal, and his sorrow continuously seems to grow. He tries so hard to move on from his past, to move on from his many trials, and tribulations, but they always seem to catch up with him. When he thinks of his former kinsmen, he sees their “floating spirits.” (The Wanderer, 53). Spirits are seen as inanimate objects because they have no physical body, and are not seen as a living being, therefore they are personified as “floating.” The author’s use of personification here seems to add a bit a light to this somber piece although it goes directly into them vanishing. Personification in a poem such as this helps with the flow and the structure as a whole. Another use of this we find in this section is “who must often send / his weary spirit over the waves’ bed” (The Wanderer, 57). This could mean that the spirits of his departed kinsmen need to go away in order for him to heal and to move on from his past life as he is still on a journey to find a new home. Often, people personify objects of a departed loved one as a way of a coping mechanism or of remembrance as seen with The Wanderer recalling those spirits of the departed.

Losing connections with those who have passed or who may still be alive can be lonely and cause our thoughts to wander. We must always try to keep our thoughts alive and to never forget our past and those who have departed from our lives. No matter what we must do whether that be drawing those images in our heads or even talking to inanimate objects, from departed loved ones. Even though we may think we are not alone, we are all alone somehow, some way, some place and at any given time, searching for that new home and longing for that lasting kinship like the Wanderer. The message of The Wanderers’ longing for kinship and for his sorrow to subside with the use of imagery and personification, but despite this want, he is filled with a hopeless abandonment as “for any man who must often send his weary spirit over the waves’ bed” (The Wanderer,55) it is useless as our sorrow is as endless as the stars in the nights sky or the rolling waves of the oceans current.

Works Cited

1. The Wanderer. The Norton Anthology of English Literature, edited by Stephen Greenblatt, Norton, 2018, pp. 42-109.
2. Wendy Howard Gray & Lumen Learning. English Literature I.courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-britlit1/chapter/overview/.
3. Rockett, Brian. English 261. Jefferson State Community College, Sep. 2020, bb9.jeffersonstate.edu. Accessed 30 September 2020.

Christianity remains the most followed religion in the world today making up nearly a third of the world’s population. In 2011, Christianity was the largest religion in England and Wales with 33.2 million people, equating to 59.3% of the population. Christianity has an enriched heritage and profound history, but one may be interested to know where the origins of Christianity began? Or what the history of conversion in the UK and, in particular, the English was? Conversion is the notion of persuading one to change their religion or beliefs. Some of the earliest data and research considering these questions date as far back to the Anglo Saxons spanning the late 6th and entire 7th and 8th centuries. This period of conversion of the English was caused and affected by a variety of factors ranging from the impact of Roman Christianity versus the Celtic impact. These factors included the mission of Augustine, the Celtic contribution from Gaul which was able to influence areas such as Northumbria, and the Irish which also conducted its influence in Northumbria to spread ideas all over the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. However, the knowledge provided to historians on this topic is very limited and obtained from one central source; Bede. Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731, is essentially our only narrative for this period of Anglo-Saxon history which of course aligns with the fact that there will a cloud of unreliability associated with the information provided. Bede uses earlier sources to reconstruct events of this period and many agree to the consensus this will be unreliable. There are a few other primary sources which will be analysed in this essay, but one must understand that the information available is not entirely accurate. This essay will assess the importance of the Celtic contribution on the conversion of the English versus the other factors leading to conversion.

The year 597 is perhaps the most sensible year and area to begin this debate. The death of Columba of Iona was of significance because he may have been one of the first to bring Christianity to the Northern Picts. Moreover, in this same year, the key event of Augustine’s mission occurred . Pope Gregory I, in approximately 595, conceived the idea of converting the English and began to organise the finances of his estates in Gaul for the mission. In 597 Augustine and approximately forty companions arrived at the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and they were received by Æthelberht. He gave them St Martin’s in Canterbury as their base whilst also allowing them license to preach. From analysing Pope Gregory’s letter’s one can identify the immediate success of the mission. Gregory comments that “those who were sent out with him shine amongst that nation with such miracles that they seem to imitate the mighty works of the Apostles”. The use of the verb “shine” and noun “miracle” convey the initial success that Augustine had accomplished upon arriving. Furthermore, these words emit connotations and depict images of success, achievement, and wonder. This emphasises the success that Augustine had in converting English peoples to Christians, which is further supported by Gregory’s comment that by Christmas “more than ten thousand English people” were converted. With its initial success, further missionaries were sent to England in 601 to aid the mission’s endeavours. Thus, this initial wave of Christianisation

