Category: Ancient History

Introduction

Architecture is an art of building using a design that attracts some kind of aesthetic value. Greek architecture can be defined as the architecture brought about by the Greek i.e., the Hellenistic people. Between 900 BC and 1^stAD, the Hellenistic peoples culture prospered in the Greek mainland. The most important aspects of Greek architecture can be observed in places such as Peloponnesus, Aegean Islands, Asia Minor, and Italy. The earliest forms of Hellenistic architecture included temples, Open-air theatre, Public Square (agora), processional gateway (Propylon), public monuments, monumental tombs (mausoleum), bouleuterion and the stadiums.

Although most of the above-named features are found only as ruins, a few of them are still intact. Much of the original Greek architectural forms exist only as ruins because they were built using mud and wood. Lack of written documents about them makes it difficult to explain exactly how they were like. However, given Romans copied the Greek mode of construction, then Roman Architecture can be used as a reference.

Temples form a good number of buildings that still stand, and this is why this paper mainly refers to temples. The temple architecture has a distinguishing characteristic from the rest of the buildings. This is in terms of their structure and decoration. The architecture took a longer period to be developed, and thus, more advancement and features were added on the architectures overtime. Most architecture in Greece reflected on how people led their lives in terms of culture and their traditions. Consequently, Greek architecture reflects the time each feature was constructed. Religion formed a better part of Greek life, and because of this, temples built during earlier times were bigger and most beautiful. These temples, not only played a religious function but also were instruments of political influence, wherein thanksgiving were made in case of victory in a war. In addition, political power and pride were also celebrated in these temples. This indicates how architecture played a great role in portraying peoples lifestyles.

Greek Architectural Styles

There are three major known styles in Greek architecture; these styles are also known as orders. They include; Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These orders played a critical role in how temples were designed and built (Ancient Greece).In most circumstances, Doric and Ionic systems were primarily used, and they illustrated the systems of Dark Ages of Dorian and Ionian Greeks (Greek Architecture).

Doric order

This style is brawny with a plain top. It was found in mainland Greece and South Italy, among other places in Greece. The Parthenon temple constructed in the 5^th century BC was constructed using this system. Although this temple has been greatly damaged repeatedly, the strength of Doric systems has enabled it to withstand.

Ionic order

Compared to Doric order, Ionic order is thinner and more stylish with a scroll-like design as decoration at its top. Its origin was in Ionia around the Mid-6^th century (Ancient Greece). The temple of Hera was the first one to use this style though, after a decade, it collapsed by an earthquake. The style of Hera was mostly common in Islands and some parts of Eastern Greece. Other common temple buildings with this order were; Erechtheum; this temple was built between 421-405 BC on Athens Acropolis. During this time, there was also a need for many shrines, which were to be built on a sloppy landscape; this led to the necessity of an unusual plan that could allow access to all of the other shrines in Greece.

Didymas Temple of Apollo

This temple was built in Turkey about 300 BC. It had ionic columns of about 19.5m high. The same design was also applied in the construction of the Temple of Athena Nike. Presently, the ruins of the temples give a clear indication that the ionic system was applied, especially with the columns that still stand strong. An important point to note is the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus. This temple was built using the Ionic order and formed the Seven Wonders of the World. It was built in the 6^th century and has survived up to date (Greek Architecture).

Corinthian order

Architecture Callimachus was the person behind this great invention. This was after observing a basket left on a young girls grave. Corinthian system or order was the latest and came into full completion in the middle of the 4^th century BC (Winter 70). Although this order was rarely used, a few structures that made use of the system can be mentioned, such as the Choragic monument built in 335 BC, Zeus temple in Athens constructed in the 2^nd century, and this was the most known among the temples of Corinth. Another known and oldest temple that used this order is the Apollo Bassae constructed in 420 BC (Winter 126).

Periods of Greece Architecture

Greek architecture can be divided into several categories depending on the time in which they were built. These categories comprise of the following;

Minoan civilization

This civilization was between 1800  1300 BC, and it is the earliest known architectural period in Greece. Prosperity for this civilization was witnessed in the Island of Crete. Knossos palace that is founded on a hill, formed a major achievement of this period. This palace has been well preserved, and thus the most attractive in Knossos. Surrounding the palace are several residential buildings, for example, the Royal Villa, the little palace, and the South House. Lack of protective walls in the city and remains of the palace is a clear indication that some kind of harmony existed between the Minoans and the rest of Aegean civilizations. Today, the palace is divided into two wings; the West, which consists of religious and offices for the state, and the East used for other various goals such as domestic and workshops.

Discovery of the untouched Knossos frescoes by the scientists has led to the conclusion that this palace was destroyed by the powerful volcanic eruptions, which took place around 1450BC in Santorini (Greece Architecture). Archeologists have discovered scenery full of palaces, tombs, towns, roads, and villas; all these structures severed various purposes such as commerce, administration, and religion.

During this civilization, palaces began constructing back in 1900 BC, and they were used for diverse functions such as; meetings, celebrations, workshops, and stores for crops. Strategic places on the Island, such as; low hills, were chosen to build these palaces. The complexity of these palaces made them look like labyrinths, especially for new members in the region. Some of the palaces were high buildings corded with very beautiful staircases both in the inside and outside.

In the exterior meeting, apartments were common, and they acted as theaters and enormous columns. The technology used for their construction was very advanced because of the various services that were available. Some of these technologies included; deep wells as a source of water for use by the occupants, irrigation systems, advanced drainage systems, and bridges. Besides, Rough stones, ceramic bricks, and mortar were major construction materials for inside walls, while hefty rectangular slabs were used for the construction of the corners of the palace (Hawes and Harriet 57).

During Minoan civilization, Tholos Tombs, sacred caves, Pithoi, and larnakes were used for burial purposes. The ancient Tholos Tombs had a round shape, with a few of them taking a rectangular shape. These tombs had a single entrance. Although most of them have been destroyed, the few surviving ones have only the lower side of the wall, making it difficult to measure their heights or determine their shape from an aerial angle (Minoan Architecture. Believe sexists that many of these tombs had a flat roof that was made of wood. The largest Tomb is 13 meters wide, and it is found in Platos (Phoenician Architecture). It is during the prepalatai and protopalatai time (2600-1700 BC) that the Tholos tombs were greatly in use.

Minoan Roads; Palaces and towns of Crete were connected by paved roads with the first roads being constructed during the Neopalatai period and coming to completion in the Post palatai time (Minoan Architecture). Although many of the paved roads have been destroyed beyond recognition, some still remain intact and are found in the Minoan ruins.

Minoan Towns; it was during the Neo-palatai era, that is, between 1700-1400 BC, that towns began forming around palaces. These towns included Gournia, palekastro, Pseira, and Mochlos, all of which lay on a well put plan. Each home had its own shrine and storage magazine.

Minoan villas; these were majorly found along Cretes countryside. They closely resembled palaces and consisted of story building homes, religious places, workshops, and storage magazines.

Mycenaean period

Is the period between 1600-1100 BC, and it is called the Bronze Age period. It acquired its name from Mycenae, which is an archeological site of North Eastern Argolis. Other major Mycenaean sites include; Athens, Pylos, Thebes, and Tiryns. Unlike the Minoan civilization, the Mycenaean period was characterized by war. Strong and tall walls were built in order to hold on the citadels. These walls compact, and they were called Cyclopean because of the reason that it was only the Cyclopes that were believed to have the capability of lifting the stones used for their construction. Although the Mycenae palace was destroyed, remains of walls and tombs are still seen. Most vital features, such as the palace, cult center, grave circle, and the lion gate, are still in place. It is also in this period that the earlier discussed styles, that is, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian fall.

According to Cline (38), the above-mentioned civilization performed and expanded greatly during the Bronze Age period, approximately 3000 to 1000 BC. It was also during this period that many developments took place, such as the initial growth of trade, not only in Aegean but also in the Mediterranean Sea, technological advancement in art, especially in the media field and growth of Greek religion and associated cultural practices. Apart from the developments, this period also experienced wars between the locals due to their existing differences that have made it be associated with the origin of Homers Trojan War.

