Category: Ancient Egypt

 In ancient Egypt, respect was not based on gender. It was based on their social status. This means that women could enjoy a majority of the luxuries men could have as well. With this being said, they took on roles that could be deemed influential and very important. During this time, they also enjoyed rights that were economic and legal, as well. In this paper, we will be looking into the lives of Egyptian women, specifically during the times of the Late Period (712-332 BC).

The weather consisted of dry air and sandy land, which we know as the desert. The Sahara desert received little rainfall. During the daytime, the temperature would exceed over 100 degrees, and the hottest it has ever gotten to was 136 degrees. However, once nightfall, it would get as low as 50 degrees. During the hot blazing day, it becomes tough due to dehydration and sunburns, among the poisonous scorpions and sand storms. Even when the sand storms aren’t raging, the sand still finds its way into their food. The people in ancient Egypt lived in a muddy brick home. Without having much to work with, they use the materials that surround them, such as mud, water, clay, sand, and chop straws. The mud home would be from 13 to 66 feet, and the inside would be from 858 square feet. The living room would be for worshipping Gods and ancestors. Followed by a front room that would be used for meeting and talking to visitors.

Some of the wealthier families would have limestone bathrooms; however, most families threw their sewage outside in a pit or canal. Some homes will be 2 to 3 stories tall following that the bottom floor would often contain a cella for food. Some rooms include very little furniture, with each piece being straightforward. After building the homes and finishing up preparation, they head out for their meals, which were prepared by the mistress and the midwives (Orr 2010).

The wife of an ordinary household would have to be intimately involved in preparing daily meals. Most of the other women are involved as well. Such as rare meat that would be cooked. However, the Nile River had plenty of fish for them to prepare, as well. Alongside that, most families grew their vegetables on a plot near or next to their homes. The establishment of all everyday or feast suppers, paying little heed to social class, was the equivalent: bread, lager, and vegetables. This also included leeks, onions, garlic, various heartbeats (beans, peas, lentils, and so on.), and a few assortments of melons. Wealthier Egyptians had more chances to appreciate red meat, fowl, nectar improved cakes, and different luxuries. Lower-class Egyptians depended on fish and fowl for the more significant part of their meat proteins. The prepared accessibility of wild fish and fowl made them economical, while hamburgers and, to a shifting degree, other red meats were costly and considered by numerous individuals to be an extravagance (Brewer 1999).

Now, let’s start with the basics of what a woman would wear during this period. In modern times we associate Egypt with the fine cotton they use (Watterson 1998). However, in ancient times, they would use linen from the stem of a flax plant. Women were also the ones who would sew to make these materials. If they had any extra material, they would sell it. This skill of weaving was precious. If the individual was skilled enough, they could be paid in gold. When it came to their feet, they usually went barefoot even after sandals were introduced to them. This can be seen a lot in illustrations of ancient Egypt.

While ancient Egypt’s social status wasn’t an issue. Childbirth has come to make it very difficult to handle. Many of the young married wives have lost their lives due to the effects of giving birth. Because of this, there was a low rate of women and young girls. The midwives usually help with delivering the baby and oversee that the birth process is healthy for the baby and that the mother has survived giving birth (Capel 1996).

In Egyptian family units, of all things considered, offspring of both genders were esteemed and needed, “there is no sign that female child murder was polished.” Notwithstanding ripeness tests, tests for pregnancy and the assurance of the sex of the kid were conceived. “One test included watering grain and emmer wheat with the pee of a cheerful mother-to-be. On the off chance that the grain grew, the lady was pregnant with a male youngster; if the emmer wheat developed, she was pregnant with a female kid. On the off chance that the pee had no impact, the lady was not pregnant. Even though there really might be some logical reason for this test. A pregnant lady delivers an assortment of hormones, some of which can actuate early blossoming specifically plants, there is no known connection between these plants and the assurance of sexual orientation”. (Brewer 1999)

Egypt marriages didn’t have any ceremony at the time. The unions during this period were set up at home. It was a social arrangement that was regulated on a proper base. By the time a young child (boy or girl) becomes an adolescent, they are ready for marriage. However, this provides that the boy will be between the ages of 16 to 20 (Brewer 1999). While the young girls are from ages 12 to 13. Once they are married they begin to take on their duties as housewives. Egypt also didn’t have marriage as a register tracker. Because of this, they figured that once a couple begins to live with one another, they are considered married. However, divorce was also in a link, as well. Even though the establishment of marriage was paid attention to, the separation was normal. Either accomplice could establish to separate for the deficiency (infidelity, failure to imagine, or misuse) or no flaw (contradiction). The separation was, not uncertainty, a matter of disillusionment. However, not one disrespected the other, and it was regular for separated individuals to remarry. On the contrary, anyone who committed adultery (which is prohibited) is to be punished and those who have committed such an act will have their noses cut off or be burned at a stake. (Brewer 1999 )

Women could also exercise their rights when divorce became a topic of concern. Women could have contracts to make sure that everything was done fair, and they could secure property or valuables that were shared amongst the couple. There is notable evidence from the ancient Egyptian time that shows physical evidence of these contracts existing. An example of this would be a contract of an annuity from the Family from Suit Nefertiti (Khalil 2017). These rights that women have are just another example of the equality that they had during this time.

Education

Egyptian women were able to receive an education. They started close to the time that children start training now. By age four, they were taught different topics listed as the following: geometry, science, hieroglyphics, and conversational hieratics (Khalil 2017). After they received their education, a certificate could be given like a piece that indicated their achievement. They could venture out to any practice they chose with the knowledge they had retained. If women needed extra help in their learning, they were able to attend remedial schools. In these schools, they could choose to work alongside men or attend schools that were only for females.

Egyptian women usually work as either servants, nannies, or wet nurses. The servants often lived with the household they worked for. This is because they are generally poor and don’t have a house of their own to look after. However, some work in a wealthy home and become maids. The maid’s job would be to help the mistress get dressed and to prepare her for banquets and other special occasions that may arise. If there are older women, they take the role of nannies or wet nurses. Women also had jobs that can be seen in the modern world together. Some of these occupations included being a hairstylist, dancers, weavers, writers, and musicians (Lloyd 2010). Women had the opportunity to explore an abundance of different routes when it came to the career field. Their jobs could deal with science, music, or laborious tasks like the ones that were previously mentioned. For the common woman, she was more than likely working long hours in the field, although there were other occupations she could do. Although the common woman at this time could not automatically become a ruler, having a woman as a ruler was possible and seen throughout the history of ancient Egypt. Overall women had all sorts of occupations even though they were like the jobs of men (Mark 2019)

As we look into the lives of women living during the late period, we can see that they were able to achieve and prosper in many aspects of their lives. Although there were setbacks dealing with childbirth complications and not always having the highest position, they were able to make crucial decisions in their life. They were able to have an education, occupation, and rights when it came to legal matters. When looking back in history, one could say ancient Egypt is progressive for its time in comparison to modern times.

Works Cited

1. A Companion to Ancient Egypt: Two Volume Set, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated,2010.ProQuestEbookCentral,https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/setonhill-ebooks/detail.action?docID=537389.
2. Cincinnati Art Museum, and Brooklyn Museum. Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: Women in Ancient Egypt. Edited by Anne K Capel and Glenn Markoe, First ed., Hudson Hills Press in Association with Cincinnati Art Museum, 1996.
3. Egypt and the Egyptians, Cambridge University Press, 2001. Copyright Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter 1999.
4. Khalil, Radwa, et al. “How Knowledge of Ancient Egyptian Women Can Influence Today’s Gender Role: Does History Matter in Gender Psychology?” Frontiers in Psychology, Frontiers Media S.A., 5 Jan. 2017, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5215293/.
5. Manning, Ruth. Ancient Egyptian Women. 2008.
6. Mark, Joshua J. “Women in Ancient Egypt.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 2 Dec. 2019, www.ancient.eu/article/623/women-in-ancient-egypt/.
7. Orr, Tamra. How’d They Do? in– Ancient Egypt. Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2010.
8. Watterson, Barbara. Women in Ancient Egypt. Wrens Park Pub, 1998.
9. Brewer, Douglas J. ‘Ancient Egyptian Society and Family Life.’ The Fathom Archive:: The University of Chicago Library: Digital Collections, 1999, fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/2/21701778/. 

What are the main factors and determinants that can explain the change and the variation in Egyptian women’s political role?

