Category: Ancient History

Introduction

Modern politics calls for states to enter into certain agreements in order to succeed in achieving the national interests, even though their objectives might be different. The increase in the number of international organizations can be explained from two different perspectives, one being a realist perspective while the second is the intuitionalist view. From a realistic perspective, powerful states will always form institutions with an aim of controlling global politics meaning that no state will ever be interested in realizing the objectives of the other. Developing countries have been depending on the global financial institution for development, and this explains the main reason why many states in Africa, Asia, and South America are yet to achieve their economic ambitions.

The bipolar international system complicated things further, and it was felt that any actor had to formulate a stronger foreign policy to ensure that state interests were achieved. At the time, states with geo-strategic advantages reaped maximally, and diplomats played a major role in identifying what the state wanted, and how their interests could be achieved, as well as formulating the best options.

Based on this, the paper will be concerned with exploring the main reason that forced Cleopatra to form an alliance, her goals and the role she played in the alliances. On the one hand, Cleopatra was a great women in the Egyptian society since she managed to lead the country through difficult times, especially when she formed an alliance with Marcus Antoninus. On the other hand, Hatshepsut played a different role of unifying the two separate kingdoms of Egypt that was popularly referred to as the New Kingdom, which was born out of war. The dynasty aimed at ensuring that the new kingdom would be born to guarantee political survival. The reemergence of Nubia and the Kushites, which were the allies of Hyksos, was a major threat to the survival of the kingdom and Hatshepsut was expected to take a strong action to salvage the situation.

Thermose II finally defeated the enemies, which gave rise to a new system of administration in Egypt since the era of Pharaohs came about. Hatshepsut was a great diplomat since she helped the leaders in the kingdom to fight the enemies who threatened the existence of the Egyptian society. She always talked about extending the boundaries of the kingdom using force. In this regard, it could be concluded that expansionist approach, which was later utilized effectively in the United States and Europe in the later period, from the 16^th to the 20^thcenturies, could be attributed to this great leader of Egypt.

Role of Cleopatra

Having known that she was a charismatic leader, she went on to improve her status as a Roman guest queen, as this would restore the lost glory of the Ptolemaic dynasty. The issue of engaging in foreign activities has never been easy, and Cleopatra was aware of this, employing various tactics to convince the public to support her agenda. First, she made an appeal to the Egyptian locals and went a notch higher to seek the support of the Hellenistic population in the East region. She was aware of the power of the language in diplomacy and she moved on to study Greek since it was considered the worlds superior language that was used in official communication. She was the first Ptolemaic to learn a foreign language and achieve her interests.

In fact, her propaganda is still valid in the Egyptian society. In the modern society, many states employ propaganda as an effective tool of administering foreign policies.

The main role of diplomacy is to ensure that conflicts are resolved peacefully and state achieves its best interests. In the modern diplomacy, states will always enter into an alliance with each with the sole purpose of attaining state interests. Currently, countries are faced with the big problem of terrorism, and they will do everything to reduce the chances of terroristic attacks. In this case, some will sign various pacts, while others will extend financial help and technical assistance to boost the security of the region. The US has reached an accord with some states from Europe, such as Greek and Turkey, and those in the Middle East, such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar, just to ensure that the country is safe from the heinous acts of terrorists. Some analysts would think that this phenomenon is new, but Cleopatra employed the same tactic many years ago.

Cleopatra lived in a very complex world, which is compared to the current international system, but she managed to manipulate it in her way. She managed to rule Egypt for at least twenty-two years uninterrupted. Whenever enemies invaded her kingdom, she used all the means to ensure that she would recapture the empire. She even managed to control Rome to some extend since she dictated policies having befriended Anthony.

The advent of globalization calls for cooperation among states owing to the developments in communication technology, as well as the increase in global trade. The state cannot depend on power politics to make decisions on global matters. From a liberalist perspective, the world is a dangerous place for human survival, and the conditions are unfavorable meaning that the use of military power would simply results to more chaos as opposed to resolving problems. In this case, each country is forced to cooperate with the others to achieve the national interests. The ongoing negotiations between the United States and China, as well as other states from the East confirm the idea that the use of military threat is no longer the way-out to control the international system.

Role of Hatshepsut

Her major contribution to the Egyptian society was boosting the economy through her sound policies and diplomatic relationships with other neighbors. With time, she realized that trading with the West was critical to the economy of the country and she never hesitated to engage western leaders in negotiations. She provided mechanisms that would allow traders to engage in business activities uninterrupted. Before her leadership, the country had entered into various wars with resisting communities and small kingdoms which ruined its temples and compromised the power of the kingdom. To gain public support, she embarked on an extensive program to restore the destroyed temples.

Unlike the previous leaders, she never engaged in a war, but instead she sought to resolve conflicts through dialogue, something that earned her respect to date. Throughout her leadership, she employed a neutral policy whereby she was never aggressive or friendly, but she decided to take a middle path when addressing issues facing the kingdom. Conflicts with neighbors reduced significantly

However, Cleopatra as opposed to Hatshepsut was never scared of fighting since she prepared her soldiers well, something that made other kingdoms fear her so much to an extent of employing diplomacy as the only option. Other kingdoms were never aware of her intentions meaning that they never knew when she could strike. This policy forces an enemy to seek peace through consultation of the behavior under this scenario is unpredictable.

All prisoners of war arrested under previous regimes were released, and this was an act of goodwill. Other leaders interpreted this to mean something very special, and they were willing to enter into trade negotiations having noticed that Cleopatra was for peace. An attack on any of the kingdoms in the region was interpreted to mean an attack on all, and she was willing to send troops to help.

Hatshepsut allowed the Egyptian trade to circulate freely in the region through trade and this played a role in strengthening the relationships among citizens. The issue of border had been a big problem since the existence of her husband, but she moved in to resolve the issue by giving away some regions and taking over others meaning that he was a leader willing to compromise to achieve collective interests in society. Finally, she played a role in drafting a common ideology that helped the kingdoms to stand strong against external enemies, something that previous leaders failed to take seriously.

Reference List

Bar, Shay, and Kahn Danel. 2011. Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature Proceedings of a Conference at the University of Haifa. Leiden: Brill.

Caldecott, Moyra. 2004. Hatshepsut: Daughter of Amun. Bath: Bladud Books.

Jones, Prudence. 2006. Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh. London: Haus Publations.

Mosslang, Markus, and Riotte Torsten. 2008. The Diplomats World: The Cultural History of Diplomacy, 1815- 1914. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nathan, James. 2002. Soldiers, Statecraft, and History: Coercive Diplomacy and International Order. Westport: Praeger.

Introduction

The king in ancient Egypt was at the top of the social pyramid and acted as a link between humans and the gods. Moreover, the king was considered the incarnation of the god Horus and the central figure in the world view of the ancient Egyptians (Ikmar 168). First of all, the king in Egyptian society performed a religious role, supporting the maat or the divine order (Ikmar 173; Silverman 108). In particular, being the personification of Horus on earth, the king was responsible for conducting rituals and acting as the theological leader of the country (Silverman 108). This religious position of the king is also in line with his secular role as ruler of the state. Thus, kingship was associated with both religious and government responsibilities. On the one hand, the king was a spiritual leader transmitting the will of the gods; on the other hand, a ruler managed the economic, social, and political processes of the state.

Examples of the Role

As the religious leader and personification of Horus on earth, the king had to participate in rituals and prayers. Thus, the main function of the king in spiritual terms was acting as a high priest (Ikmar 172). However, Silverman notes that most of the daily rituals and prayers were performed by temple priests (Silverman 108). One of the most important functions of the king as a secular ruler was to participate in battles. The king in ancient Egypt acted as the supreme commander-in-chief, leading the troops inspired and emboldened by the gods (Ikmar 173). Moreover, the king managed diplomacy, and foreign policy matters, as well as oversaw bureaucratic processes (Ikmar 173; Silverman 108). Finally, the king acted as an ultimatum judge when the courts could not decide on a legal issue, and all laws were issued in his name (Ikmar 173). Thus, the king acted as responsible for the administration of all spheres of the states functioning.

Changes from Pharaonic to the Greco-Roman Period

In the later periods of the existence of ancient Egypt, power over the state passed first to the Greeks and later to the Romans. After the capture of Egypt in 332 BC, Alexander the Great realized the traditional significance of the unity of state and church that existed in Egypt during the Pharaonic period (Bianchi 13). Thus, he performed the coronation according to the Pharaonic rites and had a religious experience with the god Ammon. This fact emphasizes that during the reign of Alexander and the Ptolemaic dynasty, the role of the king remained unchanged. Despite the change of rulers, the native Egyptians, including the descendants of the last Pharaoh of Egypt, Nectanebo II, continued to occupy offices, which became hereditary during the Ptolemies (Bianchi 13). This structure persisted until the arrival of Octavian in Egypt, who brought with him radical changes in the domestic policy of ancient Egypt.