Minoan and Mycenaean periods form the major divisions of the Greek architecture. However, other architecture exists, such as the Byzantine architecture that saw the emergence of a great number of churches in Greece (Cline 79). These churches are unique, and they varied from place to place. Stone is the major building material, and at times basilica is used. The plan used for their construction is symmetrical, and their interior is decorated using frescoes and using references for their appearances in the bible. Famous structures of this style that have stood up to the present time are the; Thessaloniki churches currently, UNESCO World Heritage Monument, and Kastorias seventy-five monasteries (Winter 66).

Roman Architecture borrowed greatly from Greek architecture, and most of its buildings, temples, and theaters portray a similar style like that in Greece. Well-known examples are; the Roman Agora, Herodes Atticus theatre, and Haridians Arch. Another important style is Neoclassical. This style has a combination of modern and classical styles. This style was embraced in 1821 after the independence war in Greece. Architectures such as Hernest and Theophil had a great contribution to the design of this style. Examples of buildings with this kind of order include; Hotels in central Athens, Museums, and the National library found on Panepistimiou Avenue (Greece Architecture).

Macedonian architecture

This type of architecture has its origin in the Bronze- Iron ages whereby construction was made out of large limestone blocks. The technique used in construction was termed cyclopean, big sizes, and their well-defined joints made mortar useless as the two could hold the construction strongly. Until the end of the 14^th century, this technique was largely used for the construction of churches (Winter 102). Although not many of this architecture are available at present, some ruins exist at Prosek. Other features that used this technology included; mosques, baths, Turkish inns, and clock towers; these occupied most parts of Skopje and Bitola towns.

In the present day, well- known house of this architectural style is the National Museum of Ohrid, a major tourist attraction in the town. This building forms fantastic scenery, and this has made UNESCO take responsibility for it. Although most of the houses built during this period still stand strong, their renovation and maintenance are very costly, and this has led to their present desperate state. Macedonia has a number of villages, though not well known, they form a big contribution to the peoples culture. Owned by the marginal class, these villages attribute Macedonia a sense of uniqueness.

These villages included; Galicnik that up to the present is used for marriage rituals by young men who are always for work. On their return, Galicnik village becomes a merry-making site. Maloviste is also another example of a village in Macedonia that holds much of this countrys culture. Previously, it was used for trading purposes, but presently, it is being renovated for heritage and cultural purposes. Spiritual inns such as; monasteries also exist, and they include; SvJoakim Osogovski, Treskavec, Sv Jovan Bigorski, and many more (Thammy 84).

Phoenician architecture

This architecture has its origin from the act of carvings on the rocks that were naturally found all over the place. These rocks were used for many purposes, such as temples, tombs, and dwellings. Owing to the fact that limestone is soft and has a lot of fissures and caverns, they were easy to work on, and this made people convert them into dwelling rooms, though with time, the caves became small and led to the need for more houses for settlement. The Phoenicians used a mixture of styles, which they saw along as they traveled (Thammy 97). Examples of such dwelling places that can be found today are; ancient Marathus and dwelling -house of Amrith. In these structures, a rock is cut in a way that two walls parallel to each other are left standing. Doors and windows are made out of these walls, and rocks are used for masonry purposes for joinery.

This architecture majorly used the native rock as the main constructing material, and a mixture of styles was incorporated. After sometimes, the native rocks got extinct, and subtractions were used. A good example of such a building is the temple of Jerusalem. In instances where small stones were used, the mortar was necessary, but where large stones were available, the mortar was unnecessary as the stones were just laid side by side. Phoenicians buildings were irregular due to the sense that the stones hewn were roughly fitted, and as such, these buildings acquired the name Cyclopian (Phoenician Architecture).

Conclusion

Greek architecture is divided into various periods, as discussed in this paper. Additionally, art depended on the community; it is not universal art. The diversity exhibited reflects different cultures and different forms of technology that was used for construction. Mainly, ruins of temples, tombs, cities, and churches are available, and they contribute largely to the explanation of how these architectures were employed. Most of the structures in major cities of the world borrowed much from Greek architecture. Through the information presented in this paper, it is clear in what ways Greek architecture was copied. Many other nations copied from the Greek because most of the Greek architecture existed during the prehistoric era. Three systems were used, which included the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

Works Cited

Ancient Greece. Architectures in Ancient Greece. 2008. Web.

Cline, Eric H. The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010.

Thammy, Evans. Macedonia. Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides, 2007.

Greece Architecture. A Guide to the Architecture of Greece and the Greek Island. 2011. Web.

Greek Architecture. Ancient Civilization. 2009. Web.

Hawes, Charles Henry, and Harriet Boyd Hawes. Crete, the Forerunner of Greek. London: Harper & Bros., 1922.

Minoan Architecture. Greek Architecture. 2003. Web.

Phoenician Architecture. Origin of the Architecture in Rock Dwellings. 2011.

Winter, Frederick E. Studies in Hellenistic Architecture. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2006.

One of the most incredible creations of the ancient civilizations, the Ashoka Pillar is the reminiscence of the bygone times and the most incredible specimen of the ancient art. Its magnificence is amazing, and hardly anyone can explain how the people belonging to that era could create something of the kind. One of the greatest mysteries of the modern times, Ashoka Pillar can be compared to the Egyptian pyramids.

One of several columns, the Pillar of Sarnath is about fourteen feet tall, of cylinder shape, with four lions seated with their backs to each other at the top. Made of polished sandstone, the column is of yellowish sandy color with a slight tint of brown and gray. Regarding the durability of sandstone, it is miraculous that several columns have stood through centuries and are now the part of our modern world.

Although many columns have not survived the time test and crashed, the Ashoka Pillar of Sarnath is still as good as new, with just a few pieces of sandstone missing. One more thing which is well worth mentioning is the shape of the column. The rounded outline, the soft contour and the clear lines are something to admire.

The ancient sculptors reached perfection, creating the symbol of Ashoka! The column depicting the four lions looks somewhat fragile, but this is the case of deceptive appearances. The smooth and milky surface makes one think of the most exquisite marble in the palaces of the ancient kings.

One of the things which come into the open as one casts a look at the sculpture is the smoothness of the lines. They curve like the waves of the sea, and there is not a single sharp broken line in the sculpture. Breathing with harmony, the curving lines create a specific pattern for the entire sculpture to follow. Because of the smoothness of the lines in each part of the sculpture, it looks in the most harmonic way.

The column itself is shaped rather weirdly, with lots of curves and protruding parts. The platform where the four lions are seated has carvings which depict various animals and figures. It must be noted that the animals whose images are carved in the column are mostly domestic ones: a goat, a horse, etc.

The lions themselves resemble their living prototypes a lot. With their mouths open, it seems that they are going to jump off the column and run for some prey. It is quite peculiar that none of the lions mouths is shaped in the same way; one of them is barely open, while another bares teeth completely. One can see the tongue of one of the lions clearly  perhaps, the animal is yawning.

Another feature of the lions in the sculpture is their eyes. They are all wide open, which makes the animals look less realistic and more fairy-tale. Perhaps, designed to mean that these lions are always on the guard, the haunting eyes of these animals in the sculpture provide the strongest impression on the visitors.

Despite the fact that lions are one of the fiercest animals in the world, the ones in the Ashoka pillars cannot be defined as the blood-thirsty cannibals. These are rather the loyal guards of the city and its dwellers, the warriors that are always on the watch. It seems that these watchlions are supposed to be fair and just, and maybe even wise. Indeed, it takes much wisdom to decide whether the man entering the city deserves being trusted.

Speaking of the entire artwork, one should say that it looks solid and somewhat chic. It breathes with richness and with the splendor of the ancient kings with their amazing palaces and thousands of servants. A perfect reminiscence of the bygone times, this is a piece worth taking a look at.