One also must consider the impact of rulers and their kingdoms on the spread of Christianity in this period. First of all, it was Æthelberht that first received Augustine and provided him a base in which to preach. Moreover, he was married to a Christian wife named Bertha. This perhaps furthered the influence of Christianity in these areas or at least encouraged Æthelberht to convert and advocate such conversion. It could also be argued that by marrying a Christian, Æthelberht would be viewed as not being hostile to the religion and hence, when Augustine embarked on his mission, knew he would possess more chance of success by arriving in Kent. Additionally, Mellitus, who was sent as one of the extra missionaries by Gregory, preached to the inhabitants of Essex. This was after its ruler, Sæberht, had adopted Christianity. This links the two factors of Augustine’s mission and impact of rulers having a profound importance and origin to the beginning of conversion of the English. However, the deaths of Æthelberht in 616 meant that Augustine’s mission lost its most valuable supporter as well as Sæberht passing. Both of these ruler’s sons were initially hostile to Christianity and this led to a reduction in support and conversion. This conveys how important kings and rulers were in the spread of Christianity. In Anglo-Saxon hierarchy it is evident that the peasants and lower members of the social structure adhere to what the King advises. They follow and believe in their King’s actions and thus when these rulers began to accept Christianity, the conversion began to increase in prominence. Likewise, when these rulers passed, there was reduction in the belief as priests and churches were not enough to substantiate people’s faith and continue its expansion.

The Celtic contribution to conversion of the English was profound. The ‘Age of Saints’ was prominent in the fifth and sixth century in Wales. These saints first endeavoured to Christianise Wales and then the Saxons in England. However, reluctance to adopt this new religion from Celtic missionaries, led to Celtic influence in Ireland. This had the consequence of the enormous Irish influence in converting the English. Columba of Iona, as previously aforementioned, was potentially one of the first to bring Christianity to the Northern Picts. Despite the Picts being located in modern day Scotland, it still had the core origins of spreading Christianity into England. Columba was able to teach many disciples who would later originate from monasteries in Ireland and travel over to Britain to convert the peoples that inhabited these areas. The Irish influence was particularly prominent under King Æthelfrith’s son Oswald who was a Christian. After being exiled and residing in Ireland, Oswald gained the support of the Irish Church and sent a bishop to Northumbria. The bishop named Aidan was able to establish a monastery in Lindisfarne. This became the hub for Celtic Christianity to develop as Aidan taught priests and began to spread the faith. The church in Northumbria epitomised the Irish influence on conversion as it enabled priests to spread Christianity across all of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. However, it must be noted that in accordance with the importance of kings and rulers, the Irish success was feasible and continued due to the support of King Oswald. Irish missionaries could guarantee the support of Oswald and rely on his funding to build monasteries and churches. This enabled the continuation of the spread of the faith and allowed for preachers to a base to operate. By this time Celtic Christianity had a large prominence in Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Kent.

Celtic contribution was significant to the conversion of the English however, there is evidence supporting the argument that there was already a considerable amount of practice on Christianity from the late Roman period. There has been archaeological and recorded evidence from churches, councils, and synods, such as letters, which had a greater propensity to appear in the non-Celtic areas of Britain. This data regards the practice of Christianity and also includes the charters of recorded gifts and other transactions. Barbara Yorke argues that this data can be presumed to indicate an unbroken practice from the late Roman period. Further to this, in Anglo-Saxon areas the written charter and late Roman traditions of land tenure embodied within it were introduced as part of the process of conversion to Christianity, Yorke continues. This suggests, whilst the Celtic contribution was important, Christianity was already being practiced in some areas of Britain and thus would have had the necessary platform to expand without contribution from elsewhere. Prior to the Roman’s arriving in Britain, there is evidence to suggest that Britain had elements of a Christian society. The religion was referred to as paganism.