Conclusion

With the seizure of control of Rome, the control of ancient Egypt drastically changed, along with the role of the kingship. In particular, with the arrival of Octavian, the administration of Egypt was transferred to a government imposed upon all by officials appointed from abroad (Bianchi 20). Even though the Romans tried to preserve the spirit of ancient Egypt in art and architecture, the role of the king as the leader of the state and religion was completely abolished.

Works Cited

Bianchi, Robert. Ptolemaic Egypt and Rome: An Overview. Egypt: Age of the Ptolemies, edited by Robert Bianchi, The Brooklyn Museum, 1989, pp. 13-20.

Ikram, Salima. Ancient Egypt: An Introduction. AUC Press, 2010.

Silverman, David. Ancient Egypt. AUC Press, 1999.

Tombs are a significant part of the cultural heritage of the ancient Egyptian civilization. Currently, many of these monuments have survived, which have a different structure but were used for the same purposes. A distinctive feature of ancient Egyptian tombs is their significant ritual meaning and a clear connection to beliefs and social structure. Such structures were intended not only to preserve the mummified body but also to express the attitude of the ancient Egyptians to the afterlife. Moreover, the tombs reflected the position of its owner in society and emphasized the functions that he performed in it. It is also important that the decoration of the monuments illustrates many cultural and social aspects of ancient Egyptian society, which makes them extremely valuable for Egyptological research.

The tomb of Mereruka at Saqqara is one of the most famous monuments, which is the tomb of the non-royal person. It belongs to the vizier of King Teti, who was the pharaoh during the Old Kingdom period. First of all, tombs that were built to preserve the mummified body were intended primarily for high-ranking members of society, but there were versions for poorer members as well (Ikram 287). The monument is a mastaba, not a pyramid, which is the most common shape for non-royal tombs (Ikram 290-291). The tomb is also free-standing, which is typical of the Old Kingdom period (Ikram 290). Moreover, the structure is made of stone, which identifies that it was created after the 3rd Dynasty (Ikram 290). Additionally, one can see the stepped structure and columns, which indicates a later construction of this monument.

The superstructure of this building reflects the non-royal position of its owner. The tombs of the kings were massive pyramidal structures in a superstructure and a humble substructure (Ikram 293). The inside of the tomb is decorated with texts, which is typical for structures built after the 5th Dynasty (Ikeam 293). In particular, the walls of the monument are decorated with scenes from everyday life, as well as the appeal of the subjects to the king.

These aspects point to afterlife beliefs in ancient Egypt, when pyramid texts illustrate an ideal life after the death of the owner (Ikram 295). Pyramid texts also reflected the peculiarities of viziers activities, which consisted of receiving and counting tribute and trade (Ikram 181). It is noteworthy that one can notice scenes of agriculture and hunting, which reflect not only the direct occupations of the Ancient Egyptians but also have a metaphorical meaning. The position of the vizier is reflected in the numerous scenes of people making offerings to the great figure of the king.

Mortuary cults are rituals of offerings and prayers for the departed Egyptians of high social status. Wealthy members of society could afford a mortuary temple in which priests made prayers and read formulated offerings (Ikmram 297). Thus, the rich decoration of the walls and the furnishing of the tomb were necessary to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife. In particular, in the tomb, the titles and names of the deceased, as well as offerings, were inscribed so that priests or family members could care for the spirit of the deceased through prayers.

The tombs, as noted, were built to preserve the mummified body of the deceased. In turn, the body was perceived as a vessel for the soul, which later undergoes judgment and may end up in the afterlife (Ikram 155). The Egyptians believed in the principles of rebirth since the life force of the deceased is stored in his body as a vessel of the soul (Ikram 156). This aspect explains the presence of fake doors behind which the serdab is usually located.

Such doors are a symbolic exit from the burial chamber for the soul of the deceased. Serdab was a statue of the deceased so that his ka could circulate inside the tomb and also perceive the smells of offerings. For this, the fake doors behind which the burial chamber is located are equipped with small holes through which it is possible. Stelae were commonly used in memorial or funeral temples, which were only available to kings (Ikram 139). In the tomb of Mereruka at Saqqara, there are no fake doors, but there is a serdab where a full-length statue of the owner of the tomb is located.

Thus, the analysis of the ancient Egyptian tombs allows one to understand many aspects of the cultural and social structure of the ancient Egyptian civilization. In particular, it becomes possible to consider how the monuments reflect the position of the owner of the tomb in society and illustrate the beliefs of the Egyptians. The tomb of Mereruka at Saqqara is an example of a non-royal tomb that helps to analyze the significance of the hierarchy and its symbolism for the ancient Egyptians. A special focus can also be made on ceremonies dedicated to the preservation of the mummified body and maintaining its connection with the soul of the deceased. Additionally, this monument reflects the religious beliefs of civilization and emphasizes the special role of the afterlife in its culture.

Work Cited

Ikram, Salima. Ancient Egypt: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

The changes of such conception usually took place under the influence of the changes of social moods. This often happened after the appearance of new poems or epics. According to the primary task of the essay, it is necessary to say, that the characters of Iliad, Odysseus, and the conclusions by Socrates belong to various epochs of Greek history. And if Odysseus and other characters of Homers epic just dealt with the gods, which are shown as mean and mercantile. The gods in ancient epics just behaved like humans, though, to conquer such gods, taking into account that physically they are much stronger, often regarded as heroism. The impression on the adventures of Odysseus, Achilles, and others was empowered by the conception, that only real heroes or someone peculiar had the honor to communicate with the gods.

The heroism displayed by Socrates much later is regarded as heroism, as the society had changed by that moment, and people forgot the imaginary gods and faced the burning issues of bureaucracy, bribery, and others. The concept of heroism started including the courage in contacting the bureaucratic system of the state. It is considered that Socrates yielded his material right for the sake of the highest ideal of human dignity and patriotic duties.

Another point of his heroism is displayed in his courageous scientific offer to discover the human. As the science of that time just claimed to study the surrounding world, and this offer just turned the concept of sciences upside-down.

The imagination about heroism must have been changing through the times. What one was regarded as heroism in ancient times, now may be considered as the casual deed. All these factors depend on social moods and opinions.

Pharaoh Cleopatra and Empress Wu Zetian belonged to different cultures and lived and ruled in different periods, but they were both shining examples of how women could gain and retain power in the patriarchal world. Cleopatra, who lived in 51-30 BC, was an Egyptian Pharaoh during the Ptolemaic dynasty. Cleopatra was chosen for analysis because despite being a female with limited possibilities, she managed to rule Egypt in the time of important battles with Rome.

Cleopatra was wise and exploited her femininity and motherhood to her advantage (Tyldesley, 1, p. 5). Wu Zetian, or Wu Zhao, was a Chinese Empress during the Tang dynasty of the late 660s. The reason for choosing Wu Zhao was that she was able to take control of power being not only a woman but also a concubine (Rothschild, 2, p. 65). Thus, her chances to obtain power were even less likely than any other womans.

The main similarity between the two female rulers was their leadership style. Both Cleopatra and Wu Zhao were known for their cunning and severe measures employed to maintain their position. Sometimes, the level of slyness demonstrated by them reached unprecedented levels. For instance, Wu Zhao killed her own baby just to make the Emperor think that his wife did it (Woo, 3, p. 54). As a result, Wu Zhao managed to move to the Emperors chamber and stay there all the time, although it was a rare practice.

An example of Cleopatras wit and guile was quite similar, though not as cruel. On one occasion, she herself poisoned flowers in her crown and pretended that someone had done it with the aim of killing her (Tyldesley, 1, p. 154). Another similarity between the two selected rulers was the legendary associations with their personalities. People used to worship Cleopatra and considered her as a wise mother goddess (Tyldesley, 1, p. 206). Wu Zhaos image was related to such legends as the ability to make flowers bloom in winter and the gift of predicting the future (Woo, 3, p. 174).

Despite some common issues in both female leaders ruling styles, they were quite dissimilar. The main difference was the family background of Cleopatra and Wu Zhao. Although both women came from wealthy families, their positions in society were rather different. Cleopatra was the daughter of the king, Ptolemy IX (Tyldesley, 1, p. 10). Cleopatra inherited the throne due to the shortage of male heirs. Wu Zhaos father was a merchant, who led a family business together with his brothers (Woo, 3, p. 5).

After her fathers death, Wu Zhaos mother moved with her daughters to the capital, where the girls beauty was noticed by the Emperor, who made her his concubine (Woo, 3, p. 31). The second difference between the two rulers was their attitude toward diplomacy, which resulted in their impact on peoples lives. Wu Zhao managed to arrange good relationships with the neighboring countries, such as Tibet, the Tujue Clan, and Korea (Woo, 3, p. 159). Meanwhile, Cleopatra cared more about her own power and obtaining more land than the quality of life her people had.