Because of the ancient history which accompanies the sculpture, its beauty, interwoven with the ancient legends, produces even more stunning effect. Since the mystery about the column is still unraveled, it still attracts hundreds of people. The secrets which the lions conceal within are something to ponder over.

Perhaps, one of the explanations of the mystery which the place is breathing with is the fact that the great Ashoka himself chose this place for his meditations^[1]. This is one of the reasons for the Indians to cherish the sculptures so much. Embodying the symbol of the city, these columns are the part of the history which is so easily merging with legends in India, and in a couple of moments you will not be able to tell the real from the fable yourself.

Bearing the piece of the Indian history, this column has a secret which the Indians themselves do not dare to unlock. Some scientists suppose and all the locals believe that Ashokas edicts have been carved in the column as well^[2]. Although this is merely guesswork, a single suggestion about such possibility makes the Indians tremble in owe for Ashoka and the mysterious column. As Kulke put it,

References of this kind have often been used to show that Ashoka was running a highly centralized direct administration of this whole empire. But the pillar inscriptions which contain these latter references have so far been found only in central Gangetic region and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab^[3].

The cultural meaning of the column cannot be doubted. Worshipping the legendary ruler of India, the people associate the column with this historic personality. Embodying the very spirit of Buddhism, the pillar with the four lions at the top is filled with the sacral meaning for the Indian people; this might be one of those things which the people of the other cultures will never be able to conceive.

Even without knowing the background story of the column, one will feel that it takes their breath away. Combined with the bright imagination work, the perfectly shaped sculpture makes various images appear in ones mind.

Although the use of the sandy palette looks quite justified, since it is natural for a lion to be of sandy-yellowish color, there is more than meets the eye in this color cast. Such choice can also be explained by the fact that the yellow color is the key color of Buddhism. Thus, the column and the lions embody not only the image of the city and its ancient ruler, but also the philosophy of the people living here. Such niceties are quite natural for the Indians, with their culture which considers aesthetic the beginning and the end of the world. Recognized even by the modern architects, the pillar is pure perfection:

John Marshal and V. Smith have praised the engineering, design, fine decorative carving, polish of Ashoka stambha, the pillar. People from all lifestyles are drawn towards the symbol of lotus, the dharma chakra and the four lions. The Ashoka pillar at Sarnath is the finest among all the pillars^[4].

One of the most magnificent pieces of legendary ancient India, the Ashoka pillar is really worth seeing. Breathing with the secrets of the Indian gods, this place is like a sanctuary for the Indians. The four lions keep their guard well.

Reference List

Gupta, Om. Encyclopedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, 2006.

Joshi, Dinkar and Yogesh Patel. Glimpses of Indian Culture. New Delhi: Star Publications 2005.

Kulke, Hermann, and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India. New York, NY: Routledge, 2004.

Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone

Age to the 12^th Century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008.

Footnotes

1. Om Gupta, Encyclopedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh (New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, 2000), 162
2. Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12^th Century.(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 358
3. Kulke, Hermann, and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India (New York, NY: Routledge), 2004, 68
4. Joshi, Dinkar and Yogesh Patel. Glimpses of Indian Culture (New Delhi: Star Publications), 2005, 60

Introduction

Conan the Barbarian is among the most known fictional characters associated with the revenge trope and success in martial arts. The heros personality is depicted in different works of art, including printed books, comics, games, and films. Based on what is known about ancient Mesopotamia, to create the remake of the movie Conan released in 1982, it will be necessary to recreate religious structures, such as ziggurats and temples. Also, it will be possible to illustrate the distribution of wealth with the help of decorative elements.

Main body

Historical authenticity is critically important when it comes to buildings and architecture. Therefore, first of all, it will be pivotal to represent ancient Mesopotamians approaches to both religious and residential buildings. A ziggurat, a high building of religious importance that is similar to Egyptian mastabas, will be used in the temple scenes (Nadali and Polcaro 103). Along with a long wall that surrounds residential buildings, the ziggurat and the temple complex will shape the settlements architecture, thus connecting the earth and the sky (Nadali and Polcaro 103). There will not be a lot of decorative elements in the residential areas inhabited by the lower class, whereas commercial structures and spaces accessed by more prosperous citizens will be colorful.

Conclusion

In particular, the gates of the most important buildings should be decorated with panels depicting relevant historical events. For instance, it will be possible to recreate the panels from the gates of Balawat (one of the famous works of art related to the historical period) or create panels similar in style (Architectural Marvels of Ancient Mesopotamia). Other decorative elements to be used will be presented by objects made of marble, stone, alabaster, and other materials. Among them will be funeral steles, sculptures of gods and goddesses, figurines that symbolize female fertility, and other works presenting ancient peoples philosophy and value system (Architectural Marvels of Ancient Mesopotamia). In addition, it will be critical to depict citizens attitudes to nature with the help of architectural and design solutions. Therefore, there will be many trees in the city, animalistic motives in art, and so on.

Works Cited

Architectural Marvels of Ancient Mesopotamia: The Land Between the Rivers. Fairfield University, Web.

Nadali, Davide, and Andrea Polcaro. The Sky from the High Terrace: Study on the Orientation of the Ziqqurat in Ancient Mesopotamia. Mediterranean Archaeology & Archaeometry, vol. 16, no. 4, 2016, pp. 103-108.

The discovery of the atoms complex structure is the most crucial stage in the formation of modern physics. In creating a quantitative theory of the design of the atom, which made it possible to explain atomic systems, new ideas were formed about the properties of microparticles, which quantum mechanics describes. This paper aims to investigate the development of atomic theory from ancient Greeks to modern physics.

The concept of atoms as indivisible minute particles of substances arose in ancient times. Ancient Greek philosophers suggested that atoms differ in their shape depending on the type. For example, iron atoms were thought to be hooks that clung to each other, explaining why iron was solid at room temperature. Water atoms were smooth and slippery, so the water was liquid at room temperature (Haas 1). And although we now know that this is not so, their ideas were laid down based on future atomic models.

By the 18th Century, the atomistic approach is gaining popularity. By this time, such scientists as Lavoisier, Lomonosov, and Dalton proved the reality of the existence of atoms. Dalton relied on the ideas of the ancient Greeks in describing atoms as tiny, solid, indivisible spheres. Like Greek philosophers, Daltons atoms of one element are identical to each other. The last point is still essentially correct, except for the isotopes of various factors, which differ in the number of neutrons (Peterman and Cordes). Dalton also suggested how atoms combined to form compounds and provided the first set of chemical symbols for known elements.

In the late 1800s, Joseph John Thomson discovered that the atom was not as indivisible as previously claimed. He experimented with cathode rays produced in a discharge tube and found that positively charged metal plates attract cathode rays, whereas negatively charged ones repel. Thus, Thomson concluded that the rays must be negatively charged. By studying the particles in rays, he revealed that they were two thousand times lighter than hydrogen. By changing the metal of the cathode, Thomson demonstrated that these particles were present in many types of atoms (Helrich). Thus, he discovered the electron (although he referred to it as a corpuscle) and showed that atoms are not indivisible.

However, Ernest Rutherford introduced a new understanding of the atomic model. Rutherford devised an experiment that helped investigate atomic structure. By conducting this experiment, Rutherford hoped to confirm Thomsons model. Nonetheless, Rutherford observed that the alpha particles when going through the foil almost without deflection. Nevertheless, a minimal number of particles deviated from the intended path while deviating at a substantial angle. The only answer was that the positive charge did not spread throughout the entire atom but was localized in a small, dense center  the nucleus. According to this, most of the rest of the atom was just empty space. It meant the need to rethink the atomic model (Haas 97). He proposed a model in which electrons revolve around a positively charged nucleus. He did not explain what keeps the electrons orbiting the nucleus instead of just falling onto the nucleus.