By the mid sixth century, Christianity almost existed in all kingdoms across England. As discussed, it is apparent to why Christianity spread to most of the corners of Britain. However, in drawing most of our information from Bede, it is important to assess the reliability of such account. There are some inconsistencies with Bede’s reconstruction of events and Bede says little about the Frankish involvement. The West Saxons and kingdom of East Anglia received Christianity from bishops of Gaul named Birinus and Felix respectively. This was, according to Bede, in the years 635 and late 630s. However, there was more involvement of Franks which Bede fails to draw upon. With the combination of archaeological evidence, it has provided historians with more access to data an altered some opinions, however, information on this period is of relative unknown.

As Marilyn Dunn commented in 2009, “the difficulties of studying the religions of the Anglo-Saxons in the conversion period are well known”. Skewed data, limited accounts, and restricted primary sources is what historians studying this period have been left to work with. However, this can fuel the fascination to want uncover the mysteries surrounding this period and speculate one’s own theories and concepts. It is, however, feasible to speculate that the Celtic importance on conversion of the English was of significant proportion. The Irish influence on the English was profound and hard hitting. Combined with the support of King Oswald the sixth century, Celtic Christianity was able to thrive and spread to kingdoms such as Mercia and Kent. It is also important to mention the less significant, but still vital effect of kings on the spread of Christianity. Without the influence, power, and funding of these rulers it would have considerably slowed down the spread of the faith. Augustine’s mission under Pope Gregory I also bears some share in the conversion of the English. Starting from as early as 597, Gregory was able to send his missionaries to begin conversion and muster powerful connections in rulers such as Æthelberht. Overall, the Celtic influence was very important to the conversion of the English, but significantly more effective in conjunction with other factors such as the influence of rulers. The joining of these factors created a situation where faith was enabled to spread at such a rate it led to remarkable coverage. Perhaps why Bede named his literary piece The Ecclesiastical History of England.

The Yanks are Coming Over by Dino E. Buenviaje is a non-fiction historical book which shows how an American elite created the concept of Anglo-Saxonism. The belief arose, initially, from the ideas that Anglo Saxons were culturally and racially superior to other racial groups. According to this theory, only the Anglo-Saxons held the virtues of bravery, independence, sobriety and liberty. The concept came to support the idea that only the Anglo Saxons could bring freedom and progress to backward peoples.

The author has a PhD in history and is an assistant professor at Riverside Community College District. He discusses several related subjects to better explain the cultural history of the United States in the century before World War I. These themes range from the history of different ethnic groups in the United States to the Revolutions of 1848 in Europe.

What I found most interesting about the whole book was the author’s brilliant analysis of how racial theories change all the time to justify the dominant position of the elites. When it was convenient for political reasons, the Germans were considered part of the Anglo Saxon family. Some theories even supported the idea that the Anglo Saxons had emerged from northern Germany. Over time, however, different geopolitical interests of Germany and England started to become visible. From that moment on, the Germans conveniently ceased to be considered Anglo Saxons. After analyzing all the theories mentioned above, there is unequivocal evidence that most of these theses were pseudoscience that existed to defend the interests of a ruling WASP elite.

The book’s biggest flaw, in my opinion, is that it puts too little emphasis on the economic factor that explains how countries deal with war. There is no question that America’s relationship with England was close (and still is). The explanation based on the idea of ‘we shall fight to defend freedom against oppression’ fails miserably to explain some alliances, though. For example, in the Boer War, the Dutch colonialists represented the same values and aspirations as the Americans in the War of Independence. For economic and political reasons, however, the United States couldn’t go to war against England. In this context, England played the same role as Germany in World War I. The Anglo-Saxon brother who fought for freedom (the Dutch colonists from South Africa) against oppression, however, was entirely ignored by the United States.

Therefore, I rate The Yanks are Coming Over There 3 out of 4 stars. There is no question that the book is informative and memorable. Lamentably, the text needs professional editing. Not only are there countless grammatical errors, but also dozens of hard-to-read sentences. Unnecessary commas, incorrect verb tenses, missing determiners before nouns and even bizarre sentences like ‘what unites the speakers of the speakers of English’ are commonplace. The contrast between these childish grammatical mistakes and the quality of the book’s content is stark.