· Literature review:

The literature review is divided into three main parts; the first part is about the literature written about women in ancient Egypt, the second part is about the literature of women in modern Egypt and finally, the last part is about the literature on women’s political empowerment and how the scholars defined this concept. The first part includes the status of women in ancient Egypt in many aspects of life and of course in political life. Moreover, it includes the two main arguments about women in this period, which are mainly: arguments for the idea that women in ancient Egypt had a significant role in society in general, and in political life in particular (that is of course comparing the nation to the other ancient nations), while the second argument is against the idea that women in ancient Egypt had a significant role.

The second part of the literature is about women in modern Egypt, and here we are discussing the political rights of women in modern Egypt. By modern Egypt I mean the period started in 1956 because from this time we are talking about a republic nation, no longer a monarchy. Moreover, 1956 precisely is the year in which Egyptian women entered the parliament. In this part, I will discuss the three main categories of the literature about women in modern Egypt. The three main categories are: whether women have the right to participate in political life or not, the historical narrative of the political rights of women in modern Egypt, and finally, the legal narrative of the political rights of women in modern Egypt.

Finally, the last part will cover the various definitions of political empowerment and it will emphasize the idea that there is no agreement on one definition of empowerment and that also makes the scholars have no agreement on how to measure empowerment.

I. Women in Ancient Egypt:

There are three main trends in the literature on the status of women in ancient Egypt. The first trend revolves around one common thesis which is “women in Ancient Egypt had a higher degree of rights and privileges in comparison to most other women in ancient Near East and classical worlds.” While the second trend, which is minor in number, believes that women in ancient Egypt didn’t have this unique assumed status. Finally, the third trend is the in-between one. They believe that women in ancient Egypt had a unique status other women in other nations of this time, but they still believe that the independent equality of women at this time wasn’t justified. The world of ancient Egypt was a man’s world, but women had more rights than other cultures. Moreover, the most agreed-upon fact in all the literature is that women were equal to men legally and in front of courts and that they had economic roles.

1. The first trend:

Many scholars argued that women had a political role in ancient Egypt. Theodorides, a modern scholar of Egyptian law, has noted that the woman ‘was a ‘person’ in every sense of the term’, while Baines and Malek, two other modern scholars, have observed that aside from the royal family and queens regnant [the woman] had little political power. Theodorides also argued that there is also evidence that some women acted as administrators, both in personal estates and in larger offices as well. (footnote: sky goddess) William A. Ward talked about the political role of the ancient Egyptian woman saying that: “That official functions were relegated to men seems more a matter of accepted custom than a conscious desire to keep women out of politics and government. Some women achieved minor official status in the Middle Kingdom, but not many chose to do so.”

It is not usual to see female rulers whether in the ancient world or now, but ancient Egypt had more than one female ruler, there were queens in ancient Egypt. Lysander Dickerman mentioned in his article more than one example; “there was Nitocris, sister of Mense-soups, of the VIth dynasty. She accepted the throne of Egypt so that she might avenge the foul murder of her brother. During the eight years of her reign, she completed the third Giza pyramid, which Men-kau-ra had left unfinished. She more than doubled its dimensions and gave it that costly covering of granite that has excited the admiration of travelers for 4,000 years. Coming down to the XVIlth dynasty we meet with Queen Hatshepsut, the patron of the most chaste art to be found in Egypt, the originator of the first peaceful voyage of discovery of any magnitude ever made. For her age, she was both Christopher Columbus and Queen Isabella combined. She kept Egypt in perfect peace during her entire reign of nineteen years, one of the greatest anomalies in all history. What other ancient nation ever had a peace of nineteen years’ duration? It was she who invented peace and national prosperity, for they never existed before. And what shall I say more? For the time would fail me if I should tell of Nefer-taten-tenen of the XIIth dynasty; of Futhe-tabu and Queens Sebsen and Kema and Nubuk-ka, of the XIIIth dynasty; and Aa-ho-tep and No-fre-ari of the XVIIth dynasty, and the divine Tai-ri-bau, and Sit-ka-mu and the royal sister, Meri-amen and the divine spouse, Ahmes and Me-seker and Maut-m-ra and Queen Noferteiti of the XVI I Ith dynasty, and Nofert-ari, the beloved wife of the great Ramses, who subdued kingdoms, wrought righteousness, from weakness were made strong, and turned to flight the armies of aliens.”

2. The second trend:

Rebecca Ann in her thesis “The Roles and Status of Ancient Egyptian Women of the Pharaonic Period,” argued that by comparing the ancient Egyptian women’s situation to women in Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome, she didn’t see differences in these women’s lives, especially when it is apparent that these societies, along with Egypt, were all male-dominated, patriarchal societies. She also added: “Despite the fact Egypt had female kings such as Hatsepshut, she like the other female kings, still had to transform herself into a man to gain acceptance….therefore she could not be acknowledged as a king until she denied her womanhood.” She gave her evidence for this argument that; women in ancient Egypt were illiterate while some women in Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome were able to write, and that according to her because there is no written work by Egyptian women.

3. The third trend:

Susan Tower Hollis in her article “Women of Ancient Egypt and the Sky Goddess Nut,” argued that royal women were enjoying a high similar respect to men but not independent equality. According to her, any notion of an independent equality of women in ancient Egypt appears to be highly unjustified. She insists that the world of ancient Egypt was a man’s world, but women had more rights than other cultures. Although she argued in her article, that the ancient Egyptian woman was a person in every sense. The women had little political power, but the royal women only. The women were educated but education was limited to the women of the upper classes only. There was legal respect for women over men. There is some evidence that women worked as administrators.

Between the period, of 5000 B.C to 332 B.C there once was an advanced civilization that we call ancient Egypt. The ancient Egyptians created their language, mathematics, trading, government, architecture, and other systems and principles. Two of the main things this essay is going to focus on are the numeral and time-telling systems of ancient Egypt. Their numeral and time-telling system has its disadvantages and advantages compared to the present-day Roman numeral and time-telling systems. The Egyptians also have similarities and differences to the present-day and Roman numeral and time-telling systems. Some features of today’s time-telling system have evolved from the Egyptian’s way of telling time. These are the topics this essay will focus on.

The ancient Egyptian numeral system has similarities and differences with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system (which is the numeral system humans use today) and the Roman numeral system. The ancient Egyptian and Hindu-Arabic numeral system has a standard way of writing fractions while the Roman numeral system does not. To write fractions the Egyptians use something called Horus’s eye and each part of the eye describes the fraction. The right side of the is equal to ½, the pupil is equal to ¼, the eyebrow is equal to ⅛, the left side of the eye is equal to 1/16, the curve tail is equal to 1/32, and finally the teardrop is equal to 1/64. To write a fraction in the Hindu-Arabic numeral system you have to put a vinculum (which is the line that separates the numerator and denominator) then put a number above the vinculum which is the numerator then the number at the bottom which is called the denominator. To write a fraction in the Roman numeral system you just write out the fraction like “tres octave” which is 3/8. The Egyptians and the Romans have the same amount of symbols in their numeral system, which is seven, while the Hindu-Arabic numeral system has more; more specifically 10. The Egyptian’s number symbols are that a single stroke is equal to one, a drawing of a hobble for cattle is equal to ten, a coil of rope is equal to 100, a drawing of a lotus plant is equal to 1,000, a drawing of a human finger is equal to 10,000, a drawing of a frog or tadpole is equal to 100,000, and finally a drawing of a god raising his hands above his head is equal to 1,000,000. The symbols of the Roman numeral system are I which is one, V for five, X for ten, L for 50, D for 500, and finally M for 1,000. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system symbols are 1 which is equal to one, 2 which is equal to two, 3, which is equal to three, 4 which is equal to four, 5 which is equal to five, 6 which is equal to six, 7 which is equal to seven, 8 which is equal to eight, 9 which is equal to nine, and 0 which is equal to zero.

The ancient Egyptian numeral system has advantages and disadvantages compared to the Hindu-Arabic and Roman numeral systems. The advantages of the ancient Egyptian numeral system compared to the Hindu-Arabic and Roman numeral systems are that the additive methods make finding sums easy, the base system is based on tens so modern people can understand it easily, and the symbols of each power are very distinguishable compared to one another. Also, there is less control so place value does not matter. The disadvantages of the ancient Egyptian numeral system are that it does not have any multiplicative shortcuts, that it takes too much space, that it takes up a lot of time to write out, and that there is a limitation of fractions since the Egyptian fraction system only goes by ¾. The advantages of the Roman numeral system are that it has checkpoints and it is good for making things look formal. The disadvantages of the Roman numeral system are that there is no zero, there are no fractions, it is very confusing to distinguish them from numbers and letters, and multiplication and division is very difficult. The advantages of the Hindu-Arabic system are that it has fractions, it has zero, it has ten distinct digits, adding is easy, subtracting, is easy, multiplication is easy, division is easy, and you can do very complex math.