The cultures in which Cleopatra and Wu Zhou lived were quite different. Egyptian culture and religion were diminished and distorted by the effect of Roman and Greek culture (Tyldesley, 1, p. 3). The predominant language was Greek, and people used to worship curious hybrid gods (Tyldesley, 1, p. 3). Meanwhile, China in Wu Zhous period was known as following the culture of powerful female divinities and culture heroes (Rothschild, 2, p. 96).

The second cultural divergence was the governments of the two countries in which Cleopatra and Wu Zhao ruled. Egypt was divided into city-states, each of them having separate laws and regulations. During Cleopatras rule, there were only several years of stability in Egypt (Tyldesley, 1, p. 162). Although both Cleopatra and Wu Zhao ruled in monarchies, China had a more comprehensive division of governmental levels, and betraying the government was punished by death (Woo, 3, p. 19). There were also social castes in China: officials, peasants, workers, and merchants (Woo, 3, p. 5). Therefore, political and religious lives in the two rulers countries were rather dissimilar.

The comparison of the two prominent female ruler figures allows making some conclusions about the past and contemporary leadership approaches. Firstly, I learned that in the past, people used much more violent ways of gaining power. Killing their own children or husbands and making legitimate wives or ancestors leave their deserved places in the palace seem too unjustified reasons to be used merely to obtain the crown. I do not think that modern politicians would resort to such unpopular measures to win the elections. Secondly, I also found out a rather striking similarity between rulers of different periods.

Both earlier and at present, people of power resort to cunning and trickery to make themselves look better in front of ordinary people. In the past, such a guile was represented by false information about ones enemies. At present, the situation is quite the same, only modern politicians can employ mass media to make the untruthful data about their rivals spread with the speed of light.

References

1. Tyldesley, Joyce. 2009. Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. Web.
2. Rothschild, N. Harry. 2015. Emperor Wu Zhao and Her Pantheon of Devis, Divinities, and Dynastic Mothers. Web.
3. Woo, X. L. 2008. Empress Wu the Great: Tang Dynasty China. Web.

Egyptians believed in the afterlife with absolute certainty, becoming almost a central doctrine to their religion. Every believer lived their life and each day with the vigor and belief in the renewal in the afterlife. However, they also believed that it is not just the soul that was resurrected in the afterlife, but the physical corruptible body as well. These aspects were inherently connected, and the physical body required preservation and care in the real world to ensure eternal life. Therefore, Egyptians placed great value on life and the physical body which extended to their post-death traditions such as mummification. The afterlife was portrayed as a heavenly extension of the earthly life in which the body, soul, heart, and various human forms are meant to exist with the gods. The perception of heaven was similar to that of other ancient and modern religions, where individuals have all their physical and spiritual desires fulfilled, and they can live in eternal satisfaction and glory, similar to deities. (Budge, 1895).

Similar to Christians, the Egyptians believed in a Supreme Being known as the nouti which they believed to be strong and divine. It is also known that Egyptians were polytheistic. Egyptians believed that at death, a person is judged by deities to determine the worthiness of their soul. It is a critical and ending part of the journey in the afterlife when the individual would arrive at the Hall of Maat and the purity of their soul is judged before entering the Kingdom of Osiris. Persons would have to list their sins while addressing some forms of holy judges and then their heart was balanced on scales against the feather of Maat. If they failed, their soul would be destroyed by the goddess Ammit (Taylor, 2010).

Christians have similar approaches to the afterlife and judgment. First, Christians strongly believe in the value of life as well as a reflection of earthly actions on the purity of the soul. Different denominations address the afterlife journey from various perspectives. Although there is no direct description of the process, most believe that human souls are judged by God to determine whether one spends the afterlife in Heaven or Hell. So, unlike the Egyptians, if a soul is not worthy, it does not get destroyed but is rather subjected to eternal damnation. Divine judgment has existed in religion since the earliest recorded beliefs of human civilization, including Ancient Egypt and extending to modern Christianity. Although the processes, criteria, and interpretations of judgment may differ, the fundamental principle remains similar as to pass judgment of a persons actions while alive to determine their outcome in the afterlife. It can be argued that divine judgment is central to the existence of religion since it helps to guide people and set certain moral codes that individuals will follow to escape damnation. Therefore, it is both a method of guidance and control over believers.

References

Budge, W. E. A. (1895). The book of the dead: The papyrus of Ani. Web.

Taylor, J. H. (2010). Journey through the afterlife: Ancient Egyptian book of the dead. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Introduction

Egyptian civilization was one of the most significant and very influential civilizations during prehistoric times. The Egyptian Empire, also commonly known as Ancient Egypt, was founded about 3150 and lasted until 20 BC following its inversion by the Roman Empire. The kingdom flourished because of their unique skills in agriculture, especially in irrigation, which helps in ensuring that there was food for its population. The leaders ensured that there was a division of labor which led to specialization at a time when the world had not known such skills. A section of the society worked in the plantations; others became artists, masons, blacksmiths, soldiers, and such other professions. During its golden era, Ancient Egypt was very powerful, with political rulers who were viewed as gods. The pharaohs of Ancient Egypt were absolute rulers. They were both the political and religious heads of their kingdoms. According to Raphael and Bolognese (2014), the fact that people in this society tried to specialize in specific jobs led to the emergence of unique arts and architecture in society. The Egyptian pyramids emerged during this golden age and it had a major impact on modern-day architecture. As the kingdom expanded its empire, it started influencing civilization in other parts of the world, especially in the Middle East and North Africa region. However, like the other ancient civilizations, Ancient Egypt entered a period of decline primarily because of poor decisions made by those trusted with leadership.

During the period of its decline, ancient Egypt came under the rule of several Kingdoms that were emerging during that time. Persia, Macedonia, and Roman Empires are some of the ancient kingdoms that at one time conquered and ruled the Egyptian Empire for some time. Each of these ancient kingdoms that ruled Egypt had a varying socio-economic and political impact on society. The Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greece) was one such kingdom. Egypt was conquered by Ancient Greece under the command of Alexander the Great. Alexander ruled Ancient Greece during its golden era. Scholars argue that Alexander was one of the most shrewd commanders and rulers of ancient society (Gardner & Kleiner, 2014). He was a ruthless soldier who knew how to embrace diplomacy when it suits him. When he came to Egypt, he met little resistance and was able to conquer it by engaging in any battle. Ancient Greece had a significant impact on the Egyptian Empire. In this paper, the researcher seeks to investigate the extent to which Ancient Egypt became Greek and the extent to which it remained the same during and after the rule by Ancient Greece.

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt is one of the six civilizations that rose independently (James & Dillon, 2012). It was concentrated along the lower Nile River; Northeastern Africa in what is currently Egypt (James & Dillon, 2012). The civilization is believed to have started in 3150 BC in prehistoric Egypt with the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt under a common ruler known as pharaoh. In the pre-dynastic period, the region of Lower Nile had started experiencing economic development and some form of civility. The rich soil along the river Nile and regular floods made it easy for the locals to cultivate rice. The locals in this region had started forming communities that had a clear leadership system and even an army. Animal husbandry and stone tools became common in this region. The civilization moved north of the Nile River as the community grew. Trade with the regional kingdoms begun as technological improvement in agriculture started taking shape. Rice, obsidian, flacks, livestock, and metals became popular commodities of trade between this emerging kingdom and its neighboring kingdoms such as Ethiopia and Near East communities.

The dynastic period began in 3050 BC as the community grew to occupy modern-day Egypt, parts of Sudan, and parts of Tunisia. Civilization was taking shape in Lower and Upper Egypt and power coalesced around Menetho who was a religious leader. The Old Kingdom of Egypt advanced in technology, art, and architecture. That was 2686-2181 BC when the kingdom achieved major success in various fields. The Great Sphinx and Giza Pyramids were constructed during this period. It was also in this era that the kingdom enhanced its agricultural technology by using irrigation systems and other basic mechanization to simplify agricultural activities. Scholars believe that the Ancient Egyptians were constantly affected by the prolonged droughts that affected agriculture and other economic activities (Deady, 2012). During such periods, the community had to fully rely on waters of River Nile for survival. Part of the technological advancements, especially the irrigation system, as a result of the harsh climatic condition in the region that forced the locals to find alternative ways of farming.

The First Intermediate Period that started in 2181 to 1991 BC and the Middle Kingdom that lasted until 1690 BC saw real socio-economic and political development. The leadership at this time had been taken over by the Pharaohs. The monarch that was created during this period was very influential. The society was expected to abide by the laws and regulations set by the rulers. People from the Near East such as the Canaanites started settling in this kingdom because of its economic prosperity. The New Kingdom of Egypt that started from 1549 to 1069 BC marked a major period of interaction with the outside world. It was in this period that this kingdom started diplomatic relations with other regional powers such as the Assyria, Canaan, and Mitanni. Religion also started taking shape as many temples were built to worship. The Egyptian Empires decline started in the Late Period of 672-332 BC when the leadership of the Kingdom was faced with internal wrangles.