Niels Bohr presented the new model, setting about solving problems related to Rutherfords model. In this way, Bohrs model, which was based on quantum theory to analyze the arrangement of electrons, demonstrated the stable level of electron shells, which is basically energy. (Haas 25). In other words, it can be stated that electrons can only be found at these energy levels. Electrons can move between these energy levels (referred to by Bohr as stationary states) but are subject to the absorption or emission of energy. Bohrs model works well for hydrogen atoms but cannot apply to heavier elements. Also, it does not correlate with the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, which states that we cannot know exactly when and where an electron will be passing through at a particular time. Nevertheless, Bohrs atom model is the most widespread and known, which is associated with the convenience of explaining the chemical bond and reactivity of some groups of elements at the initial stage of training.

In 1926, Schrödinger suggested that electrons and other elementary particles behave like waves on the ocean surface. Over time, the waves peak (corresponding to the place where the electron is most likely to be located) shifts in space according to the equation describing this wave (Helrich). That is, what we traditionally considered a particle in the quantum world behaves much like a wave.

In 1932, after Schrödinger, the English physicist James Chadwick (Rutherfords student) revealed the neutrons existence, which completed our image of subatomic particles of the atom (Ecker). Moreover, physicists empirically proved that neutrons and protons that constitute the nucleus themselves split into quarks. In general, the atomic model gives us a great example of how scientific models can evolve and shows how new data can lead to new models.

Impact of The Development And The Application of New Technologies in the 19th Century

The 19th Century is remarkable with its bright discoveries that affected the development and implementation of technology. During this time, such technologies as fax, telephone, electric trains, and many others were not only introduced to the public but also found an active application in the day-to-day life of people. Implementation of these new technologies impacted the vision of life and helped people reorganize the way of their lives in a more effective and easier way. Later, these technologies were improved, modified, and adapted to have better performance, but the base for their development started in the 19th Century.

Although we do not use fax today, the first prototype of the popular 2000s device appeared in the 19th Century. In 1843, Alexander Bane received a British patent for a facsimile machine. Working on an experimental device between 1843 and 1846, he was able to synchronize the movement of the pendulums of two clocks, located about 70 kilometers from each other, and using the received signal, scan the image line by line. Furthermore, in 1855, the Italian inventor Giovanni Caselli presented a similar device, which he called the Pantelegraph. The device was used on the communication lines Moscow-Petersburg (1866-68), Paris-Marseille and Paris-Lyon.

Another important device that we cannot imagine our household without is a refrigerator. In general, the refrigerator was invented in 1834, and people were able to store their food by buying ice for the device. Usually, the ice-breaker came two times a week to refill the refrigerators of the townspeople with cooling material. But already in 1850, physician John Gorey demonstrated the process of producing artificial ice in the device itself using the compression cycle technology.

Cement was first patented in 1824, and already in the 1880s, it was used for commercial and individual purposes in many countries around the world. To be more precise, it was Portland cement, which Joseph Aspdin obtained during the experiments. The invention of cement affected the construction industry and maintained further development of the industry, which shaped the landscape and structure of our cities.

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell became the first to receive a US patent for a device that clearly reproduced the human voice. Subsequently, the device was developed in the hands of many other inventors. However, Bells inventions effect on peoples lives was so immersive that it entirely changed the conventional way of communications (Pestrikov and Yermolov). The telephone became the first device in world history that allowed people to communicate over a long distance.

Also, in the second half of the 19th Century, another significant breakthrough changed the transportation industry. Werner von Siemens was the first one who introduced the first electric passenger train that was launched in Berlin in 1879, and it was called the electric locomotive.At that time, the invention became a sensation among the general public. This train had three carriages and a locomotive and gained a speed of 7 km/h due to a sequential winding engine (Subbiah and Nandivada). And in 1881, on the outskirts of Berlin, the first electric tramway passed, which moved at a speed of 30 km/h and transported more than 12 thousand passengers in 3 months.

Today it is difficult for us to imagine cleaning without a vacuum cleaner in a carpeted house. Not everyone knows that the first helpers appeared in the second half of the 19th Century. The patent was obtained in 1860 by the American Daniel Hess. He called his device a carpet sweeper (sweeping machine) and equipped it with a rotating brush (Robin). In 1889, a patent was obtained for a gasoline vacuum cleaner with a motor. Although the first electric analog was developed only at the beginning of the 20th Century, already in the 19th Century, these helpers became popular, and more and more households started using vacuum cleaners.

Joel Houghton patented the hand-operated dishwasher in 1850, but it was unreliable and not widely adopted. Almost 40 years later, in 1887, the first dishwasher that was suitable for practical use was invented by Josephine Cochrane. It comes with no surprise: indeed, who understands better what difficulties homemakers sometimes face if not a woman? Later in the 20th Century, it became electric, thus, allowing its usage at home.

Works Cited

Ecker, Gerhard. James Chadwick: ahead of his time. arXiv preprint arXiv:2007.06926 (2020).

Haas, Arthur. Atomic Theory: An Elementary Exposition. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2020.

Helrich, Carl S. The Atomic Theory. History of Physics, 2021, pp. 140. Crossref, Web.

Peterman, Keith, and Matthew Cordes. England: John Dalton and the Atomic Theory. Contextualizing Climate Change: Linking Science and Culture. American Chemical Society, 2021. pp. 37-47.

Pestrikov, Victor M., and Pavel P. Yermolov. The Struggle for the Range of Telephone Communication before the Invention of the Audion Lee de Forest. ITM Web of Conferences, edited by P. Yermolov, vol. 30, 2019, p. 16002. Crossref, Web.

Subbiah, Vignesh Arumugam, and Yashasvi Nandivada. Advanced Control of Future Electric Propulsion Systems for Passenger Vehicles. MS thesis. 2018.

Robin, Roy. A Story of Innovation: The Cyclone Vacuum Cleaner Invented by James Dyson. Creative Academic Magazine, 2016, pp. 9899.

Introduction

Folk art, especially of the epic genre, doubtlessly is among the most reliable sources of knowledge about the worldview that is peculiar to a certain culture. The works of such a kind normally embody the values of the storytellers, which makes them a bright illustration of the ways those see their positions in the environment and roles in life. Thus, the Epic of Gilgamesh reflects the respect towards outstanding features in humans, the appreciation of friendship, and the unacceptability of arrogance, which apparently characterized ancient Sumerian society.

Main body

Actually, it is quite typical of epic literature to assume the divine origin of the protagonists to highlight how special they are. Gilgamesh, the central figure in the mythology of ancient Mesopotamia, is not an exception. According to the stories, he was a particularly beloved creation of the gods, who presented him with perfect beauty as well as unprecedented courage (3). It is noteworthy that, judging by such a description, both bodily and spiritual excellence were essential in the culture under review.

Another noteworthy point is the belief in the divine origin of human virtues, physical as well as moral; this shows that the possessors of those earned high esteem in the Sumerian society. Interestingly, the vast majority of such epic protagonists are brilliant creators, including Gilgamesh, who built walls, a great rampart, and the temple of blessed Eanna in his city (3). This can serve as additional proof of his relatedness to gods, which, in turn, distinguishes him from ordinary people and actually makes him heroic. In other words, by highlighting that Gilgameshs deeds resulted from the outstanding traits he acquired at birth, the Sumerians recognized that not everybody could develop such; that was the reason for his special attitude to him.

The admiration of an individuals strengths apparently was among the drivers of friendship for the members of the given culture, which they saw as the key to peace. This is observable in the scene where another divine creation, athletic Enkidu, finds himself unable to overcome the protagonist in a battle (6). Astonished by Gilgameshs might and boldness, the giant acknowledges him as an equal, which ceases the conflict and gives birth to a close and sincere relationship between the two. The story is not only another bright example of how essential virtues were for the ancient Sumerians but also an illustration of the conviction that friendship was more powerful in comparison with animosity.