The ancient Egyptian time-telling system has its similarities and differences compared to how humans tell time now. Ancient Egyptian clocks were made out of stone while modern clocks are made of plastic, metals, or completely digitalized. The ancient Egyptians tell time by sundial/shadow clock. So basically in ancient Egypt, there were these big, tall stone pillars called obelisks and this huge obelisks cast shadows on the ground. So the ancient Egyptians used the shadows of the obelisk to tell the time of day. The ancient Egyptians also had water clocks that tell time by the gradual flow of water in or of a vessel. There are two types of water clocks inflow and outflow and the ancient Egyptians used outflow. While the humans of the present day tell time mainly by the atomic clock we also use quartz clocks. The atomic clock is the most accurate in the world right now. It tells time by the time it takes a Cesium-133 atom at the ground state to oscillate exactly 9,192,631,770 times which is equal to one second. The quartz clock is very accurate. The quartz clock is used in wristwatches, cellphones, radios, and computers, and they are also in measuring equipment. It tells time by a battery sending electricity to the quartz crystal. The quartz crystal will vibrate back and forth at a precise frequency of 32768 times each second. The ancient Egyptians and the present-day time-telling systems both have hours in their systems. The ancient Egyptians had months which were 3 weeks and each week was 10 days long while the present time-telling system also had months but each month has 4 weeks and 2 days or 4 weeks and 3 days depending on the month has 30 or 31 days. February is the only exception which is exactly 4 weeks or 4 weeks and 1 day if it’s a leap year). Later on, the ancient Egyptians made a civil calendar which has 12 months and each month has 30 days. One day is equal to 24 hours There are 360 days in a year. The months had alternative names that seemed to echo some type of lunar reckoning. The year is divided into three seasons the Inundation (Akhet), Emergence (Peret), and Harvest (Shemu) and each has 4 months with 5 days outside the regular 12 months that tag at the end of the year. This sounds very similar to the Gregorian Calendar which is the calendar that most humans use today. The only differences the Gregorian Calendar has are that it has 365.25 days, the months have irregular lengths, every four years there’s an intercalary day added to February which makes that year 366 days long, and there are 7 days in a week each with its name. Their names are Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday. Internationally a week begins on Monday while in other countries like the U.S. and Canada, the week begins on Sunday.

The ancient Egyptians’ time-telling system has advantages and disadvantages compared to the present-day time-telling. The advantage of the ancient Egyptian time-telling system is that you can make a sundial in the wild with the simplest material in the wild. Just place a tall stone in an open field and label the ground around the large stone with a small stone and now you can tell what time of day it is. You can tell what day of the week and month it is by just looking at the sky since the calendar is lunar-based so whatever shape the moon is the day of the week the temperature outside or the location of the stars you can tell what month or season it is. It does not hurt the environment since it does not use fossil fuels to fuel it or is not made of plastics or metals. Just made out of natural resources you can probably be in any forest or desert. You can survive in the wild while using it. The disadvantages of the ancient Egyptian time-telling system are that it is not the most accurate, is not portable, and only works if the sun is out or not blocked by a bunch of clouds unless you are using a water clock but it is not very accurate. The advantage of the present time-telling system is that it is the most accurate time-telling in the world (the atomic clock and the Gregorian calendar are the second most accurate in the world; the Revised Julian Calendar is the most accurate). It works any time no matter if it’s day or night or the weather outside. It’s very portable (we just tell what it is just by a quick look at the wrist watch or just taking your phone out of your pocket and just looking at the home screen of your phone and you can tell what time of day it is, what the day of the week it is, what month it is, and what year it is). The disadvantages of present-day time-telling are that uses a lot of natural resources and manmade resources, it is bad for the environment since all the ways humans tell time now are digitized. Digitalize things are mainly powered by fossil fuels (unless it is powered by a battery that uses chemical reactions or solar-powered) and fossil fuels release a lot of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which will cause the average climate of planet Earth to increase and destroy the ozone layer which protects us from harmful UV rays from the sun. It also takes a lot of management to keep the atomic clock going. The Gregorian Calendar is one day off every 3236 years. The Revised Julian Calendar is one day off every 31,250 years.

Some elements of ancient Egyptian numeral and time-telling systems have been implemented and evolved in the present numeral and time-telling systems.

The ancient Egyptians are a very advanced society. They made their numeral system and time-telling system. Their numeral system has its similarities and differences compared to the Hindu-Arabic and Roman numeral systems. Their numeral system has its advantages and disadvantages compared to the Hindu-Arabic and Roman numeral systems. Their time-telling system has their similarities and differences to the present-day time-telling system. Their time-telling system has its advantages and disadvantages compared to the present-day time-telling. Some elements of their numeral and time-telling system have been implemented to the present time-telling system.  

Introduction

Throughout history, archaeologists, historians, researchers, and enthusiasts alike, have put in tremendous effort in studying the life and culture of ancient civilizations. Every early civilization, as we know them, had a significantly extensive set of religious beliefs and philosophies. These ideas and beliefs shaped the society and ensured the adherence and conformity of its people.

Being one of the most theocratic states in history, all aspects of Egyptian society and culture were outgrowths or projections of their religion. The Egyptian religion was an extensive belief system that included magic, mythology, and spiritualism. They believed in a higher power and a life after death. Early Egyptians believed that life on Earth was only one part of an eternal journey, and to continue that journey after death, they had to live a life of purity and devotion, worthy of continuance.

Just like the Mesopotamians, early Egyptians understood that their gods were the creators of the world and ruled over forces while relying on the help of humanity to maintain balance and sustenance. In their lives on Earth, the Egyptians believed in upholding the principle of ma’at, or harmony. This was the rule that one person’s actions in his life did not only affect his self but also affected others’ lives as well as the operation of the universe. Only by honoring the ma’at will one’s soul be aligned with the gods and be assured a welcome into the afterlife by Osiris, the Lord of the Dead.

Gods of Egypt

The early Egyptians kept religion as an extremely vital part of their lifestyle and culture. The gods were the pillars of everyday life. The ancient Egyptian universe comprised heaven, earth, and netherworld, all part of creation and surrounded by eternal darkness. Though separate areas, they were permeable for the gods and the dead. The universe ran smoothly as long as there was respect and cooperation between them and the living. This formed an ideological, social, and economic cohesion.

There were over two thousand gods and goddesses each with their unique names, personalities, and areas of expertise. Each god was known to have their very own characteristics and physical features, as well as style of clothing. They were often associated with a specific place or function of human life.

The gods were powerful but benevolent, and approachable in many ways. With over two thousand deities ruling over ancient Egypt, they were not all equally powerful or important. There were many famous gods in the early Egyptian religion, and the lesser-known ones were even larger in number.

The god Heka was the oldest in ancient Egypt. He was present before the other gods and he was said to have witnessed the creation of the world and the entire universe. He was worshipped as the god of magic and medicine, and physicians and doctors were considered his priests. In important scriptures, they wrote that he killed two serpents and twisted them around a staff as a symbol of power. This was passed on to the Greeks and in the modern day, this symbol became an icon related to the medical field and the medical profession.

Another prominent god in Egypt was Amun. He was the god of the sun and patron of the city of Thebes. In the New Kingdom, he was considered the strongest among all gods, and the Egyptians worshipped him monotheistically.

Anubis was one of the most popular and iconic gods of ancient Egypt. He is recognized as a man with the head of a jackal, and he has a staff. He is the god of the dead, and embalming. His main duty was guiding souls into the afterlife.

Isis was the most powerful among all goddesses. She was known as the Mother of Gods and she cared for every aspect of human life, as well as for the other gods and goddesses. She is said to assist humans even after death and guide them to the heavens.

Besides Isis herself, Hathor was another popular and important deity in the early Egyptian religion. She was the very ancient patroness of womanhood, love, joy, sexuality, and childbirth. She was also associated with kindness, gentleness, and pureness of heart.

After Hathor, there was the beautiful goddess Bastet. She was also a popular goddess in ancient Egypt. She is often recognized as a cat, or as a woman with the head of a cat. Bastet was the goddess of fertility, women’s secrets, and cats. Just like Hathor, she was also a daughter of the god Ra. She was also associated with protecting homes from evil luck and misfortune.