The Kingdom became weak and its economic activities, such as agriculture, became uncoordinated as the leaders focused on amassing wealth and power instead of helping the society achieve economic progress. According to a report by Raphael and Bolognese (2014), the monarchial system of leadership that was embraced by the Egyptians was the reason for its rise and subsequent fall. There was a period when the royal family had people who knew how to lead. The steered the kingdom into economic and political prosperity. However, there were cases where the leadership had to be handed over to young successors who could not offer the needed leadership. The Kingdom finally fell into the hands of the Persians in 525 BC.

The Inversion by Macedonia

Ancient Greece under Alexander the Great

Ancient Greece achieved great success when it was under its great ruler, King Alexander III of Macedon, popularly known as Alexander the Great. The period, known as the Hellenistic Period or Hellenistic Civilization, was marked by the rapid expansion of the Macedonian Empire under the leadership of Alexander the Great. According to Deady (2012), although the Wars of Alexander only lasted for 13 years, from 336 BC to 323 BC, it left a major impact on society. This was the period when the Macedonians ruled the world. Success in major battles meant that the kingdom controlled major empires in Europe, Middle and Near East, and North African regions. Alexander was not only a skilled warrior but also an astute businessman and a person who cherished education. He gave priority to education, agriculture, trade, and military developments. Ancient Greece became a major center for civilization not only in Europe but also in other regions that were conquered by the empire. As soon as he took power, he started by fortifying his empire to protect it from external foes. After securing the kingdom, he started an aggressive military campaign to expand its territory to other parts of Europe, Asia, and North Africa where civilization had started taking shape. According to Hawkins (2013), under the reigns of Alexander the Great, Ancient Greece expanded its territory due to its military success. Alexander himself was always at the battlefront, fighting alongside his soldiers.

According to Deady (2012), one of the most significant characteristics of Ancient Greece under the leadership of King Alexander III of Macedon was its prosperity in education. Having benefited a lot from education, King Alexander emphasized on the need for its people to be taken through formal education by standards of those years. The kingdom has accomplished academicians such as Aristotle, Speusippus, and Isocrates. These great philosophers defined the modern-day education system and civilization of modern society. It explains why Alexander was keen on establishing a learning institution in the territories that it conquered in parts of Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Under the reigns of King Alexander, Macedonia reached its golden age and its military was revered by other kingdoms around the world. Hawkins (2013) says that by the time of his death, Alexander had created an empire that was arguably in control of the world. He achieved the success that his predecessors never imagined of in their lifetimes. It was during his reigns that Ancient Greece took control of Ancient Egypt.

The Inversion of Ancient Egypt by Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece, under the leadership of King Alexander III of Macedon, was very successful and expanded very rapidly. The king was keen on controlling major centers of civilization around the world. Before coming to Egypt, Alexander had fought and won battles of Granicus River, Halicarnassus, Issus, and Tyre among others. He had a team of highly motivated generals and soldiers who believed that their commander was undefeatable. Alexander was a transformational leader who greatly inspired his soldiers (Gardner & Kleiner, 2014). The first huddle in their plan to conquer Ancient Egypt was to take control of Gaza, a very lucrative trade center. Gaza was heavily fortified and under the command of Batis of Persia. Alexander chose diplomacy over force and offered Batis the privilege of controlling the entire region when it becomes a province of Macedonia. However, Batis and his men wanted to be in full control of the Gaza trade center. They rejected the peace deal offered to them, which meant that they had to go to war with the Macedonian soldiers. They were convinced that their fortified city would offer them defense against the invading forces. The ruthless soldiers of Macedonia overran the Batis forces guarding the city. Batis himself was captured and murdered by Alexander. The king ordered that all adult males in this city had to be put to the sword. Women and children were taken to captivity. This important business center became part of the Macedonian Empire.

At the time of the siege of Gaza, Egypt was under Persian rulers. The Egyptians hated the Persians whom they accused of exploiting them. The Persian rulers in Egypt were horrified by the swiftness, ruthlessness, and skills of the Macedonian army. When Alexander made his march into Egypt, he met no meaningful resistance. The Persian rulers in Egypt had no proper army that could help stage a resistance. That was in 332 BC. Hawkins (2013) says that these rulers relied on the army that was led by Batis in Gaza to protect their territory. The believed (rightfully) that any invasion had to first go through the well-trained soldiers in Gaza. When Gaza fell, it was obvious that the rulers stood no chance at repulsing the invasion. The rulers made a quick decision of handing over the Egyptian Kingdom to the king of Macedonia without a fight. He was welcomed by the locals who saw him as a savior who eliminated the oppressive Persians. The Egyptians crowned him the king and he immediately commissioned the development of Alexandria city as a center of academics ad civilization. After the death of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian rulers who came to power was not as shrewd in war as he was. The rulers who were left in Egypt started focusing on creating their dynasties, leading to internal wrangles and instability. Their rule was further weakened by constant attacks by Syrians and other kingdoms in the Near East. The Roman Empire finally took control of Ancient Egypt from the Macedonians, marking the end of Ancient Greece rule over Ancient Egypt in 30 BC.

Impact of Macedonian Rule on Ancient Egypt

The Macedonian rule over the Ancient Egyptians had a major impact on the socio-economic and cultural practices in Egypt. Ancient Greece controlled Ancient Egypt for over 300 years, from 332 BC to 30 BC when the Roman Empire took control of the city. This was a very long period where the Greece culture interacted with Egyptian culture in economic, political, and social spheres. According to Raphael and Bolognese (2014), the Greek rulers made an effort to embrace most of the cultural practices in Egypt as a way of appeasing the locals. They wanted the Egyptians to feel that they were in full control of their social and economic life. As such, Alexander instructed his commanders who were left in Egypt not to significantly interfere with the local culture. In this section of the paper, the focus will be to analyze the extent to which Ancient Egypt became Greek and the extent to which it remained the same despite the long rule of the Macedonians. The following are the specific areas of influence worth focusing on in this analysis.

Land Policies

The land policies that were put in place by the Pharaohs during the golden age of Ancient Egypt were communal. During this time, land in Egypt belonged to pharaohs, and individuals would be granted parcels of land based on their relationship with the royal family and their ability to pay the needed tax. This policy remained in place for a very long time and the Egyptians strongly believed that land belonged to the royal family. When the Egyptian Empire was subdued and taken over by the Persians, they maintained this policy. However, what changed was the royal family owning the lands. Under the Persians, the land was owned by the rulers from Persia. The locals became slaves in their land. Land ownership policy is one of the main areas that were significantly influenced by the coming of the Greek rulers to Egypt.

According to Nichols (2015), Alexander instructed his lieutenants in charge of this new territory to ensure that land ownership changed from being fully controlled by the government and royal families to being owned by the locals. The land was very precious in this kingdom, especially along the River Nile where rice and other crops were grown. As such, the local Egyptians had an attachment to the land. King Alexander III was keen on ensuring that he remained popular among the local Egyptians, especially after they crowned him the pharaoh of Egypt after defeating Persians. One of the ways of appeasing the locals was to ensure that they owned land as individual Egyptians. When he died, the land ownership policy did not change much. The land belonged to the people. Landowners were expected to pay a certain amount of tax to the government to help in various administrative issues.

Government and Politics

When Ancient Egypt fell to the Persians, government and politics changed. Pharaoh was no longer the absolute ruler of the kingdom. Instead, the Persian ruler appointed his generals to govern the territory. At the time when Greeks to control of this country, the Egyptians no longer had a central source of power as it used to be the case in the past. However, the Egyptians still believed that one day a savior will come and drive the foreigners away and become their pharaoh. Hawkins (2013) says that when Alexander drove off the Persians and became very lenient and diplomatic with the locals, he was seen as the savior they were waiting for to rescue them. The Greeks restored the political structure that was in place before the kingdom was invaded by the Persians. The traditional form of government where power was under a central command was reintroduced. However, there were some changes in the form of government. Instead of having a pharaoh who had absolute power, the ruler of Egypt was more considerate and able to listen to the demands of the people. Although the system was autocratic because people could not vote in their preferred leader, the new leader had to be considerate to the people and be ready to change policies based on popular opinions. The new rulers from Greece introduced new government systems, especially the relationship between the people and their leaders. For the first time, Egyptians could reach out to their rulers, through representatives, on issues of concern to them. Some of these gains were, however, lost when the kingdom came under the Roman Empire.