It would be relevant to mention that not solely their positive features of Gilgamesh are outstanding; his weaknesses are of a special degree as well, among which the most apparent is arrogance. Thus, the epic tells that having overcome the enemies and become the sovereign in his land, Uruk, the hero began to maltreat the population and dominate over them (4). The latter appealed to the gods, who designed a multi-stage scheme of retribution. Specifically, they decided to create Enkidu, who, as mentioned, became Gilgameshs closest friend. Later, the gods took him, which was a crisis for the protagonist (4, 15). The loss of the sworn brother made him reconsider his own life. Specifically, he realized that his death, similar to that of any human being, was inevitable as well. In such a way, the gods showed Gilgamesh that he should not consider himself prevalent over the others, which behavior the Sumerians apparently disliked.

Summary

To summarize, the Epic of Gilgamesh is a collection of stories that present the values of ancient Sumerian society, including bodily and spiritual perfection, friendship, and modesty. In one respect, the main character embodies the key virtues of the culture, being the gods offspring, due to which he stands out. Along with this, he possesses the traits of which the Sumerians did not approve, such as arrogance, and his story serves to demonstrate the unacceptability of those.

Work Cited

Sanders, Nancy K. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1964.

Some fundamentals of sports competitions in Ancient Greece

First of all, I would like to point out that sports competitions in Ancient Greece started very long ago. They say that the modern Olympic Games appeared in the 8^th century BC. The most well-known cities where the competitions took place were Delphi and Olympia. In Ancient Greece typical competition program included such kinds of sports as wrestling, pentathlon, and horse riding. However, foot races were also common kinds of sports. The wreath was the symbol of the winner, so, such an arrangement of flowers and leaves was also used as an award. Ribbons as well as palm fronds were also associated with Victory; so, one can conclude that these items were also used as prizes.

I suppose that everybody has heard about the Panhellenic Games. These Games included Pythian Games, Isthmian Games, and Nemean Games. “These Games were special because they brought the Greek world together at a time when Greece was not a single state, but a series of city-states (politically and economically inde­pendent communities)” (“Olympic Museum and Studies Centre,” 2002, p. 2). Of course, Games in Ancient Greece had religious significance. Thus, sports competitions were held to worship such gods as Zeus, Apollo, and Poseidon.

Boxing

So, the kind of sports I’ve decided to disclose is boxing. Generally, I would like to compare modern boxing and boxing in Ancient Greece. Of course, there were no boxing gloves in Ancient Greece; however, the fighters had an opportunity to protect their hands. Thus, special leather thongs were used instead of gloves. In our day’s numerous modifications appeared. However, I have to say that boxing was more cruel and violent in Ancient Greece.

The fighters’ thongs contained numerous pieces of metal. In other words, “A boxer’s victory is gained in blood” (Murray, n.d., p. 9). While speaking about the major differences between Greek boxing and contemporary one, there is a need to point out that there were no weight classes between the fighters as well as no rounds. So, “to win a boxer must either knock out his opponent or force him to submit; one would signal capitulation ad digital by raising a single finger” (Murray, n.d., p. 9). The picture below reflects this process:

It is necessary to point out that there are still many contradictions concerning the fighters’ punishment. For instance, it is still unknown whether the officials could beat those who broke the rules or no. On the other hand, there is an opinion that the officials could whip the fighters if there was a need. It is difficult to say that boxing was a gentlemanly contest. On the contrary, a contemporary fighter would be horrified by the violence ancient boxers brought.

When speaking about some common features between Ancient Greek boxing and modern one, there is a need to point out that ancient boxers were also highly trained and well-skilled. In other words, only a well-conditioned boxer could succeed. Poliakoff (1987) is of the following opinion, “To say that victory in ancient boxing depended on brutality alone would be a great exaggeration, for the sport required a high degree of skill and strategy in addition to courage and fortitude” (p. 68). So, I suppose that one of the rules didn’t undergo any modifications. In other words, a boxer is to be strong and well-trained.

However, another interesting point I would like to highlight is that not every boxer used thongs. In our days, it is difficult to imagine that the boxers can fight without gloves; anyway, in Ancient Greece, the unwrapped hand was not a sensation. For this reason, one can understand the advantages of contemporary boxing. Now there are certain standards and rules, which allow the boxers to be out of danger as compared with the rules of Ancient Greece.

On the other hand, I want to draw the readers’ attention to the fact that leather thongs were recognized to be a defensive weapon. One more interesting issue is that the fighters competed in the nude. However, one can state that leather thongs could be a synonym with clothing. So, leather thongs are considered to be the first boxing gloves Greek fighters used; later such gloves or thongs were called bimantes. Of course, I have already said that ancient Greek gloves were used as a defensive weapon; however, one is to keep in mind that the secondary purpose of thongs was to inflict damage on the opponent.

“The leather would cut into the skin of the opponent. They would very often land a blow in the head, and there would be blood dripping all over, and they would fight on and on” (Haffner & Lusitant, 1996). So, one can conclude that the cruelty of a blow increased, and for this reason, ancient gloves can be regarded to be offensive weapons. The damages are reflected below:

In my opinion, boxing in Ancient Greece gave rise to contemporary boxing. Anyway, boxing is an ancient kind of sport.

Wrestling

So, another popular kind of sports in Ancient Greece I want to introduce you to was wrestling. Generally, there were five sports events, which were included in the category pentathlon. These events were “running, jumping, discus throwing, javelin throw­ing and wrestling” (“Olympic Museum and Studies Centre,” 2002, p. 9). A similar feature between modern wrestling and ancient one is that the athletes’ primary aim was to throw the opponent on the ground.

So, you see that the major rule is still considered to be the same. “Biting was not allowed, and genital holds were also illegal. Attacks such as breaking your opponent’s fingers were permitted” (“Ancient Olympic Events,” n.d., para. 1).

They say that another name for wrestling in Ancient Greece was pankration. It appeared in 648 BC. The original meaning of pankration is all powers. I’ve heard that the term pankration was used not only to denote wrestling, but the term was also appropriate to denote boxing. Thus, there were two kinds of sports the word was used for. They say that wrestling was also associated with the Ancient Greek military. Submissions, strikes, and takedowns were the most important techniques the fighters used. Generally, one can conclude that ancient wrestling has more features in common with the modern sport than ancient boxing with contemporary boxing.

On the other hand, it is obvious that in Ancient Greece the rules were simpler than those which are in effect in our days. When fighting, the fighters couldn’t bite. The officials could use a rod to punish the fighter who violated the rules. In my opinion, such methods of punishment can’t be compared with numerous modern methods referees use to stop wrestling or disqualify one of the fighters.

Even though wrestling was brutal in many aspects, this kind of sport was the most prominent in Ancient Greece. One of the most interesting points I would like to highlight is that wrestling in Ancient Rome appeared due to wrestling in Ancient Greece. In other words, Roman wrestling contained various features of Ancient Greek wrestling, although the Roman sport was not as brutal as the Greek one.

The most well-known wrestlers in Ancient Greece were Milo of Croton and Titormus. When fighting, the wrestlers were also naked. Generally, they say that Ancient Greek athletes wanted to show their physical prowess. On the other hand, we shouldn’t forget about the most important viewers I was talking about earlier. So, the fact that the fighters worship Zeus, Apollo, and Poseidon, gives us the right to state that the wrestlers wanted to show the gods how trained their bodies were. There is also an opinion that “An athlete’s physical perfection could also be intimidating to his competitors, and external beauty represented each competitor’s internal beauty and demonstrated their desire for a balance between body and mind” (“Ancient Olympia History,” n.d., para. 1).

Running

So, another popular kind of sport is running. First of all, I would like to point out that running or foot race is recognized to be one of the most ancient kinds of sports competitions. As far as the form of athletic competition is too ancient, it is impossible to state the exact date of its origin. The most interesting fact, however, is that children studied running as a science. In other words, children had to study the techniques of the form of athletic competition as well as its philosophy.