Role of Priests and Priestesses

While the early Egyptian people observed ma’at to help maintain the order established by the gods, a special class of people was responsible for honoring and caring for the gods every day, and they were priests. Priests were an omnipresent feature of the Egyptian society. Various sources and records have taught us about the great prominence of the priesthood in ancient Egypt. Numerous biographies and autobiographies describe the titles and duties of these priests. They were also commonly portrayed or illustrated in the wall paintings of private tombs. These pictures show them often enacting funerary rites or participating in processions.

The clergy of ancient Egypt were fully integrated into all aspects of society. They lived among common people in villages, married, and had children of their own. They did not commit to being priests for their entire lives. They could have other professions while they were not at the temple. While at the temple, however, their sole responsibility was to care for the god in the temple.

It can be difficult to distinguish between a priest and a non-priest. Ancient Egyptian priests and priestesses were not expected to serve as an example of religiously dictated behavior. They also did not have a special attire or mode of dress that could differentiate between a priest and a commoner, except for the higher ranks who often wore distinctive garbs or tunics. For example, when Nebwenef took the position of First Priest of Amon, he received rings and a scepter to differentiate him from other priests, regardless of rank.

Priesthood was for both men and women. The male priests were known as hem-netjer and females were hemet-netjer, both of which mean “servants of the god”. Qualification for the priesthood was based on one’s knowledge of the roles and duties of a priest and sometimes based on literacy. The transition between a non-priest to a priest was signified by a purification ritual required to cleanse the individual before entering the temple.

The clergy of ancient Egypt had many ranks, each with specific duties and privileges, as well as varying levels of access to parts of the temple. The lowest in this hierarchy was the “web” priests. It was an entry-level position, and they often worked their way up to more prestigious titles. The wabs were in charge of carrying offerings and taking care of the temple complex. The hem-kas were also low-ranking priests who carried food and offerings in funerary rituals. For both the wabs and the hem-kas, their low level of purity meant that they had really limited access to the inner portion of the temples, where the more prestigious priests were.

Some astronomer-priests were responsible for predicting eclipses and solstices, determining lucky and unlucky days, as well as interpreting omens and dreams, and reading oracles. They were known as the hour-priests. The sem priests conducted funeral services. They were also the embalmers who were responsible for mummifying the corpse while the lector priests recited spells that guided the soul of the deceased in its transition to a spirit.

The highest-ranking priests were the High Priests or First Priests. They were chosen by the king to be the mediator between the people and the gods. The High Priest had both religious and political authority. They serve a crucial role in maintaining religious balance and tradition in Egypt.

Temples in Ancient Egypt

Temples were the most prominent features of the ancient Egyptian landscape. They were enormous and extremely majestic. According to Herodotus, ancient Egypt had more monuments than any other ancient civilization in history. Even today, after thousands of years of being built, they remain a significant place of power and grandeur that impresses visitors from all over the world. In the time of the early Egyptians, they considered the temples as the homes of the gods. In these temples, they believed they could communicate with the gods through the statues and paintings.

The temples of the Egyptian religion were not like the temples we know today. They were the main place for the performance of rituals essential for the maintenance of the cosmos or ceremonial events and funerary rites. The most highly essential ritual in the Egyptian temples was the daily offering service that was believed to satisfy the gods’ or goddesses’ need for nourishment. Temples in ancient Egypt were not places of worship. Common people could not even enter the temple premises. The temples were considered private sanctuaries and they were divided into numerous sections, each with different levels of sacredness and requiring different levels of prestige and purity to gain access.

The most sacred part of the temple was the sanctuary for the “holy of holies”, considered to be the bedroom of the god. In this chamber, there is always a shrine that holds the statue of the god who resides in the bedroom. Small temples that were built and dedicated to one god usually would have only one statue, but larger and grander temples had many. For example, the grand temple in Karnak had statues of Amon, Khonsu, Mut, and a few others, each with their resident chamber. For the early Egyptians, these statues were a powerful representation of the presence of the gods in their particular temples. In times of large festivals, these statues could be brought out for the people to see.

Many of the grandest temples such as the Great Temples of Hatshepsut and Temple of Amenhotep III at the Colossi of Memnon were mortuary temples designed as places for people to gather for special religious rites and offerings connected with the cult of the pharaohs. These temples were built for cult members to worship so that the pharaohs lived in the afterlife.

In terms of structure and decoration, the Egyptians used an incredible amount of mud bricks and building stones. The walls of the temples were also often embellished with a variety of ornamental stones. Design and decoration in temples were highly symbolic. Sometimes, there were small details that marked the temple’s geographical location.

According to ancient Egyptian mythological concepts, the creation of the world was thought to be renewed inside the temple, and the building itself was regarded as an image of the natural world. It is very common to find carvings of images depicting plants, flowers, animals, and other aspects of the natural world.

According to Isabel Stünkel from the Department of Egyptian Art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the two columns of the temple resemble tall plants that reach toward the sky, and the shape of the capitals incorporates papyrus and lily plants, the emblems of Upper and Lower Egypt. Inside the temple, flying vultures depicted on the ceiling also evoke the sky. In ancient Egypt, depictions were thought magically to become real. The temple’s decoration thus not only guaranteed the performance of rituals but also the continuation of the natural world and cosmic world order. 

Ancient Egypt started around 5500 BCE when two major kingdoms developed around the Nile. They were known as the Upper and Lower Kingdoms. In the Mediterranean World, Ancient Egypt was known as the most powerful civilization because of its many developments that we now use today. Ancient Egyptians believed in gods and goddesses that told them how to rule. Egyptians were placed in a hierarchy system that classified how they were treated and what they could offer to their society.

Daily life in Egypt wasn’t very different from how we are today. Egyptians had pride in their appearance and cleanliness. Jewelry was worn by pretty much all men and women. Jewelry and make-up helped define what class they were. The upper class would wear makeup and wear jewelry usually made with gold and silver but the lower class wouldn’t wear any makeup and would wear jewelry made with pottery beads or copper. Both men and women of the upper class put on make-up. It was thought to have healing powers, plus it helped protect their skin from the sun. Eye paint was the most popular form of make-up. Most people wore white linen clothing because it was so hot. Women wore tight-fitting dresses with different kinds of sleeves that were usually decorated with beads, called kalasiris. Men wore kilt-like garments called shendyts. Children didn’t wear any type of clothing until the age of 6. Patterned clothing would be worn by slaves and servants. Most families lived in villages of sun-baked mud houses. The houses were simple, with only a few windows and decorations. In the summer, when it was too hot inside, people would sleep on the flat roofs of their houses. Ancient Egypt was a dynamic society that required people to perform a variety of tasks and occupations. They had a variety of jobs, such as The majority of the citizens were farmers. They grew barley for beer, wheat for bread, onions, and cucumbers for vegetables, and flax for linen. Craftsmen’s work came in a wide variety. Carpenters, weavers, jewelers, leather workers, and potters were among them. The success of a craftsman was determined by skill level. Becoming a soldier provided an opportunity to advance in society. The majority of the soldiers were foot soldiers. In the Egyptian army, there was a clear hierarchy. Soldiers would assist with government policies such as shifting stone for a pyramid or building a canal during peacetime. In Ancient Egypt, scribes were significant because they were the only people who could read and write. Scribes came from wealthy backgrounds, and learning the complex Egyptian hieroglyphics took years of study. Priests and Priestesses oversaw the temples and performed religious rituals.

Religion was a significant part of Ancient Egyptian culture. Ancient Egyptians had a polytheistic religion, which is where you believe in multiple gods and goddesses. The people of Ancient Egypt worshipped a variety of gods. Focusing on only one god was an important part of Egypt’s beliefs and practices in local villages. Villagers would worship at shrines that had been built in the village. Animals such as lions, cats, rams, and crocodiles were often used to represent gods. There were about 2000 gods in ancient Egyptian religion. The pharaoh, the overall ruler of Egypt, was thought to be half-man, half-god, and had a close relationship with the gods. The pharaoh was thought to be the messenger between Egyptians and the gods. Egyptians claimed that when the pharaoh died, he would become a god. The pharaoh kept his hair covered. It was not to be seen by regular people. The pharaohs were worshipped as gods. Egyptians built great tombs for the pharaohs to ensure they lived well in the afterlife.