Religion

Religion was at the core of Egyptian civilization. During the golden age of this empire, the pharaoh became both the political and religious leader of this community. Nichols (2015) says that he was seen as one of the gods. They believed in life after death and worshiped their gods in cult temples. Priests were appointed to act on behalf of the King in various parts of the city. When the Greeks took overpower, this was one of the areas they were keen not to interfere with in the social system in Egypt. Under the instructions from Alexander the Great, Greeks were instructed to construct temples in a similar design to that of the Egyptians. The religious practices of the Egyptians remained the same during the time they were ruled by the Greeks. To ensure that there was harmony in the religious system Alexander introduced some of the gods in ancient Greece in Egypt. It was easy to do this because the moment he has crowned the pharaoh by the Egyptians, he automatically became a god. The decision was made to ensure that Macedonians living in Egypt as administrators, educators, soldiers, and businessmen could easily worship together with the Egyptians. In one temple, an Egyptian would worship his gods and a Macedonian would worship a different god. Moreover, people were granted religious democracy, unlike was the case before. Alexander, and other Macedonian rulers who came after him, allowed the Egyptians to choose the gods they preferred to worship. As such, the religious practices remained intact, until the emergence of Roman and Oman Empires.

Science and Education

According to Nichols (2015), scholars argue that the current education system originated from Ancient Greece. Philosophy, Mathematics, Physics, Physiological sciences, and Arts are some of the areas of education that flourished in Greece at the time it conquered Ancient Egypt. One of the primary goals of Alexander the Great was to spread the Macedonian education system around the world as a way of spreading civilization. He established schools in places where he was welcomed by the locals. Egypt was one of the regions that benefited from his education system. Soon after taking over the leadership of Egypt, the Greeks introduced a new education system that was more formal than what the Egyptians were used to in the past. Alexandria city became the center of modern education in Ancient Egypt. Both sciences and arts were taught at school, initially by teachers from Greece. Hawkins (2013) argues that the education system introduced by the Macedonians in Egypt defined the modern civilization in the Middle East and North Africa regions. It is one of the major changes that was introduced in Egypt and remained intact several years after the departure of the Greeks from Egypt.

War

Historians have always regarded Alexander the Great as the greatest military commander of all times following his massive success in various battles (Gardner & Kleiner, 2014). In most of the cases, he won battles despite logistical and manpower challenges he would face. He knew when to use diplomacy and when to use military power. According to James and Dillon (2012), historically great leaders such as Augustus, Ceaser, and Gendis Khan at one time lost a battle. However, King Alexander III of Macedon never lost a single battle in his entire military career, defeating his enemies from Europe, Middle East, to Asia and as far as India. His unique war techniques were transferred to Egypt, although it was not enough to help the Egyptians reestablish their empire that had fallen. Some of the Macedonian commanders who remained in Egypt had to recruit some of the locals to work in the military. These local Egyptians learned war tactics of the Egyptians and it impacted on their lives after the departure of the Greeks.

Popular Culture

Egyptians were civilized in their way by the time Greeks invaded their kingdom. Some of the socio-cultural practices were defined by their beliefs in the supernatural forces. The romance was also uniquely practiced in this society as passed to them by their ancestors (Gardner & Kleiner, 2014). The locals had their very popular local music. With the arrival of the Macedonians, the popular culture in Egypt did not change much. The introduction of formal education led to the emergence of an elite class of members of society. However, popular culture in Egypt remained intact, especially the music and arts. Education only provided a better platform for these cultural practices to flourish.

Natural Resources

In Ancient Egypt, the land was the most important natural resource. It enabled people to engage in farming, livestock rearing, and other economic activities. The advanced agricultural practice in Egypt was never changed due to the emergence of Greeks. The Greeks tried to ensure that natural resources remained in the hands of the local Egyptians. The new model of education introduced was superior to what the Egyptians had, but the Egyptians use of technology in agriculture was unique. The Greeks were marveled at how these locals had mastered their environment and used the available resources to transform an otherwise dry land into a major exporter of various agricultural products. The new knowledge that Egyptians learned from the Greeks helped them come up with better ways of tapping into their natural resources.

Myths

The Egyptians had their myths and beliefs about gods and the relationship they had with people. Myths about successful rulers who conquered the evil forces and helped in creating a successful Egyptian Empire were also common (Nichols, 2015). When the Greeks came to Egypt, they never challenged most of these myths, especially those concerning religion and cultural practices. However, some of the myths relating to science were challenged due to the education system that was introduced. The Egyptians learned to balance religious and cultural myths and scientific facts. When it came to solving real-life problems, they relied on science. However, myths were used to teach morality and to motivate the public, especially when going through various socio-economic and political challenges. Some of the Egyptian myths changed while others remained the same based on their relevance.

Conclusion

Ancient Egypt was one of the earliest civilizations in the world. It was concentrated in Lower and Upper Nile regions in what is currently modern-day Egypt. During its golden era, it controlled the Middle East and North Africa regions. However, it finally fell to foreign powers, one of which was Ancient Greece. The rulers of Ancient Greece introduced new systems and structures in the fields of science, education, and warfare that changed the Egyptians way of life. However, religion, popular culture, natural resources, and mythical beliefs did not change much even after years of colonization.

References

Deady, K. W. (2012). Ancient Egypt: Beyond the pyramids. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press.

Gardner, H., & Kleiner, F. S. (2014). Gardners art through the ages: The Western perspective. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Hawkins, D. R. (2013). Truth vs. Falsehood: How To Tell the Difference. London, UK: Hay House, Inc.

James, S. L., & Dillon, S. (2012). A companion to women in the ancient world. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Nichols, K. (2015). Greece and Rome at the Crystal Palace: Classical sculpture and Modern Britain, 1854-1936. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Raphael, E., & Bolognese, D. (2014). Drawing history: Ancient Egypt. New York, NY: Cengage.

Introduction

Male dominance was a trait that was popularly practiced by the ancient settlers of Mesopotamia in the southern part of Iraq. Sumer was the land of the Sumerian-speaking people who have also been termed the cradle of civilization. The Civilization in Sumer was the first in the world starting from the early Bronze Age. Sumerians are also the authors of laws worldwide. They were the first organized community to come up with the art of writing. The art enabled them to put down the laws of the land. In Sumer, the laws were enacted in a way that gave men more power over women. From leadership to dressing code, women were dominated by the men in society.

Male dominance in Sumerian civilization

In the early days, Sumer lands women enjoyed an equal power just like the men in the society. Here, a Sumerian woman would be given the opportunity to serve as religious deities in the temple. For every temple, a woman would be placed as a high priest and the Sumerians were supposed to worship her. The women here had the authority over the religious group and were held in high esteem. This was however not reserved for all women but only those in the high decree class.

It was likely that in ancient Sumer women were allowed to own properties and even perform other administrative duties in other states. A woman would perform these duties without any restriction from the husband. This was because initially men did not look down on women but saw them as their own equal. When a king by the name of Urukagina was in power, he was in favor of equality on both men and women in the land he once ordered an equal pay for equal work regardless of sex (Mitchell and Mitchell, 28).

In that era, women enjoyed many other freedoms, one of the liberties was to be adulterous without being penalized by their male counterparts. This however did not last for a long time, as new reforms were made and women were rendered powerless. The men took over the society and put into operation laws that were in favor of themselves. Women lost every single right they possessed and were left on the mercies of men. This marked the beginning of male dominance in Sumer land.

The new laws gave the men the mandate to be adulterous. The females in the society were prohibited from being adulterous. A firm decree was put in place regarding any adulterous practice by a woman. Any woman who was found practicing adultery would be punished under the law. The penalty was death by drowning. The law permitted a man to be as adulterous as he chose. This proved the distinction between the male and the female in society. Without the endorsement of any penalties to the men proved that the female members in Sumer land were regarded as second-class citizens.

Sumerian civilization

Civilization in Sumer was started from the ground as there was nothing, to begin with at the time. Agricultural technology such as farming and livestock keeping was practiced. Cities and states were first established by the Sumerian people. Trade, industry, and commerce were also invented in Mesopotamia. Here, the laws laid down were used to maintain order and tranquility within the cities. The laws were more advanced and offenders would be given harsh penalties. This was to make sure significant issues such as life and property were well respected.

Different aspects of male dominance

As the inventions continued, the Sumerian civilization became exclusively male dominate. Women were used as tools in enhancing the civilization in the society. In agriculture, women and slaves were laborers. They did all the manual work in the farms from tilting the land to harvesting. All this was done under the tight supervision of the warriors who were exclusively men. The warriors were very vicious and they would use force to make sure that work was done to perfection. Women were brutally pushed around by the physically build men. This was an inhuman act where women were regarded as slaves. The acts of subordination were practiced in Sumerian land on a larger scale.