Running as well as wrestling belonged to the pentathlon. Generally, the kind of sports is mostly associated with myths. Thus, the most well-known legend is about Heracles who won a foot race during sports competitions. So, later, foot races were held every four years. Moreover, I have to say that foot races were also devoted to Zeus.

I think it is obvious that various sports competitions are closely related to the strength of the mind. Those, who took part in foot races, were physically strong. On the other hand, military efficiency in Ancient Greece also depended upon various athletic contests. We are to take into account different times. However, I suppose that various forms of athletic contests demonstrate the power of the countries whose participants take part in numerous competitions.

Here especially the exercises of running, leaping, wrestling, and throwing the spear and the discus were brought to perfection of style which was afterward universally adopted among the Hellenes: here fixed ethical rules were first introduced, which excluded every wild passion and enjoined the the strictest obedience to the laws of the contest as a duty: here the principle of forbidding the youthful ambition to be desecrated by any consideration of gain was established: here finally came into use, in contrast to the flowing robes of the Ionians, a short and light dress for men, which was to promote the health and agility of the body, and form a transition to the state of complete nakedness which was introduced in the exercises of the young (Curtius, 1971, p. 33-34).

Reference:

Ancient Olympic Events. (n.d.). Wrestling. Web.

Ancient Olympia History. (n.d.). Athletic Contests. Web.

Curtius, E. (1871). The History of Greece (Ward, A. W., Trans.) (Revised ed.) (Vol. 2). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Web.

Haffner, C. and Lusitant, D. E. (Executive Producers). (1996). Blood and Honor at the First Olympics. [Motion Picture]. United States: Greystone Communications, Inc.

Murray, S. (n.d.). Boxing Gloves of the Ancient World. Web.

Olympic Museum and Studies Centre. (2002). The Olympic Games in Ancient Greece. Web.

Poliakoff, M. B. (1987). Combat Sports in the Ancient World: Competition, Violence, and Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press. Print.

Outline

This paper takes a detailed look at the origin of the Olympics in the ancient Greek society. It starts with brief introduction explaining the emergence of the Olympic Games. It exhaustively explains the importance of the Olympic Games to the Greek society in the ancient times and the significance they played in shaping the locals lives. The debate on the manner in which the Olympics have influenced our society today follows next. It ends in conclusive remarks on the impacts of the Olympics.

Naked Olympics

The ancient Olympics trace their roots in the ancient Greek society from as early as 776 BC (Spivey 21). The Games were always held at Olympia, a place believed to be sacred. In the ancient Olympic Games, only men were allowed to compete in the various sports and women were not allowed into the stadium. The men used to compete while naked or half naked as a show of how the mind and body were connected. This was also a requirement for the spectators who were also strictly men and Greek speakers. The competition was held after every four years, then known as an “Olympiad”. A variety of games were engaged in by the participants ranging from foot-races, wrestling, boxing, pancratium (a combination of wrestling and boxing held between the winners of the two events) among others.

Importance of the Olympics and Olympic Games in the Greek Society

The ancient Olympics and Olympic Games impacted the Greek society in various ways due to the importance they attached to the event. The event was initially developed for religious inclinations to honor their god Zeus. The first day of the event was devoted to sacrifices to the god. The foot-race made the event of the second day with the third day being the main event day in the stadium. Olympia was the place they choose for the event as it was dedicated to Zeus. As they competed naked, seriousness was attached to the games as the Greeks believed Zeus was impressed by men and boys with strong, fit and built bodies. The sacredness of the Olympics had forbidden anyone from engaging in crime, corruption, cheating, accepting bribes or invasion during the events.

A lot of importance was also attached to the pride of winning an event. This was seen by the winner being rewarded with an olive wreath and to honor him, his name was inscribed in the official Olympic records. The value that was attached to winning inspired the various city states traveling to Olympia to support one of their own in a show of unity. The winners received a hero’s welcome in their city states with a lot of praise and some even being honored for the rest of their life. The passion expressed in support of a participant served as unifying factor to the city state.

Cheating during the Ancient Greek Olympics was considered a serious crime, considering the sacredness of the event. Any athlete who was found cheating was disqualified from ever competing, and in addition to stress the magnitude of the crime, his trainer and his city state were highly fined. This was important in that it discouraged cheating in the society and other sort of crimes (Perrottet 112).

The long distances traveled by the Greeks from various city states to Olympia in a bid to honor their god and support their own, encouraged interaction between the members of different states especially as they sacrificed and prayed to one god. The Olympics brought Greeks together as it had several city states and also colonies. Numbers made long journeys as they looked forward to taking part in the event motivated by the feeling of a common culture and region.

Certain events engaged in the ancient Greek Olympics were significant of war restructured in a more peaceful context but still proved prowess. “Events ranging from the merciless chariot races to the pankration were a sort of early predecessor of ultimate fighting in which strangulation was seen as the surest means of attaining victory” (Perrottet 68).

The Olympics period was civic and military interim moment of neutrality, where warring states observed cease fire in honor of the games. A “sacred truce” was declared just before the games by messengers who went from city to city announcing the date of the competition. All wars were supposed to be halted before, during and after the Olympics to allow the participant and spectators to travel to Olympia. During the event, an atmosphere of peace prevailed throughout Greece and its colonies (Spivey 98).

In the ancient Greek society, the Olympic Games were also seen as way of preserving their culture. Most of the games engaged in during the event were characteristic of the locals’ way of living. Games such as wrestling formed an important part of the Greek culture. With hunting an essential art in providing food, javelin and other games that were related to the Greeks way of survival acted as an effective means to preserve the traditions of the society. With the honoring of their god through the event, their religious beliefs were given a big boost.

How the Influence of the Events Impact our Society Today

Since the first induction of the modern Olympics in 1896 by Pierre de Coubertin, Olympic Games have since formed an important part of our calendar of events. The event has evolved since then seeing more sporting events being incorporated and inviting participation from allover the world. It would therefore only serve as unfair to ignore the influence that the games have in the society today.

Through entered participation from many countries from allover the world, the event has served as an avenue for cultural interaction and a platform for fostering good relationship between nations. People of different nationalities and of diverse cultures with a wide variety of language find a common purpose as they engage in competitive sports. The Olympic Games form one of those rare moments when people of diversities speak a common language of sports (Guttmann 102).

Just like in the old Greek society when city states come together to cheer and honor one of their own, today the nations rally their support behind their country men and women as they compete in the Olympics. This has helped enhance unity within a country as various internal differences and problems are put aside and those at war join hands and speak in one voice in support of their country men. Tribal, racial, political and religious affiliations which form the major divisions in our society are broken when the event provides a platform for a common purpose. The winners receive a heroic welcome at home and the country in turn is made proud and praised for the good performance.

With the modern Olympics allowing for competitive bidding to host the Olympic Games, the value attached to hosting the event has now been visible. Nations today campaign for a chance to hold the games owing to economic gains accrued from the massive influx of sports tourists at the time. Sports men and women travel from all over the world today either to take part or to be spectators. They reside in the hotels and make use of various facilities in the host nation leaving a lot of generated wealth to the locals. The Olympics also gives the host nation a perfect opportunity to market itself and its products and attraction sites. The massive wealth generated acts a big boost to the economy.

The Olympic Games have led governments to inject stimulus packages towards development of world class facilities and improving the various infrastructures ahead of hosting the games, an occurrence which would not have otherwise happened. Guttmann notes that a lot of historical world class facilities have been put up this way and have helped put the country in the map. The high profiling of the event leads to a lot of specification to a nation in order to play host, which it must be able to meet or correct to stand a chance. Implementation of such leaves the country in a better state in bid to get the privilege (112-3).

The hyping of the event based on the high reward to the winners has impacted negatively on the society. With the huge rewards being awarded upon winning, participants will now do anything to win. This ‘win at all cost’ philosophy has led to lapses in morals and virtues. This is evidenced by the rising cases of usage of performance enhancing drugs which have been banned by the IOC. These drugs have negative long term effects on the health of a person. Other dehumanizing methods have been used in a bid to secure a win, for instance, in the Nazi Germany women participants were impregnated and as the competition neared they induced abortions which gave them a competitive advantage. As the IOC steps up its dope tests campaigns, new drugs are on the rise to beat those tests.