The Egyptian religion was also a set of beliefs and practices that included Egyptian mythology, science, medicine, psychology, sorcery, spiritualism, and herbology, and they had a strong belief that there was a higher power and life after death. The ancient Egyptians were influenced by religion in every aspect of their lives since life on Earth was seen as only one part of an ongoing journey, and to continue the journey after death, one had to live a life worthy of continuing. They practiced a variety of rituals, including mummification. It was important for the Egyptians to maintain the body as long as possible after death to have a home for the spirit. The body was clothed and would be decorated with gems and amulets. Their faces were often covered with a mask to disguise their appearance. They would also place drinks, food, and riches in the tomb of the deceased.

Egyptians worshipped many gods and goddesses. Some of the most important ones were Ra, Isis, Osiris, Horus, and Thoth. For the Ancient Egyptians, Ra was the sun god and the most powerful god. Ra was the supreme lord of the gods and was said to have produced all aspects of life. Isis was the goddess of motherhood. She was expected to defend and assist those in need. Osiris was the god of the dead and the lord of the underworld. He was Isis’s husband and Horus’ father. Horus, the god of the sky, was the son of Isis and Osiris. The pharaoh was known as the living version of Horus. Thoth was a god of wisdom and intelligence. He gifted literature, medicine, and mathematics to the Egyptians. Some of the major rulers during this time were Menes, Cleopatra VII, Hatshepsut, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II. Menes was said to be the first pharaoh of Egypt and united upper and lower Egypt. Cleopatra VII was the last pharaoh that ruled Egypt and caused its downfall. Hatshepsut was the fifth ruler of the 18th dynasty of Egypt and was the most successful female pharaoh. Ramesses II was the third pharaoh of the 19th dynasty and one of the greatest pharaohs of the New Kingdom. Tutankhamun was the most famous pharaoh of all time and helped Egyptologists figure out the process of mummification.

In ancient Egypt, the government had a system called a hierarchy. A hierarchy system is where different people are put into categories of who is more important based on occupation. The pharaoh and those identified with divine power were at the top of the social pyramid, while servants and slaves were at the bottom. Egyptians trusted their rulers with many duties because they believed their pharaohs were gods. The most important factor was safety. In the event of a foreign invasion or international dispute, the pharaoh directed the army. All laws were made at the pharaoh’s command. The pharaoh collected taxes in the form of grain, which was stored in his warehouse. In the event of a drought, this grain was used to feed the people. Without help, no one individual could handle all of these responsibilities. As a supervisor, the pharaoh named a vizier, a chief minister. The vizier was in charge of collecting taxes. Scribes who held government documents worked alongside the vizier. Powerful nobles and priests ranked below the pharaoh in status. Only nobles were allowed to hold government offices, and they benefited from the pharaoh’s tribute payment. Priests’ jobs were to please the gods. Nobles had high social status and benefited financially from gifts to the gods. From pharaohs to fishermen, all Egyptians made offerings to the gods. Slaves and farmers were at the bottom of the social ladder. Those who were captured as prisoners of war were sentenced to slavery. Slaves worked at the pharaoh’s or noble’s command, in addition to being required to work on building projects.

The Ancient Egyptians were scientists and mathematicians. They had numerous inventions including ways to build buildings, medicine, cosmetics, the calendar, the plow for farming, musical instruments, and even toothpaste. They used moldy bread to help infections. They were one of the first civilizations to invent writing. They also used ink to write and paper called papyrus. Papyrus is a writing material made from the pressed fibrous material of a palm and it was only available to Egypt’s wealthiest people. Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to codify their writing. Instead of letters like we use, they use pictographs called hieroglyphics.

To the Egyptians, education was very important but was only for boys. Certain jobs were only open to boys, such as becoming a priest or serving as an army officer. Egyptian children were taught mostly by their parents. The majority of the population was uneducated. Nobles and scribes were the majority of those who learned to read or were taught. Egyptians who were trained learned to read as early as the age of four. The children of government officials, nobility, and bureaucrats attended the pharaohs’ version of exclusive private school. Students first learned to identify and pronounce hundreds of hieroglyphics, then arithmetic, and eventually writing. Girls weren’t necessarily taught how to read, write, or hunt, but rather how to take care of the household and their families. They were taught how to clean, cook, and sew from a young age.

The different games the male children would play were wrestling fishing, and target practice. Young Egyptian noblemen wrestled and swam in the Nile in their spare time after school. Fathers taught sons how to hunt hare, gazelle, ibex, and antelope if they were healthy. The adults would have parties with friends and family where dancers, acrobats, and musicians were the entertainment.

According to Egyptians, Egypt was divided into two forms of land, the ‘black land’ and the ‘red land’. The fertile land along the Nile’s banks was known as ‘black land’. This was where the ancient Egyptians grew their crops. Since a layer of rich, black silt was deposited there every year after the Nile flooded, this was the only land in ancient Egypt that could be farmed. The desert that surrounded Egypt on two sides was known as the ‘red land’. Ancient Egypt was isolated from neighboring countries and invading armies by these deserts. They were also a source of rare metals and semi-precious stones for the ancient Egyptians. The Nile River was a river that flowed through Egypt and allowed their people to fish, trade, and harvest crops.

After Cleopatra died, Egypt was taken over by Rome, but many Egyptian lifestyles and traditions continued.

History of architecture refers to a record of man’s effort to build beautifully. It was organized along a global timeline, a global history of architecture (Francis et al; Michael et al) presents an innovative approach to the study of architectural history which spans from 3500 BCE to the present. This unique guide was written by a group of architectural experts who emphasize the connection, contrast, and influences of architectural movements throughout the span of history, such influences are geographical, geological, climatic, religious, political, social, and historical with the aim of satisfying the client’s need. It traces the origin; growth; historical style (particular method, characteristics); great construction principles (such as post and lintel, arch and vault, corbel and cantilever, trussed construction), and the beginning of architecture mainly emphasizes prehistory, construction of ziggurat and megalith, Mesopotamia, and Egyptian pyramids and kingdoms.

According to the authors, prehistoric architecture starts as early 3500 BCE and spans about 3000 BCE in the land of the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the period before the written records and the details about the buildings, human settlements, and the reconstruction based on post-hole or masonry foundations and it has the constructional system existing or excavated caves, megalith, tombs, circular form of huge stone called stone henge. The architectural characteristics of this period are bricks made of mad and sun-dried or kiln-fired and; murals of decorative continuous stone and the only material available was (clay, soil, and reeds).

The data set also demonstrates that Mesopotamia(meaning between two rivers), the fertile land surrounded by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and is the region corresponding to modern Iraq, and parts of Iran(-in particular, is referred to as the cradle of the civilization ( Sumerian, Assyrians Akkadian, and Babylonians) and history of architecture also Mesopotamians are noted for developing one of the first written scripts achieved by Sumerian around 3500 BCE who worshiped multiple gods of diverse rank and represented them in their art and the Sumerian temple consists of a cult statue, altars, and niches laid up in sun-baked bricks on a ziggurat.

“Mesopotamia is widely considered to have fueled some of the most crucial inventions in human history, ranging from the cursive script, advanced astronomy to complex mathematics (Bannerjee, 2017).” The Sumerians invented the wheel, turned time into seconds, opened up the first trade routes, and formed the first known irrigation systems. The Sumerians also invented the concept of contracts. Cylinder seals were impression stamps used as a means of authenticating identity. They were used by everyone, from royals to slaves. These seals were worn by their owners on strings of leather or other material around the neck or wrist or pinned to a garment. The purpose of seals was the service as a personal signature on a document or package to guarantee the authenticity or legitimize a business deal; in the same way one signs a letter or form today or writes one’s return address on an envelope or package to be mailed (Mark, 2015). These cylinder seals were created in 2300 BC.

Mesopotamian interiors consisted of wall paintings, and decorative motifs, and were bright and colorful. Anthropomorphic (mixed image) sculptures were popular. Lamassu’s (winged bull, human head) were served to guard entrances. This civilization noticed the lion as a symbol of power and protection, as we still do today.

• Low Relief carvings – slightly protruding, very close to the surface
• High Relief carvings – projecting out from the surface, highly protruding elements

The Ziggurat is a perfect example of how history has taken a building constructed thousands of years ago and modified it to adapt to modern cultures. “Mesopotamian ziggurats were the precursors of church steeples and towers beginning in the Middle Ages. A number of twentieth-century buildings employed the ziggurat concept (Ireland, p. 29.)” This monumental architecture was a very large multi-storied tower that was created to be the home of the God or Goddess of the city. The word ziggurat means raised area. Broad at the bottom, these pyramid-shaped buildings had two to seven tiers, with each ascending tier smaller than the one under it. The top of the building was flat, and on it was a shrine or temple to God where only priests could go. The entire building was made of sun-dried bricks in all the interior areas, with glazed fire-dried bricks facing outward. The facing bricks on each successive tier were glazed a different color. A series of staircases led to the top of the ziggurat for priests to use (Mesopotamia: Overview and Summary).