In a male supremacy society, women were not allowed to occupy any authoritative seat in the hierarchy of leadership like it was in earlier days. From the highest position of command to the lowest, it was male-dominated: men ran the government, managed the economy (Mitchell and Mitchell, 27). The Sumerian hierarchy was headed by a king followed by bureaucrats, priests, traders, educators, warriors, and farmers. In this chain of command, women did not hold any position. For instance, the king was selected from the warriors who were dominantly male. This pattern was followed in the entire hierarchy. Women in this society could only serve as wives, concubines, slaves and mothers, therefore limiting them to any other post in the society.

Decisions made in this society were reserved for men. The absence of female representation in the gathering ensured that the decisions made were in favor of men. The women lacked the voice to air out their grievances and interests. The endorsement of male dominance into law did not guarantee any protection to the Sumerian women. They lacked authority over anything in the society, women were treated as second-class citizens without power and prestige (Mitchell and Mitchell, 27). The only authority reserved for women was on household matters with few privileges like trading and taking care of the house. Other than that a woman was not protected by any law. In case the husband died the wife was placed under the control of the late husbands brother. The brother would take care of all the property that had been owned by the late husband until the eldest of the deceaseds son became old enough to inherit the wealth. When the son entered the maturity stage, the widow would then be placed under her sons authority. This law made sure that the woman would stay under male dominance for the rest of her life.

Sumerian men were highly regarded whereas women had little or no say at all in the society. The most exploited issue in the mens dominance of Sumerian society was sexism. The religion that was developed did not give women power over their bodies. The myths observed in cooperated prostitution which was widely practiced. Priests in the temples were allowed to practice prostitution and as a result, many children were born. The children born out of these relationships were placed in another homestead to be brought up by a different set of parents. This was exercised through a set of laws that were put in place for adoption. Women in this society did not have the right over the child born out of prostitution with the priests in the temple. The system denied the mother the right to bring up her own child as well as denying the woman the power and choice over reproduction.

Another aspect of sexism was the marrying of young women to the gods in the temple. The act of celibate undermined the rights of the women as they were married off to the gods without their own consent and will. In other cases, the young women who were supposed to be married off to the gods in these temples were abused by the priest. This was done without remorse and any violating of the law. In the Sumerian society setting, the priests hold a high position according to the law (Craig, and Graham, 52). Being above the law they would therefore use their position to degrade the female gender to suit their own interest.

Slavery was a common trait that the people would use to acquire wealth and labor. Here a man would easily sell his wife as a slave to acquire wealth. The woman would also be traded to another man as a concubine in exchange for any material thing. Sometimes the woman would be bought as a domestic worker. The kind of slavery practiced here was different because the slave could buy back the freedom by working for three years. This was the price an innocent woman would pay for her freedom. The act portrayed how dominant men were over women. It showed how greedy the men were and would value wealth more than the rights of their own wives.

Conclusion

In conclusion, male dominance has been an issue from the times of ancient civilization which has encouraged female subjugation by men today. Religion has also played a big part in the subordination of women. Religious ideologies have been misinterpreted and used to suit a certain group of people in a society. Women fall in a category that ensures they are undermined and oppressed in the name of religion. Just like with Sumerians, agriculture has been a form of civilization that places women under male dominance. The lack of emphasis on educating the girl child has been the main cause for male dominance just like it was in the Sumerian civilization.

Works Cited

Craig, Albert, and Graham, William. The Heritage of World Civilizations, Volume 1. New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 2008. Print.

Mitchell, Joseph, and Helen, Mitchell. Taking Sides: Clashing Views in World History, The Ancient World to the Pre-Modern Era. Volume 1. New York, NY: McGraw, Hill/Dushkin, 2006. Print.

Introduction

The image of women in Ancient Egypt is predominated by the construct of Nefertiti and few other royalties. However, little is known about women in general and their lives, status, and role in society. Women in Ancient Egypt enjoyed a place almost equal to men. In ancient times the legal status of women in Egypt was divided into four parts  unmarried, married, divorced, and widowed (Johnson, The legal status of women in Ancient Egypt 175).

However, the rights and privileges of women in Egypt were greater than that of the women in Greece in 332 BC, even when Greece conquered Egypt (Robbins 80). A woman in Ancient Egypt had the right to property and could settle legal disputes. Further, she had the right to retain the ownership of her property even after marriage and did not have to give up ownership rights to her husband. Women enjoyed a position of equality with men; however, they were restricted in holding government office (Robbins 80). Nevertheless, the status of women in society was determined by the status of the husband or father (Robbins 80).

This paper documents the role of married women in ancient Egypt. The paper will show the women were perceived when they were married and how their position altered. Marriage is considered to be a social institution that allows human beings to organize an efficient working unit and legitimize children. In Ancient Egypt, the role of marriage was similar to in the most ancient world. From the point of view of women, marriage was a step from childhood to adulthood and a beginning of a new role for her in society. Ancient Egypt shows the position of married women through their sculptures, literature, and paintings.

Marriage was considered to be an important institution, and women were given a prominent place as it is believed that the Egyptians were a very uxorious race (Tyldesley 20). Therefore, the paper will inspect the role and status of married women in Egypt in ancient times from a legal and social perspective.

Role of Women

Legal

Marriage was a very open and accepted norm with no legal restriction levied by the state on women as to their choice of groom. Women were free to choose foreigners, slaves, and permitting more than one marriage, and marriage of close relations (Tyldesley 20). Right to the property for married women and their right to private inheritance and inheritance of the community property belonging to the husband was an essential nature of the status of women in Ancient Egyptian society.

A woman after marriage had the right to hold her own property, and therefore was seldom dependent on her husband. She had control over one-third of the property of her husband and had the freedom to dispose of all of the property if she wished to (Robbins 81).

The mean of acquiring property for an Egyptian woman was to gain it as a gift or inheritance from her father or husband. Further, she was allowed to gain property through purchase. Further, the private property a woman brought in form of dowry during her marriage, remained her own, and the husband had no legal claim on it. When a woman is divorced, all her private property will remain her own. Further, her husband must pay the amount settled by law as reimbursement to her.

According to Egyptian law, a wife had the right to one-third of the property of her husband, and the rest two-third was divided among the children. A husband could, however, make a will to increase the share of the wife in his property. In a will, the husband could assign the share that he wanted to give his wife. One such example is imyt-pr of Wah from el-Lahun, a will that the priest named Wah from the pyramid town of Kahun during the Middle Kingdom, made for his wife (Imyt-pr from El-Lahun). In the will states:

I make the contract for my wife, a woman of the eastern side, Sat-sopeds daughter, Shefet(u), called Teti, consisting of everything which my brother, the Confidential Seal- bearer of the Controller of Works, Ankhren, gave to me, as well as all the possessions at his place, all being what he gave to me & She will give to any whom she will desire, namely her children which she will bear to me. & Moreover, as for these dwellings which my brother, the Confidential Seal-bearer, Ankhren, built for me, my wife will be in them without evicting her from there by anyone. (Imyt-pr from El-Lahun)

A woman in Egypt had the right to deliver the property received from her husband to whomever she chose. A woman could choose to have a household with another man or could disinherit her children of her private property. One such example was found through the tale of an old woman from Deir el-Medina during the New Kingdom, who disinherited her private property inherited from her first marriage and her father, as well as the community property of her second marriage to four of her eight children (The Will of Naunakht).

Therefore the documents demonstrate the right of women in terms so property. Further, women in Egyptian society had the right to go to law in case of abuse or mistreatment in marriage. One such example is of a woman who went to the Tribunal of Judges to complain about her abusive husband (Document IV  A Woman Charges her Husband with Wife Abuse). The statement of the wife was:

My husband & made a beating, he made a beating [again] and I caused the & to fetch his mother. He was found guilty and was caused& And I said to him: If you are& in the presence of the court. (Document IV  A Woman Charges her Husband with Wife Abuse)

The legal state of women in Egypt was that of an equal. A woman also had the right to trade with goods, buy property, and slaves. Therefore, from the legal point of view, a woman was held as an equal in front of the law.

Social

A woman in society was valued for her position as a child bearer, and her role in society was constricted to domestic life. Elite women in ancient Egypt were excluded from bureaucracy, and had their job in domestic life and raising children (Robbins 82). However, men had greater economic wealth than women, as they were paid a government salary. The economic disparity between men and women was evident from the tombs, status, etc. that were erected more by men than women. A wife is considered as an equal according to the decorations of a husbands tomb, as she participated with him as an equal in all phases of his life on earth (Feucht 315).

A womans social position in ancient Egypt is clear from the art of the time. Ancient Egyptian art did not portray an individual rather the ideal that confirmed them. Women were the ideal for progeny. Therefore, the status of women and paintings always depicted women in youthful beauty with accentuated hips and breasts, the body parts associated with childbearing. There are no available paintings, statures, or any other art form depicting older or fuller women.