The Olympic Games have gained popularity over the years to be the most famous sporting event in the calendar. It started as an all Greek community event with men only allowed to participate and has now evolved to see participants from almost every nation in the world and entrance of participation by women athletes. The modern Olympics have evolved over the years and now include a wide range of sports events borrowed from different cultures in the world. The games have continued to impact on our society up to today with a lot of importance being attached to winning.

Works Cited

Guttmann, Allen. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games Illinois History of Sports. Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 2002

Perrottet, Tony. The Naked Olympics. New York: Random House Inc, 2004.

Spivey, Nigel. The ancient Olympics. London: Oxford University Press, 2004.

It is impossible to underestimate the power of the word in our world. The ability to think makes people different form animals while the ability to talk and make people listen influences creation and development of our society. It is one of the most ancient remedies of our world which helps to create states and lead people.

That is why, the art of public speaking or rhetoric has always been given a great attention. People understood significance of this art as they were able to watch the aftermath of some successful speech which inspired and, sometimes, even turned the course of history. With this in mind, investigation of some main peculiarities of the development of art of public speaking public can help to understand its peculiarities better.

There is no use denying the fact that people used such remedy as public speaking since the appearance of society. However, Ancient Greece is considered to be the state which gave the world the art of rhetoric. The whole society of Ancient Greece was based on the usage of rhetoric. People spoke in public in order to prove their point of view on some issue. It could be politics, private life or other spheres of activity. Different aspects of social life were touched. That is why, sophists appeared.

They were able to make any argument logic, even if it was weak and deprived of any sense. However, later, trying to oppose this movement, Plato, Aristotle and Socrates created their own theories of public speaking which became classical. Even nowadays, people are taught rhetoric according to them. Aristotle created the work called Rhetoric devoted to this issue.

In this work he states that “Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” (Aristotle, 350 B.C.E, para. 10), additionally he adds that it is useful because some things are not just what they seem to be and it is for a speaker to explain their nature to judges. (Aristotle, 350 B.C.E) With this in mind, it is possible to say that Aristotle’s Rhetoric has had an enormous influence on the development of the art of public speaking (Rapp, 2010).

Having concurred Greece, Roman Empire could not resist powerful influence of its culture and science. That is why, there is a great number of similarities between these two cultures. Oration became an important part of Roman public and political life, especially at the period of Republic as different posts were elective and candidates had to persuade public that they should obtain them. It is no wonder that under these conditions Cicero, known as one of the most famous rhetorician of all times, appeared.

He is taken as the bright representative of Roman rhetoric who created great number of works which influenced further development of this science. The work De Oratore is devoted to the description of an ideal orator, who has to become a leader and lead the whole state (Lane, 2014). Additionally, some new thoughts connected with public speaking were introduced by him.

With this in mind, having analyzed the main aspects of the development of art of rhetoric and public speaking in Ancient Greece and Roman Empire, it is possible to make certain conclusion. Being a very influential remedy, public speaking obtained its modern appearance due to the life and work of such philosophers and orators as Plato, Aristotle and Cicero. Their activity influenced development of the whole science greatly.

References

Aristotle. (350 B.C.E.). Rhetoric. Web.

Lane, M. (2014). Ancient Political Philosophy, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Web.

Rapp, C. (2010). Aristotle’s Rhetoric. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Web.

Introduction

Lara Maritan (2004) conducted an archaeometric study to discuss one particular type of pottery and its characteristics. She based her work on the sale of Etruscan-Padan pottery and used various approaches and methods to identify the way the sample was made. The author also paid enormous attention to the components of the ceramics and technological features. She used eight samples in total and discussed each of them in connection to 29 variables that are seen as chemical elements found in the composition of the pottery.

Classification and Characterisation of Ceramics

Before analyzing ceramics in detail, it is critical to classify it. Maritan (2004) examined several samples and compared them to find out if they can be grouped. In this way, it can be claimed that the author used a quantitative approach in her analysis. In order to make the work structured and receive an opportunity to compare different objects, Maritan used various types of analysis. The scientist based her work on sampling, which allowed her to consider specific characteristics of different objects belonging to the ceramic class. Maritan was well aware of the complex structure of the materials and discussed mineralogical, petrographic, and geochemical compositions.

Textural features of the samples are discussed with the help of the description that focuses on inclusions and voids. Thin sections are characterized with the assistance of text, and visual elements are mainly omitted. In this way, the author makes the work look more authoritative, as personal evaluation and biased interpretations are minimalized. Of course, they are used to describe such things as the form of the objects and their color, but all details about the components of ceramics are considered after analysis maintained with the help of additional equipment such as microscope and x-ray.

Like many other scientists who refer to the quantitative approach to characterization and focus on description instead of grouping, Maritan utilized a descriptive scheme designed by Ian Whitbread (1986). This work was published in 2004, which explains why new modified Quinn’s system was not used (Quinn 2013). Still, Whitbread’s system can be even considered as more trustworthy because it was successfully used for a long period and proved its credibility.

Just as required by a quantitative approach of analysis, the author examines each fabric separately, which provides an opportunity to compare the samples and group them with the help of discriminant analysis (Santacreu 2014). Maritan actively uses numbers and letter codes in her work (for example, sample E20), which makes the article more structured but required much attention and concentration from the reader. The paper is full of charts also. Their utilization streamlines the understanding of the findings and allows the public to check the author’s conclusions. In this way, the composition of clay materials, canonic functions, P-values, etc. are presented in this way and described. Chemical quantitative analysis and its findings are in the focus of the author’s attention

A petrographic analysis starts with the assessment of inclusions that are proved to be heterogeneous. All required general characteristics are mentioned. It is also stated that small inclusions are angular so that roundness is particular for the while large ones. The nature of described inclusions allows stating that they are mainly mineral and rock fragments. Unfortunately, Maritan does not define spacing, which shows that the work lacks some important information. Except for that, the work does not include any images except for the ones that show the forms of the sample, which makes the readers refer only to the words of the author. The paper contains some lengthy descriptions because different materials are discussed separately but mainly the author refers to ceramic sherds.

Maritan also assesses elongated voids, still, the information about them is rather limited while the whole work is focused on various inclusions and characteristics of sample fragments, including thermal range, etc. Maximum sizes were identified.

The paper ends with a summary of interpretations that provide an opportunity to get to know the most important information about the samples in the view of the author.

Ceramic Provenance

Petrographic data is gained and interpreted with the help of petrographic analysis (Quinn 2013). The samples were considered regarding their inclusions. The scientist described the groundmass of the samples and porosity.

With the help of microscopic analysis of inclusions, Maritan received an opportunity to correlate sherds with the places they were found. As a result, if some professional would like to continue this work, one can easily link particular ceramics to the past cultures that existed on the discussed territory many years ago during the late Cretaceous-Eocene age. In this article, the author was more focused on the components of clay materials and omitted such information. Still, it cannot be denied that Maritan successfully coped with the main task and defined the way a sample’s composition is connected with the geological environment.

For example, the author states that the sherds from Adria are full of garnet while the sample from Este contains isolated plagioclase (Maritan 2004). This part of the paper is relatively small, and it does not include a lot of detailed descriptions. It is more like a general overview of the situation with several examples. The description of the study area is made only on the evaluation of the inclusions while it might be more advantageous also to compare this data with the information gained from other sources that discussed the geology of the area. In this way, the conclusions will be more authoritative.

Except for that, the author provides only the elements of shape as supporting information in this part of the paper that can influence the accuracy. Moreover, it would be advantageous to refer to the color of the objects that are discussed in the other section with no reference to the location. However, the paper includes main diffusion directions that allow the reader to imagine territory and see from where the samples were taken. If some reports were also used, the information about geology would be more detailed. The amount of fieldwork is also not clear. However, the article is full of quantitative data that makes the author’s conclusions more accurate. Even though microfossils are difficult to identify in this part of work, Maritan defines the fossil association and connects it to a particular era and location.