Summary of Mesopotamian Architectural Characteristics

• Adobe brick construction with some use of fired brick or stone
• Glazed brick and tiles for external facings• Surfaces covered with relief sculpture
• Sculpted anthropomorphic figures used as guardians at gates • Ziggurats • Monumental stairways and gateways
• Walls surrounding cities, temples, and palaces
• Alternating projections and recesses along walls (Ireland, p.30).

The dominant visible legacy of ancient Egypt is in works of architecture and representational art. Until the Middle Kingdom, most of these were mortuary: royal tomb complexes, including pyramids and mortuary temples, and private tombs (Samuel et al., 2019). During the Old Kingdom, 2650 – 2180 BC, the Pyramids at Giza were built as well at the Great Sphinx. The pyramids served as tombs for the Pharaohs of Egypt. Originally, these pyramids were covered with smooth, white limestone and were finished with gold capstones.

Because the afterlife was most important to the Egyptians, their tombs were built to last for eternity, and it is those structures that have remained mostly intact. Since the afterlife was perceived to be a replica of life on earth, the Egyptians assumed the spirit would need the same things it enjoyed in life— food, furnishings, servants for doing manual labor, and the ability to participate in activities such as hunting and fishing. Paintings, models, and sculptures were thought to become real and provided all the needs of the deceased (Ireland, p.40). The paintings inside of the tombs depicted scenes from real-life events and portrayed activities that may have been favored.

The Step Pyramid of King Zoser c. 2750 BCE, located 15 miles SW of Cairo, was built by Zoser’s grand visier, Imhotep. Imhotep designed this pyramid to have six steps, resembling King Zoser’s past stacked on top of each other to form a staircase to the heavens. Imhotep was the very first architect in recorded history. He was also a priest, scribe, and physician. The Step Pyramid of Kind Zoser stood 33 feet tall and had 13 false doors to keep grave robbers away from the tomb.

The Pyramids of Giza – one of the seven wonders of the world

• Menkure c. 2500 BC – 200 ft high
• Khafre c. 2530 BC – 470 ft high
• Khufu c. 2570 BC – 475 ft high

Pyramids of Giza

As one of the world’s largest monuments, measuring in at 230 feet long and 65 feet high, the Great Sphinx acted as a spiritual guardian for the pyramids. The Great Sphinx is one of the most recognizable historical remains of the ancient Egyptians. The Sphinx is a monolithic structure, meaning a single stone.

During the Middle Kingdom (2134 BC – 1786 BC), Egyptian art began to focus primarily on daily life and common surroundings. New techniques were developed during this time and images were designed to be sharper, realistic, life-like creations. The Ankh was a symbol of life everlasting and was used throughout paintings in Egyptian times. They introduced rock-cut tombs that were cut into the hillsides of the land.

During the New Kingdom (1550 BC – 1070 BC), the daughter of King Thutmose I, Hatshepsut, became queen around the age of 12. She married her half-brother to keep the royal bloodline pure. Queen Hatshepsut became pharaoh and co-ruler of Egypt around 1473 BC. She extended Egyptian trade and oversaw plenty of building projects during her time as Pharaoh. Scholars of ancient Egypt only knew little of her existence until 1822. In 1903, Howard Carter discovered Queen Hatshepsut’s sarcophagus, which was empty but after launching a new search in 2005, a team of archaeologists discovered her mummy in 2007 (Editors, H).

The Valley of the Kings contained incredible temples. The tomb of King Tutankhamen was discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter. King Tut was mummified according to Egyptian religious tradition and an embalmer removed his organs and placed them in canopic jars, which were carved in ivory and 12 to 14 inches tall. He was laid in a series of nested containers and his solid gold burial mask weighed approximately 25 pounds. There were roughly 5,000 items found in the tomb. The items included in the discovery were abundant amounts of artifacts, furniture, chariots, clothes, weapons, and 130 walking sticks. King Tutankhamun’s tomb was the most intact ever found (Editors, H).

Canopic jars.

Sculptures and paintings of Egyptian Gods and figures were very easy to decipher. Pharaohs were the largest, exuding dominance and power. Men outside were red, women inside were yellow. The feet were in profile view, as well as their heads. The torso faced forward as well as the very large eyes. Egyptian paintings had no horizon or vanishing point. Registers were used to separate different scenes.

Although Egypt was a literate civilization, in the sense that it was a civilization that had the use of writing, only a small percentage of the population was actually literate. The fact that so few people had the ability to read and write means that the literary sources available originate from a small proportion of the population (Baines 2007, 35), it is because of this that the sources may only present a view of the elite few, with sources such as letters being focused on their life experiences. Consequently, literary sources may not always present a complete view of Egyptian society, and as a result, archaeology is not unnecessary as it enables us to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the whole of Egyptian society providing us with a piece of more detailed and unbiased information on all aspects of life in Ancient Egypt such as diet, the health of the people, domestic life, farming methods, building techniques, and architecture, etc enabling us to form a more holistic view of life in ancient Egypt than that which we can draw from written sources.

Works Cited

1. Mesopotamia: Overview and Summary. (2018, July 02). Retrieved from http:// www.historyonthenet.com/mesopotamia
2. Ireland, J. (2014). History of Interior Design. New York: Bloomsbury, Fairchild Books.
3. Bannerjee, Alok. (2018, July 10). 12 Fascinating Ancient Mesopotamian Inventions You Should Know About. Retrieved from http://www.realmofhistory.com/2017/08/24/12-ancientmesopotamian-inventions-facts/
4. Mark, J. J. (2019, March 02). Cylinder Seal. https://www.ancient.eu/cylinder_seal/
5. Mark, J. J. (2018, March 15). Cuneiform. Ancient History Encyclopedia. https://www.ancient.eu/ cunieform
6. Britannica, T. E. (2016, February 26). Knossos. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/place/ knossos
7. Bowman, A. K., Wente, E. F., Dorman, P. F., Baines, J. R., & Samuel, A. E. (2019, February 28). Ancient Egypt. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-egypt
8. Editors, H. (2009, December 16). Hatshepsut. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/ ancient-history/hatshepsut
9. Editors, H. (2009, November 09). Tutankhamen. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/ ancient-history/tutankhamen
10. The Standard of Ur. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ancient.eu/image/501/the-standard-of-ur/ Egyptian Ceramics Ceramics arts ordinary soft potter coarse gritty compound strong glaze enamel. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ancientegyptianfacts.com/ancient-egyptianceramics.html
11. Tikkanen, A. (2017, December 28). Great Sphinx of Giza. Retrieved from https:// www.britannica.com/topic/Great-Sphinx

Howard Carter followed methods to ensure that the contents of Tutankhamun’s tomb were accurately recorded. He first had a team set including Harry Burton the Photographer and others to help him carefully remove the artifacts from the tomb. Carter gave each artifact a reference number and photographed the artifact in situ then both with and without the reference number to make sure everything was accurate. In Harry Burton c. 1923 A gilded bust of the Celestial Cow Mehet-Weret and chests found in the treasury (Tutankhamun Archive, Griffith Insitute, University of Oxford), shows the way, Howard Carter lined the artifacts up with their reference number. A brief sketch and description were then given as well as the position of the artifact and the ground plan of the tomb. Drawing of Tutankhamun’s tomb, Howard Carter (Tutankhamun Archive, Griffith Insitute University of Oxford), is the original drawing of the tomb and how all the artefacts were placed. After Carter was finished with the artifact at the tomb, they were then sent to the laboratory tomb where it was photographed against a neutral and pressured and conserved. When this process was completed the artefact was carefully crated and transported to Cairo. Carter followed these steps to make sure that when removing artifacts from the tomb everything was accurately recorded.

Tutankhamun is one of the most known Pharaohs due to him being the only pharaoh found in his tomb without the tomb being disturbed. Tutankhamun became Pharaoh at the age of 8 or 9 years of age and reigned for 10 years with his death at the approximate age of 18 so the young king’s life was fairly short.

As technology advanced there have been many theories on how the young king died over the many years including malaria, broken leg, murder, chariot crash, and many more. The mummy was found in a bad condition with the mummy stuck to the base of his solid coffin due to the resin the embalmers poured on him. In Source 22 in Antiquity 1 a photograph of the mummy of Tutankhamun taken after Howard Carter reassembled it and laid the pieces on a sand tray shows how badly the condition mummy was when they opened the tomb and how difficult it would have been to resemble the mummy to what it was in situ.