In terms of marriage, there was no legal age for marriage, however, a document from the 26^th Dynasty showed that a father refused to get his daughter married as she had not yet reached marriageable age (Tyldesley 21). Therefore, it is popularly believed that the age was fourteen when the girls menstruation began. A womans status in society was derived from the name of her husband. Therefore, the disparity in the legal and social status of women in Egypt was high even during ancient times.

The literary text, The Instructions of the (Vizier) Ptahhotep, showed that in the Middle Kingdom, a woman is considered to be dependent on her husband due to social factors and not legal restrictions. According to the text, it is the husbands duty to love and protect his wife, however, he should not allow her to obtain power or go to court:

When you prosper and found your house and love your wife with ardor, fill her belly, clothe her back; ointment soothes her body. Gladden her heart as long as you live; she is a fertile field for her lord. Do not contend with her in court. Keep her from power, restrain herher eye is her storm when she gazes. Thus will you make her stay in your house. (The Instructions of the (Vizier) Ptahhotep cited in Johnson, Womens Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt 177)

Thus, the social status of women is made clear through this statement. Women definitely had legal rights but were stopped by the social constructs and discourses to take up their legal rights. Further, a woman as a dependent of the husband was cared for and provided shelter to her.

Adultery was one of the most serious crimes for a married woman, and a man indulging in adultery was only frowned upon (Tyldesley 23). Men were expected to respect the chastity of other mens wives and a liaison between a married man and an unmarried woman was also considered equally bad. A girl was considered to be legally wed when she left the physical protection of her fathers household for her husbands house (Tyldesley 23).

Therefore, this aspect also indicates that a woman required a male protector, in form of a husband or father, to survive in society. An incident of adultery of a man and the wife of the neighbor is documented in the town of Dier el-Medina. The wife of the husband appealed publicly and the man was asked to erase all relations with the woman. The adulterant woman was subjected to the physical harshness of society (Tyldesley 23).

Legally a woman committing adultery was punishable by death (Tyldesley 23). A papyrus from the New Kingdom demonstrated how a wife was put to death due to her unfaithfulness (Tyldesley 23). The Tale of Two Brother (Sheet from the Tale of Two Brothers, Papyrus DOrbiney) demonstrates how the wife of one brother tries to seduce the brother-in-law and is killed for her disloyalty. Therefore, adultery of a married woman was considered to be a crime to be punishable harshly, and socially such an act was looked down upon.

A womans highest aim in life was to bear children. A fertile woman gathered a high position in society as the child-bearer. The high prominence of the concept of fertility in Egyptian society can be found in the emphasized breasts, hips, and nipples in statues and paintings. There was evidence of false nipples added on the mummified status of women. Pregnancy elevated the status of Egyptian women, who gained her husbands approval, and admiration from relatives and lesser fortunate women. However, Egyptian society was not harsh on women who could not bear children. Men who had a wife who could not bear children could be divorced legally but this was not a socially accepted norm in Egypt. The more accepted concept in Egypt was to adopt a child.

Egyptian world was formed in male and female duality, and females were considered equals in all aspects. Queens of Egypt have often been found in pictographs as crushing the head of the enemies, or as an executioner of prisoners. She has been shown as holding roles as a farmer, princess, administrator, and trader. Therefore, women of Egypt were found to hold different jobs and roles, though their primary role was to manage the domestic life and bearer of children.

Within the household, women were the mistress of the house (Robbins 84). In larger households, women were responsible to look after the work of the servants and slaves, and in smaller households, women had to look into the household chores, and looking after children. Women were also responsible for spinning and weaving cotton to make clothes (Robbins 84). Therefore, womens main role in ancient Egypt was constrained within the household.

Conclusion

Women in Egypt were considered individuals in the eye of law and had their individual rights equal to any man. However, there were social barriers to such laws. Legally, women were more liberated than the Egyptian society warranted. A womans place in the society was behind the shadow of a man  be it her husband or father. For a married woman had her rights to property, she was bounded socially by her husbands wish and his rules. However, women were more liberated and enjoyed greater freedom in ancient Egypt than many other ancient cultures, they could not completely come out of the patriarchal societal norms.

Works Cited

Document IV  A Woman Charges her Husband with Wife Abuse. 520BC. Translation for Diotimas Anthology. Web.

Feucht, Erika. Women. Donadoni, Sergio. The Egyptians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997. 315-330. Print.

Imyt-pr from El-Lahun. NA. Internet Archive. Web.

Johnson, Janet H. The legal status of women in Ancient Egypt. Capel, Anne K., et al. Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: women in ancient Egypt. New York: Hudson Hills, 1996. 175-188. Print.

. Womens Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt. 2001. University of Chicago  Fathom Archives. Web.

Robbins, Gay. Women in Egypt. Silverman, David P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. 80-88. Print.

Sheet from the Tale of Two Brothers, Papyrus DOrbiney. 1185 BC. The British Museum. Web.

The Will of Naunakht. NA. Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. Web.

Tyldesley, Joyce. Marriage and Motherhood in Ancient Egypt. History Today (1994): 20-26. Print.

Introduction

Architecture is an art of building using a design that attracts some kind of aesthetic value. Greek architecture can be defined as the architecture brought about by the Greek i.e., the Hellenistic people. Between 900 BC and 1^stAD, the Hellenistic peoples culture prospered in the Greek mainland. The most important aspects of Greek architecture can be observed in places such as Peloponnesus, Aegean Islands, Asia Minor, and Italy. The earliest forms of Hellenistic architecture included temples, Open-air theatre, Public Square (agora), processional gateway (Propylon), public monuments, monumental tombs (mausoleum), bouleuterion and the stadiums.

Although most of the above-named features are found only as ruins, a few of them are still intact. Much of the original Greek architectural forms exist only as ruins because they were built using mud and wood. Lack of written documents about them makes it difficult to explain exactly how they were like. However, given Romans copied the Greek mode of construction, then Roman Architecture can be used as a reference.

Temples form a good number of buildings that still stand, and this is why this paper mainly refers to temples. The temple architecture has a distinguishing characteristic from the rest of the buildings. This is in terms of their structure and decoration. The architecture took a longer period to be developed, and thus, more advancement and features were added on the architectures overtime. Most architecture in Greece reflected on how people led their lives in terms of culture and their traditions. Consequently, Greek architecture reflects the time each feature was constructed. Religion formed a better part of Greek life, and because of this, temples built during earlier times were bigger and most beautiful. These temples, not only played a religious function but also were instruments of political influence, wherein thanksgiving were made in case of victory in a war. In addition, political power and pride were also celebrated in these temples. This indicates how architecture played a great role in portraying peoples lifestyles.

Greek Architectural Styles

There are three major known styles in Greek architecture; these styles are also known as orders. They include; Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These orders played a critical role in how temples were designed and built (Ancient Greece).In most circumstances, Doric and Ionic systems were primarily used, and they illustrated the systems of Dark Ages of Dorian and Ionian Greeks (Greek Architecture).

Doric order

This style is brawny with a plain top. It was found in mainland Greece and South Italy, among other places in Greece. The Parthenon temple constructed in the 5^th century BC was constructed using this system. Although this temple has been greatly damaged repeatedly, the strength of Doric systems has enabled it to withstand.

Ionic order

Compared to Doric order, Ionic order is thinner and more stylish with a scroll-like design as decoration at its top. Its origin was in Ionia around the Mid-6^th century (Ancient Greece). The temple of Hera was the first one to use this style though, after a decade, it collapsed by an earthquake. The style of Hera was mostly common in Islands and some parts of Eastern Greece. Other common temple buildings with this order were; Erechtheum; this temple was built between 421-405 BC on Athens Acropolis. During this time, there was also a need for many shrines, which were to be built on a sloppy landscape; this led to the necessity of an unusual plan that could allow access to all of the other shrines in Greece.

Didymas Temple of Apollo

This temple was built in Turkey about 300 BC. It had ionic columns of about 19.5m high. The same design was also applied in the construction of the Temple of Athena Nike. Presently, the ruins of the temples give a clear indication that the ionic system was applied, especially with the columns that still stand strong. An important point to note is the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus. This temple was built using the Ionic order and formed the Seven Wonders of the World. It was built in the 6^th century and has survived up to date (Greek Architecture).

Corinthian order

Architecture Callimachus was the person behind this great invention. This was after observing a basket left on a young girls grave. Corinthian system or order was the latest and came into full completion in the middle of the 4^th century BC (Winter 70). Although this order was rarely used, a few structures that made use of the system can be mentioned, such as the Choragic monument built in 335 BC, Zeus temple in Athens constructed in the 2^nd century, and this was the most known among the temples of Corinth. Another known and oldest temple that used this order is the Apollo Bassae constructed in 420 BC (Winter 126).