Both optical and electron microscopy was used by the researcher because in this way the opportunity to evaluate mineralogical and structural features of the pottery pieces was enhanced.

Ceramic Technology

Of course, Maritan’s work is focused not only on the determination of the provenance of the sample. The scientist pays attention to the technological conditions of ceramic production. This information is not only included in a separate section, which proves that it interested the author a lot but can be also found with other data.

Maritan claims that the technology utilized by the people who worked with ceramics depended greatly on the presence and absence of specific minerals in the raw materials. She focuses on preparation and firing, and with the help of clay pellets presence identifies the absence of seasoning. The scientist provides the diagrams that show the results of various firing experiments. They allowed Maritan to define maximum firing temperatures of the sherds that have similar chemical composition. Except for that, such experiments allowed us to add information about different distributions. The author concluded that various pyrotechnological features can be connected with them.

Moreover, Maritan evaluated the potsherd color. In this way, she gained the information about redox conditions during firing. The color of ceramics and the type of firing were investigated so that the way the sample was produced became clearer. Firing atmosphere conditions, as well as oxidizing and reducing ones, are discussed by the author in the framework of the additional parameter. The data is presented in figures that provide an opportunity to see how the reduction index distribution alters in relation to color and function of firing temperatures. Types of firing are discussed about the organic matter. The author also identifies the color of the pottery here.

It is also beneficial that the author managed to use the features of different mineralogical assemblages to identify the firing temperature of the sherds. Except for that, all this information is tightly connected to the elemental compositions of clay materials, which proves that the article can be used not only to discuss the sample indicated by Maritan (Jones 2004). The researchers who are willing to focus on ceramic technology can separate only the elements that are appropriate for their work and use the data obtained by Maritan. This fact makes the article useful, as generalization makes it more important.

Instrumental Geochemical Analysis

Ceramics can be analyzed in different ways, but the author mainly utilized the compositional analysis. Petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical analyses allowed the author to define the components of the sample and their relative abundance.

This quantitative chemical analysis allowed us to identify numerous elements that could be found in eight samples. Maritan referred to X-ray fluorescence (XRF) with the help of Philips PW2400 spectrometer and analyzed the parts of the ceramics she had by Mössbauer spectroscopy. In this way, the author simplified the process of sample preparation. All in all, 29 chemical elements were analyzed and discussed in the paper about different features the sample obtains. Structural features of the samples gained after the research was used by Maritan to discuss inclusions and the nature of the paste.

X-ray diffraction allowed to examine ceramics and define what elements it consists of. This method also provided an opportunity to define the concentration of each of them. The author referred to powder x-ray diffraction, which provided one with the opportunity to save more time and effort for the evaluation. This is the most widely used method of analysis that is discussed by numerous professionals, which gives an opportunity not to waste much time searching for the most appropriate method. It is the simplest method that is good for working with a small sample, which provided Maritan with a chance to save the objects.

Unfortunately, this X-ray diffraction required substantial preparation that is complicated and time-consuming, which is its main disadvantage. However, the research is based on only eight pottery parts the author wanted to assess. Taking into consideration the fact that the sample is small, it seems to be logical to use such a method of analysis.

Finally, it should be stated that both types of instrumental geochemical analyses were used with the attempt to determine production technology and find out the place of origin of the samples. The author utilized them successfully and reached her goals (Shugar & Mass 2012).

Conclusion

The article prepared by Lara Maritan focuses on the Etruscan-Padan type of pottery and investigates it in detail. The author used different methods of analysis to find out what are the components of the sample and how it was produced and where. Scientific techniques used by Maritan allowed her to receive all this data and assess it to make decent conclusions. However, the author could have used more additional information to make the work better in the framework of authoritativeness and accuracy. It would be advantageous if the Maritan utilized more geological literature to describe the area from where the samples were taken.

In this way, the information she provides would be not only received from the personal analysis but also supported by the external materials. The author could have also described the way technology is connected to the tradition, beliefs or identity of the potter, as this perspective was omitted. Still, Maritan narrowed the topic so that she received an opportunity to discuss inclusions and production technology in detail. The rest of the information can be gained when similar research will be conducted with other focuses.

Reference List

Jones, A 2004, ‘Archaeometry and materiality: materials-based analysis in theory and practice’, Archaeometry, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 327–338.

Maritan, L 2004, ‘Archaeometric study of Etruscan-Padan type pottery from the Veneto region: petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical-physical characterisation’, European Journal of Mineralogy, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 297-307.

Quinn, P 2013, Ceramic petrography. Web.

Santacreu, D 2014, Materiality, Techniques and Society in Pottery Production, De Gruyter Open LTD, Warsaw.

Shugar, A & Mass, O 2012, Handheld XRF for art and archaeology, Leuven University Press, Leuven.

Whitebread, I 1986, ‘The characterisation of argillaceous inclusions in ceramic thin sections’, Archaeometry, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 79-88.

The society of Ancient Egypt is closely related to religion and mythology originating from the pantheon of gods. The king, as the state’s ruler, was also considered a divine descendant and part of a religious cult. The period of the New Kingdom was marked for Egypt by the rapid development of the state and successful conquests. Although the king was regarded as the owner of divine attributes, he was still not equal to the gods. Thus, the Egyptians needed rituals designed to attract the gods’ favor for the king’s successful military campaigns. Captive’s statuettes show that the king in society performed the role of mediator between gods and people and fulfilled their divine will in the state’s interests.

Captive’s statuettes shown in figure 1 above are from 1295-1186 BC and refer to the New Kingdom period of the 19th Dynasty. Such figurines had a ritual purpose and could be made of various materials. In particular, they were used in the rituals of protection of the land and the king, which were conducted in temples to eliminate the enemies of the king of Egypt. The statuettes were inscribed with spells, after which they were tied with ropes and placed in the fire.

This artifact characterizes the special social system of Egypt of the New Kingdom, which emphasized the supremacy and divine essence of the ruler. Throughout the history of Ancient Egypt, the king was not only the head of state but also a necessary element of the cosmos (Silverman 108). The king was revered as the earthly incarnation of the god Horus, making him a key figure in the vast kingship mythology (Silverman 108). Thus, the king performed as a secular function of government and also acted as a religious leader. However, the gods also gave the king a special role as a military commander of the Egyptian troops in the fight against enemies, which acquired particular importance during the New Kingdom period (Silverman 108; Ikram 98). In particular, the rulers of the New Kingdom were actively involved in both military campaigns to expand the lands of Egypt, as well as the construction of temples and the strengthening of the cult.

The statuettes of captives had a symbolic meaning, showing the greatness of the king of Egypt before the rulers of neighboring territories. In particular, the period of the New Kingdom was marked by active expansion both north and south (Ikram 101). Significant conquests in Nubia, as well as the spread of the cult through the construction of temples there, were an important part of the policy (Ikram 101). The mythological status of the king of Egypt implies his superiority over other territories, as shown in the figurines. Statuettes depict captives on their knees, which are later bound and burned. This symbolism refers to the way the divine king conquers his enemies and annexes territories to Egypt, suppressing the will and expanding the cult.

Despite the fact that the rulers were associated with the gods and were considered their personifications, there was still a separation, which explains the need for such rituals. In particular, “rulers had some supernatural attributes, but these were gifts from the gods” (Silverman 112). Thus, the statuettes clarify the Egyptians’ perception of the king and his relationship with the gods. They venerated him as the descendant of the gods on earth but did not worship him as deities. They still needed the grace of the gods that they would bestow on the ruler in order for Egypt to flourish.

Works Cited

Ikram, Salima. Ancient Egypt: An Introduction. The American University in Cairo Press, 2009.

Silverman, David P. Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2003.