The first investigation of the mummy was carried out in 1925 by Douglas E. Derry where he recorded the age and physique of the young Pharaoh. Later on, in 1968 another investigation led by R. G. Harrison revealed a blow to the head showing that could have been murdered. However, they also saw that the young king had missing ribs possibly from a chariot crash. Furthermore, James E. Harris discovered that Tutankhamun is the act of incest with his parents being siblings. This provides evidence about why Tutankhamun had so many defects due to the close sharing of genetics. In a 2005 test, Dr Zahi Hawass notices a fracture in the thigh bone, cleft palate, scoliosis, club foot, Kohler disease, and malaria. Source 2: Extracts from Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family (Zahi Hawass et al; JAMA, February 17, 2010 – Vol 303, No 7) expresses that the king was frail and needed a cane to walk, this connotes that he wouldn’t be a strong as the Pharaoh was seen to be.“King Tut was a frail pharaoh, beset by malaria and a bone disorder—his health possibly compromised by his newly discovered incestuous origins. (Ker Than -National Geographic News 2010)

This investigation of the king’s death gave us information and understanding of what the Pharaoh’s life was like, e.g. explained numerous artifacts found in his tomb including 130 walking sticks as he needed them due to his scoliosis and club foot. We also now know that since the king was from the act of inbreeding, he had numerous issues and defects which would have made his life quite difficult.

In ancient Egypt, the people believed that when they died they would go to the afterlife, and when they did they wanted to take everything they could with them on the journey. In Ancient Egypt they believed in many Gods who would help them through to the afterlife as Osiris was the first child of Nut who is the God of the dead and protector of the deceased. Anubis is also a protector of the dead but he was overshadowed by Osiris. Ancient Egyptians prepare for the afterlife as soon as possible but when they do die there is a process for what happens.

Mummification was a vital part of entering the afterlife; first by inserting a hook through the nose and pulling the brain out then removing the liver, intestine, lungs, and stomach and placing them into jars then covered in salt for 70 days and then wrapped. They believed that the physical body is important in the afterlife so the Ancient Egyptians took care of the body and kept the organs they believed they needed. Three types of mummification were available; one for the wealthy client, one for the less affluent, and one for the poor (The Eye of Horus – Gae Callender 1993) so depending on how wealthy you are what type of mummification also depicts how easy it is for you to get to the afterlife.

Tutankhamun’s tomb (KV62) is reasonably small compared to the tombs of other pharaohs of the 18th dynasty due to the young Pharaoh’s death being very sudden with little time to prepare for the afterlife this indicates that the burial chamber is quite small too. Each wall in the burial chamber had a different meaning and showed a different process to the afterlife. Source 3: Scenes from the Burial Chamber of Tutankhamun (North Wall) has three scenes that reveal what the ancient Egyptians believed happened after death. The first scene depicts the opening of the mouth ceremony which is one of the many rituals that is completed where the son of the Pharaoh would receive the throne but in this instant Tutankhman’s throne is given to Ay as Tutankhmum didn’t have any children. In the second scene, his ka who is the pharaoh’s double is welcomed by Nut into the afterlife, and in the third scene, his ka is greeted by Osiris.

Sir Alan Gardiner 1961 stated “It is impossible to overestimate the importance of this discovery for archeology and as a sample of what other Pharaonic burials may have been like, but it must be admitted that its addition to our historical knowledge has been merged”, this explains that although the tomb a significant find it didn’t add much to the knowledge we already know about Ancient Egyptian funerary practices.

Overall wall decorations in the burial chamber and contents of KV62 have revealed Egyptian funerary practices and beliefs in the afterlife through mummification, rituals, and the God of death. These processes and artifacts have taught us what the ancient Egyptians’ practices were when someone passes and how they prepare for the afterlife.

“Ordinary citizens in ancient Egypt lived and worked in much the same ways as the average European of the eighteenth century, more than 4,000 years later, but ate better and enjoyed more variety in their food.” (Brier, Hobbs 1) Honey and grains were a big part of ancient Egyptian life. The Nile was especially important to the Egyptian diet because it provided nutrients to the fields, fish, and other river animals for sustenance. Ancient Egyptian’s food supply wasn’t just for daily meals but also for practicing medicine; ancient Egyptians had social norms that were quite liberal regarding fashion, women, and sexuality.

Honey was a multiuse food in ancient Egyptian culture, it was useful for medicine, cooking, and making goods. Bees were so revered in ancient Egypt that beekeepers brought offerings of incense when they came to collect the honey. Fortunately, this was the sacrifice they chose because the smoke from the incense calmed the bees enough to make harvesting the honey safe. It was believed that honey is an aphrodisiac and aids fertility. (Kritsky 99) Honey has antibacterial properties and ancient Egyptians used honey often for medicine. It was used to help treat infections and help women with childbirth issues. It was thought that honey could help induce labor. Since ancient Egyptians did not have sugar to sweeten their food, they would use honey often to sweeten their food. A bread called “Shat”, a triangle-shaped bread was commonly made with honey, flour, and sesame seeds. Beeswax was used to make candles. It was also used as an adhesive. Statues made of beeswax can be found in museums today. Beeswax was useful for styling hair and wigs.

Grain was a vital part of ancient Egyptian culture and was even given as wages. Bread was a staple at all dinner tables in ancient Egypt. Grains were stored in silos to avoid spoilage and pest infestations. The downside to the way the grains were ground for the flour was sand contamination. Since sand often blew into the flour, there was a good bit of sand baked into the bread eaten. Over time this wore down everyone’s teeth, causing issues with exposed roots and tooth loss. Ancient Egyptians didn’t have any dental knowledge other than using honey and different spells and foods to treat the problem teeth. The only time ancient Egyptians gave up bread was when someone was in mourning, this was seen as a sacrifice since bread was eaten at virtually every meal. To avoid dysentery people drank beer made from grain instead of water. Today’s beer has a higher alcohol content than the beer drank by the ancient Egyptians. Infants and toddlers were breastfed until the age of three. This had a few benefits, decreased the chance of pregnancy, improved immunity against diseases passed from the mother’s milk to child, and since babies couldn’t drink alcohol there wasn’t the risk of dysentery. Unfortunately, there was a high rate of deaths of children around the age of four, they probably caught an illness their immune systems couldn’t fight off after being weened. Beer and wine were also important for religious ceremonies. The Festival of Drunkenness took place about twice a year in celebration of the goddess Hathor. Religious drunkenness was the goal of this festival. Attendants drank until the point of vomiting and then would have sexual intercourse. This behavior wasn’t frowned upon but expected and encouraged. If the night resulted in conceiving a child, that child would be granted access to the priesthood and revered. (Forsyth) Grain was also used as a pregnancy test. To test for pregnancy, a woman would urinate on barley and emmer. If the barley sprouted, she would have a boy, if the emmer sprouted, she would have a girl. This was tested in modern times on confirmed pregnant women, the grain urine test was about 70% accurate. The gender test, however, was debunked.

Fish was readily available to all classes; however, cow was a bit more expensive. “A cow in ancient Egypt cost the equivalent of an entire year’s income for a craftsman or the annual harvest of a small farmer.” (Brier, Hobbs 119) With how expensive cows were during that time it would be more sensible to keep the cow alive and use the milk the cow produces. The goat was the optimal choice for special occasions. Storing and preparing food was essential for everyday life in ancient Egypt. Since ancient Egyptians didn’t have refrigeration, they had to find other ways to keep food from spoiling. “Fish generally were salted, pickled, or split open and sundried until used.” (Brier, Hobbs 123) Hunting game wasn’t just seen as a way to feed the family, but it was seen as a pastime. Ancient Egyptians trained cats and dogs to assist them with the hunting process in the marshes around the Nile River.

Egyptians were more open-minded about fashion and body modifications than by today’s standards. Men and women both wore makeup, like eyeliner, lip stain and blush. The iconic winged eyeliner seen in so many depictions of ancient Egyptians was made from “galena, a gray or black lead sulfide; malachite, a green copper carbonate; as well as carbon black, and more rarely, stibnite, a gray antimony sulfide.” (Peck 60) Henna, which is still used in cosmetics today, was used to dye hair red and sometimes to stain nails red like nail polish. Tattoos were not stigmatized as they are in recent times. Tattoos have been found on mummies ranging from complex designs to more simple lines and dots. Ancient Egyptians also wore earrings. The types range from hoops to plugs. The gauges of the earring range from a standard 18-22 gauge to what would be a 40mm gauge today. (Capel, Markoe 90) For clothing children would go around naked until puberty, then after that boys would wear linen kilts, and girls would wear linen tube dresses sometimes with straps covering the breasts and sometimes not. Ancient Egyptians didn’t seem ashamed of their bodies, but they were interested in looking their best. They had options for baldness and fine lines. They were also fans of jewelry.