Periods of Greece Architecture

Greek architecture can be divided into several categories depending on the time in which they were built. These categories comprise of the following;

Minoan civilization

This civilization was between 1800  1300 BC, and it is the earliest known architectural period in Greece. Prosperity for this civilization was witnessed in the Island of Crete. Knossos palace that is founded on a hill, formed a major achievement of this period. This palace has been well preserved, and thus the most attractive in Knossos. Surrounding the palace are several residential buildings, for example, the Royal Villa, the little palace, and the South House. Lack of protective walls in the city and remains of the palace is a clear indication that some kind of harmony existed between the Minoans and the rest of Aegean civilizations. Today, the palace is divided into two wings; the West, which consists of religious and offices for the state, and the East used for other various goals such as domestic and workshops.

Discovery of the untouched Knossos frescoes by the scientists has led to the conclusion that this palace was destroyed by the powerful volcanic eruptions, which took place around 1450BC in Santorini (Greece Architecture). Archeologists have discovered scenery full of palaces, tombs, towns, roads, and villas; all these structures severed various purposes such as commerce, administration, and religion.

During this civilization, palaces began constructing back in 1900 BC, and they were used for diverse functions such as; meetings, celebrations, workshops, and stores for crops. Strategic places on the Island, such as; low hills, were chosen to build these palaces. The complexity of these palaces made them look like labyrinths, especially for new members in the region. Some of the palaces were high buildings corded with very beautiful staircases both in the inside and outside.

In the exterior meeting, apartments were common, and they acted as theaters and enormous columns. The technology used for their construction was very advanced because of the various services that were available. Some of these technologies included; deep wells as a source of water for use by the occupants, irrigation systems, advanced drainage systems, and bridges. Besides, Rough stones, ceramic bricks, and mortar were major construction materials for inside walls, while hefty rectangular slabs were used for the construction of the corners of the palace (Hawes and Harriet 57).

During Minoan civilization, Tholos Tombs, sacred caves, Pithoi, and larnakes were used for burial purposes. The ancient Tholos Tombs had a round shape, with a few of them taking a rectangular shape. These tombs had a single entrance. Although most of them have been destroyed, the few surviving ones have only the lower side of the wall, making it difficult to measure their heights or determine their shape from an aerial angle (Minoan Architecture. Believe sexists that many of these tombs had a flat roof that was made of wood. The largest Tomb is 13 meters wide, and it is found in Platos (Phoenician Architecture). It is during the prepalatai and protopalatai time (2600-1700 BC) that the Tholos tombs were greatly in use.

Minoan Roads; Palaces and towns of Crete were connected by paved roads with the first roads being constructed during the Neopalatai period and coming to completion in the Post palatai time (Minoan Architecture). Although many of the paved roads have been destroyed beyond recognition, some still remain intact and are found in the Minoan ruins.

Minoan Towns; it was during the Neo-palatai era, that is, between 1700-1400 BC, that towns began forming around palaces. These towns included Gournia, palekastro, Pseira, and Mochlos, all of which lay on a well put plan. Each home had its own shrine and storage magazine.

Minoan villas; these were majorly found along Cretes countryside. They closely resembled palaces and consisted of story building homes, religious places, workshops, and storage magazines.

Mycenaean period

Is the period between 1600-1100 BC, and it is called the Bronze Age period. It acquired its name from Mycenae, which is an archeological site of North Eastern Argolis. Other major Mycenaean sites include; Athens, Pylos, Thebes, and Tiryns. Unlike the Minoan civilization, the Mycenaean period was characterized by war. Strong and tall walls were built in order to hold on the citadels. These walls compact, and they were called Cyclopean because of the reason that it was only the Cyclopes that were believed to have the capability of lifting the stones used for their construction. Although the Mycenae palace was destroyed, remains of walls and tombs are still seen. Most vital features, such as the palace, cult center, grave circle, and the lion gate, are still in place. It is also in this period that the earlier discussed styles, that is, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian fall.

According to Cline (38), the above-mentioned civilization performed and expanded greatly during the Bronze Age period, approximately 3000 to 1000 BC. It was also during this period that many developments took place, such as the initial growth of trade, not only in Aegean but also in the Mediterranean Sea, technological advancement in art, especially in the media field and growth of Greek religion and associated cultural practices. Apart from the developments, this period also experienced wars between the locals due to their existing differences that have made it be associated with the origin of Homers Trojan War.

Minoan and Mycenaean periods form the major divisions of the Greek architecture. However, other architecture exists, such as the Byzantine architecture that saw the emergence of a great number of churches in Greece (Cline 79). These churches are unique, and they varied from place to place. Stone is the major building material, and at times basilica is used. The plan used for their construction is symmetrical, and their interior is decorated using frescoes and using references for their appearances in the bible. Famous structures of this style that have stood up to the present time are the; Thessaloniki churches currently, UNESCO World Heritage Monument, and Kastorias seventy-five monasteries (Winter 66).

Roman Architecture borrowed greatly from Greek architecture, and most of its buildings, temples, and theaters portray a similar style like that in Greece. Well-known examples are; the Roman Agora, Herodes Atticus theatre, and Haridians Arch. Another important style is Neoclassical. This style has a combination of modern and classical styles. This style was embraced in 1821 after the independence war in Greece. Architectures such as Hernest and Theophil had a great contribution to the design of this style. Examples of buildings with this kind of order include; Hotels in central Athens, Museums, and the National library found on Panepistimiou Avenue (Greece Architecture).

Macedonian architecture

This type of architecture has its origin in the Bronze- Iron ages whereby construction was made out of large limestone blocks. The technique used in construction was termed cyclopean, big sizes, and their well-defined joints made mortar useless as the two could hold the construction strongly. Until the end of the 14^th century, this technique was largely used for the construction of churches (Winter 102). Although not many of this architecture are available at present, some ruins exist at Prosek. Other features that used this technology included; mosques, baths, Turkish inns, and clock towers; these occupied most parts of Skopje and Bitola towns.

In the present day, well- known house of this architectural style is the National Museum of Ohrid, a major tourist attraction in the town. This building forms fantastic scenery, and this has made UNESCO take responsibility for it. Although most of the houses built during this period still stand strong, their renovation and maintenance are very costly, and this has led to their present desperate state. Macedonia has a number of villages, though not well known, they form a big contribution to the peoples culture. Owned by the marginal class, these villages attribute Macedonia a sense of uniqueness.

These villages included; Galicnik that up to the present is used for marriage rituals by young men who are always for work. On their return, Galicnik village becomes a merry-making site. Maloviste is also another example of a village in Macedonia that holds much of this countrys culture. Previously, it was used for trading purposes, but presently, it is being renovated for heritage and cultural purposes. Spiritual inns such as; monasteries also exist, and they include; SvJoakim Osogovski, Treskavec, Sv Jovan Bigorski, and many more (Thammy 84).

Phoenician architecture

This architecture has its origin from the act of carvings on the rocks that were naturally found all over the place. These rocks were used for many purposes, such as temples, tombs, and dwellings. Owing to the fact that limestone is soft and has a lot of fissures and caverns, they were easy to work on, and this made people convert them into dwelling rooms, though with time, the caves became small and led to the need for more houses for settlement. The Phoenicians used a mixture of styles, which they saw along as they traveled (Thammy 97). Examples of such dwelling places that can be found today are; ancient Marathus and dwelling -house of Amrith. In these structures, a rock is cut in a way that two walls parallel to each other are left standing. Doors and windows are made out of these walls, and rocks are used for masonry purposes for joinery.

This architecture majorly used the native rock as the main constructing material, and a mixture of styles was incorporated. After sometimes, the native rocks got extinct, and subtractions were used. A good example of such a building is the temple of Jerusalem. In instances where small stones were used, the mortar was necessary, but where large stones were available, the mortar was unnecessary as the stones were just laid side by side. Phoenicians buildings were irregular due to the sense that the stones hewn were roughly fitted, and as such, these buildings acquired the name Cyclopian (Phoenician Architecture).

Conclusion

Greek architecture is divided into various periods, as discussed in this paper. Additionally, art depended on the community; it is not universal art. The diversity exhibited reflects different cultures and different forms of technology that was used for construction. Mainly, ruins of temples, tombs, cities, and churches are available, and they contribute largely to the explanation of how these architectures were employed. Most of the structures in major cities of the world borrowed much from Greek architecture. Through the information presented in this paper, it is clear in what ways Greek architecture was copied. Many other nations copied from the Greek because most of the Greek architecture existed during the prehistoric era. Three systems were used, which included the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

Works Cited

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Greece Architecture. A Guide to the Architecture of Greece and the Greek Island. 2011. Web.

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Hawes, Charles Henry, and Harriet Boyd Hawes. Crete, the Forerunner of Greek. London: Harper & Bros., 1922.

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Winter, Frederick E. Studies in Hellenistic Architecture. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2006.