I would recommend this book to anyone interested in American history. Even admitting that the book needs one more edition battery, it is not possible to deny the writer’s knowledge of 19th-century Anglo-Saxonism.

The epic poem, Beowulf, has created a legacy that has withstood the test of time and still sparks new discussions in the modern era. Culture reflected by the epic poem has given many historians and literature enthusiasts a glimpse into Anglo-Saxon life. In Beowulf, translated by Burton Raffel, by comparing and contrasting Beowulf’s fight against Grendel and second fight against Grendel’s Mother, the aspects of revenge, Christendom, and gender roles in Anglo-Saxon culture can be highlighted.

By comparing Beowulf’s first fight against Grendel, and his second fight Grendel’s Mother, the idea that revenge prevailed in Anglo-Saxon culture can be highlighted. For instance, before Beowulf went to defeat Grendel, it can be seen that Grendel lashed out initially because he wanted revenge against humans. This idea can be inspected further in that the epic clearly states that Grendel, “growled in pain / as day after day the music rang,” (87-88) and “was drawn to Herot [as] an outcast,” (1273) which conveys that Grendel wanted revenge on humans because they had caused him agony and outcasted him from humanity. Grendel felt as though he was righteous in his revenge and decided to procure revenge for himself by killing the Danes at Herot for twelve years. Once Beowulf entered the poem, his primary motive was to get revenge on behalf of Danes. This can be explored in the way Hrothgar, king of the Danes, implored Beowulf to take action against Grendel, thus indicating the continuation of revenge in the poem as well as its significance in Anglo-Saxon culture.

In comparison, Beowulf’s fight against Grendel’s Mother is another instance in the epic that aptly describes the idea of an eye for an eye. This can be further examined in the way that Grendel’s Mother was, “prepared / To avenge her only son,” (1546-1547) which clearly demonstrates that the primary reason for Grendel’s mother to attack was to take revenge for Grendel. The central reason why Beowulf goes into battle against Grendel’s Mother is to avenge Esher, Hrothgar’s counselor, thereby perpetuating the macabre cycle of revenge. This can be further explored in the way that Beowulf proclaims that, “it is better / To avenge our friends,” (1884-1885) which further seals that the idiosyncrasy of revenge in the epic was also part of Anglo-Saxon culture.

In addition to that, Christendom within Anglo-Saxon culture is evident in Beowulf’s two fights. In examining the context given before Beowulf’s fight against Grendel, it can be seen that Grendel is, “offspring of Cain and therefore of Adam and Eve,” (Yang 10). Cain, Adam, and Eve are all characters in the Bible thus cementing the idea that Christendom was a characteristic of Anglo-Saxon culture. In addition to the aforementioned, Beowulf cites God as the integral source of power that he needed in order to win the fight against Grendel. This can be further examined by how in the poem after Grendel was slayed it is said by the poet, “[Beowulf] killed / The monster, as God had meant him to do” (1272-1273) which references a higher being that likely belongs to Christianity.

On a similar note, during Beowulf’s fight against Grendel’s Mother, it can be observed that it was, “Holy / God who sent him victory” (1553-1554) during the fight. Another instance in which Chrisitendom appears is where Beowulf believes that he would have not come out victorious if, “[the] Father in Heaven had not helped [him]” (1659.) With the aforementioned in mind, it is almost needless to say that the aspect of Christendom in Anglo-Saxon culture can be highlighted by the fights in Beowulf.

The ideas of gender roles in Anglo-Saxon culture can be understood by contrasting Beowulf’s first fight against Grendel and his second fight against Grendel’s Mother. The idea of gender roles can be viewed primarily in the way that male characters, such as Grendel and Beowulf, have names while their female counterparts oftentimes do not. The prior statement reflects the idea that males were considered to be higher ranking because the presence of their names indicate their importance within the poem. In relation to the previous statement it can also be seen that, “ Beowulf and Grendel have the same power and are both awe inspiring.”(Yang 13) This goes on to support the idea that men were higher ranking individuals due to their surplus of strength. Thus, the idea of gender roles in Anglo-Saxon culture can be observed within the poem.

In contrast, Beowulf’s fight with Grendel’s Mother demonstrates the idea that women are subservient to men in regards to strength and courage. This can be seen in how there is no indication that Grendel’s Mother was given a name and how she was described prior to the fight with Beowulf. It can be observed that although she is fierce she did could not, “[Fight] with the power and courage as men could fight,” (1284.) Thus, by examining the difference in the depiction of the males and females of the poem, the contrasts in gender roles within Anglo-Saxon culture can be clearly seen.

Conclusion

The epic of Beowulf has painted an incredibly detailed account on Anglo-Saxon culture and its many varied facets. The fights hold deeper connotations than what one would initially expect from their first reading, but upon further inspection more introspective meanings can be derived. By exploring the similarities and differences between two of Beowulf’s fights, the Anglo-Saxon cultural ideas of revenge, Christendom, and gender roles can be clearly identified.

Works Cited

1. Raffel, Burton tr. cn. Beowulf. A New Translation with an Introd. by Burton Raffel. Signet Classic, 1963.
2. Yang, Chih-chiao Joseph. ‘Humanizing the Monsters: A Schematic Reading of Beowulf.’ Tamkang Review, vol. 44, no. 1, 2013, p. 3+. Gale In Context: World History, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A361241911/WHIC?u=j101907007&sid=WHIC&xid=c5afee03. Accessed 19 Sept. 2019.

The epic poem of Beowulf portrays a hero who defeats monsters that come to hurt Heorot. Within this epic poem, it is divided into three sections that show the Danish and Anglo Saxon tradition, rituals and way of life. The epic poem contains a mixture of pagan and Christian references that are in the Bible.

The epic poem of Beowulf is divided into three parts that explain the battles with Beowulf against Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon. When Beowulf hears the suffering that Grendel is imposing on Heorot’s kingdom, he sails to Heorot to defeat Grendel with his bare hands. He attacked him in the mead-hall which Grendal’s is ripped off (Heaney 25) which they used as a trophy.

Beowulf’s second battle comes when Grendel’s mother hears about Grendel’s death. So she attacks Heorot and steals Grendel’s arm. Which then Beowulf comes to fight her going to her home in which he kills her with a magical sword. As a sign of victory, he brings her head and the sword back to Heorot which he became king for the next fifty years.

Beowulf’s last battle was facing a dragon. Which was caused by Wiglaf accidentally stealing the dragon’s treasure? This battle was the first time “…fate denied him / Glory in battle” (Heaney 81). The blade that Beowulf kills Grendel’s mother wasn’t a sword to kill the dragon but he was wounded. Beowulf’s army left him but Wiglaf came in to help. His shield was destroyed by the dragon’s fiery breath but they eventually killed the dragon.

With reading Beowulf, the first thing that I noticed was the references of pagan and Christian ideas, beliefs and practices. For example, like the story of Cain and Abel in which Beowulf describes how because Cain murdered his brother, the Lord “…had outlawed / And condemned as an outcast” by making his offspring ogres, elves, evil phantoms, and giants (Heaney 4). As a result, it refers to Grendel as a “misbegotten spirit” that sprang from Cain (Heaney 42). This shows that the Danish and Anglo-Saxons had a fundamental understanding of the Bible. But during this epic poem, it also struggled with the blending of pagan beliefs and rituals. For example, before sailing out to Heorot, the elders inspected omens and encouraged him to go. Which are pagans ritual and language? Also, Beowulf mentions how the people of Heorot visit pagan shrines for offerings.

Another reference to Christianity is when the people of Heorot are excited that a deliverer, Beowulf, came “To ease their afflictions. He accepted the cup” (Heaney 20). Which is about Jesus taking the cup from his father which points out how the epic poem is to portray Beowulf as Jesus. Just like Beowulf, Jesus came to the earth as a deliverer and accepted the cup of death on the cross.

The story of the battles Beowulf fights and the connection of the Danish and Anglo Saxon’s traditions is a great way to describe their culture and rituals and way of life.