Attitudes towards women and sexuality in ancient Egyptian society were mostly free, with very few taboos. Premarital sex wasn’t considered taboo however infidelity was frowned upon. For ancient Egyptians menstruation was taboo. Women would leave the city and go to a special area during menses. If they were unable to leave due to illness or physical ability or they didn’t leave in time enough. Their husband or father stayed home from work. Even after coitus priests were not allowed to enter temples and men were not allowed to enter tombs. “In short, activities related to human procreation were incompatible with the purity required for service related to temple/tomb which, in turn, had as its goal various forms of recreation/regeneration of the divine.” (Frandson 20) This was likely because ancient Egyptians viewed women as a part of the rebirth process, “Women and the tomb were seen both as instruments of regeneration, with men taking up the position of intermediaries. As “containers” or “houses” both women and tombs were imbued with the ability to transform potential into actualized existence”. (Frandson 20) If procreation was important to early societies a woman getting her menses may have been seen as a bad omen and unlucky. Although women were expected to leave during menses they were treated as equals during other times of the month. “There are examples of women holding high positions. We know of female treasurers and officials, and even a vizier- the highest position under the king. One woman held the fascinating title of Overseer of Doctors.”. (Mertz 60) Women in high positions didn’t happen often but there was the opportunity for women to hold those positions rather than being completely excluded. Most of the time women ran their households and found ways to contribute from inside the home.

Herodotus was known as the `Father of History.` And he was born in Halicarnassus in Ionia in the 5th century B.C., He wrote a book called `The Histories.` In his book that the modern historian derives the meaning of history and called it a fact of history. He was the first person who started to collect and systematically document events and creates an account for them. He was able to compile these accounts into his single major work called THE HISTORIES. He also describes Egypt as a gift of the Nile. This is because the people of Egypt were surviving due to the annual flooding of the Nile because the Nile was depositing fertile soil. The Nile flows into the Mediterranean Sea and there is a delta form at the mouth creating fertile soil. Why did Herodotus call Egypt the gift of the Nile?

Firstly, he called Egypt the gift of the Nile because the Nile made civilization in Egypt possible. It helps the people in their agricultural work, providing them with irrigation all year round. There were many methods that were used by the Egyptians for their irrigation. They created dams to store water for them even in the dry season. Buckets were dropped into the Nile, filled with water, and raised with water wheels. Some people also created a canal in which water can pass through to their various farms. They were growing various crops such as barley, beans, and wheat. They are also known for growing cotton which is popular worldwide. Their farming practice allowed them to grow staple food crops, especially grains which include wheat and barley, and industrial crops, such as flax and papyrus. Animals were used to plow the land. They also used the system called shaduf in their irrigation process.

The Nile also served as a source of transportation for them. It is known as the longest river in the world. It was used to transport their carved god`s from one place to another, they were using the Nile river to move their god`s from temple to temple and to transport dead bodies called mummies of the royals and nobles across the Nile to their tombs. It was also used to transport their logs from the forest into the cities to be carved. Even the sun god traveled by boat called the solar bark, on his daily journey across the sky. Today, the Egyptians still cross the Nile by boat. The earliest boats were moved using oars and they were made from papyrus reeds tied tightly together. They were using boats made of wood, with sails to move around. The Nile also supported the movement of the people to move to surrounding towns and villages. It was less stressful and very safe for them because they can escape from the dangers of certain wild animals like snakes, lions, and other wild animals.

The river Nile served as a job opportunity for the people of ancient Egypt. They used various form like the use of fishing gear were common use in ancient Egypt. These tools included hooks, fish harpoons, hand and longlines, angling, trolling, cast net, fish trap, and baskets of various forms. They also used archaeological materials which were important to fishing including artifacts, models, preserved samples, models, and papyrus script as well as relief illustrations in the tombs and the temples walls of scenes showing fishing methods and craft from various Dynasties. The importance of fishing in the old Egypt economy was demonstrated by the exportation of their fisheries commodities and the importation of taxes on the fishing right and the development of the fisheries industry. Their type of processing fish included smoking where they smoke the fish using fire smoke. They also dry fish using direct sunlight and many more ways of preserving fish were discovered

The importance of fisheries in the economy of Old Egypt is demonstrated by the exportation of fish commodities and the imposition of taxes on fishing rights and the engagement of a large number of the population in the fish industry. Fish processing included drying, salting, pickling, fish cake, and fillet; various implements used were discovered. Till now other countries are still using the way of preserving fish which were used by the ancient Egyptians. The river provided various fishes of different varieties including Nile perch, tilapia, mullet, puffer fish, moonfish, mullets, carp, eels, elephant fish, catfish, and others.

Because of these important things the Nile river was giving off to the people of ancient Egyptians like food, job opportunities, transportation and all the good things it was providing that is why the Greek historian and traveler Herodotus in the fifth century B.C.E describe Egypt as a gift of the Nile.

The ancient Egyptians are well renowned for their obsession with death and the unique preservation of the human body through mummification. It is very clear that death was a central point of society during ancient Egyptian times, through the building of tombs as well as the daily rituals that followed the death of a person, both essential to the deceased reaching the afterlife. However, it can also be argued that the ancient Egyptians were also obsessed with the River Nile as their whole society came to depend on it. The Nile was very important agriculturally and consequently became a primary focus of the ancient Egyptians in order to survive. However, this essay will argue that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with death by considering their belief of death and rebirth as a cyclical process and their view that death should be celebrated. Therefore I agree with the statement.

I agree with the statement that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with death. I know that the ancient Egyptians spent their lives preparing for death and the entrance to their life in the next world. To the ancient Egyptians, life was a stepping stone to becoming immortal. This was demonstrated through the building of tombs, which acted not only as a resting place for the deceased but provided a safe pathway to the afterlife. Therefore we can see how necessary the tombs were to ancient Egyptian society as they aided the cyclical process of death and rebirth. Furthermore, the tomb was also a spiritual place where rituals performed by the high priest would occur every day dedicated to the deceased deity. These rituals included the burning of incense before entering the shrine, bowing in front of the deity with two gestures; kissing the ground and raising arms while singing hymns, and offerings of incense, oil, food, and clothing. There was also an offering to the image of the goddess portraying Ma-at. The ancient Egyptians believed that the deceased held a privileged position by being closer to the gods and acting as an intercessor for human individuals in the living world. Therefore worshipping the deceased deity and the Gods, provided links to the Gods which would not only help the deceased in the afterlife but help guide the living in the human world.

In addition to this, I know that the ancient Egyptians put a lot of work into the mummification of the deceased in order to ensure preservation and entry to the afterlife. This was because they believed that for a full afterlife, the body had to be physically intact. For example, all organs, except the heart, were extracted and placed in canopic jars, which were carved as the four sons of Horus. The canopic jars would help preserve the organs for the afterlife.

Figure 1 shows canopic jars from the 21st dynasty. From figure 1 we can see how detailed and highly decorated the canopic pots were. This demonstrates how every aspect associated with death was considered during the mummification process. Therefore we can see that this insinuates how obsessed with death the ancient Egyptians were. The idea of mummification was to retain the materiality of the body to make a lifelike, lasting image that could be revived and act as a vehicle for the transfigured person. This was achieved by drying out the body using natron and then subsequently wrapping it in old linen soaked with oil resin. We can see that in mummies which dated back earlier, a simpler form of mummification was used which means that over time, the Egyptians spent time perfecting the mummification process to ensure preservation. In addition to this, a ritual known as the opening the mouth ceremony was performed at the funeral which sought to allow speech in the afterlife. Therefore we can see that a lot of care and time was put into the body of the deceased in order for them to enter the afterlife and be successful.

On the other hand, death in ancient Egypt was not always positive despite it being celebrated. I know that sometimes the death of an individual had negative effects socially and economically. For example, people’s lives as well as their economic position could be greatly reduced if an important individual or a man died. In this case, death would not be celebrated as it is traditionally seen. In addition to this, not all deceased bodies were treated the same despite having similar social statuses. I know that in the Ramesside period, there was enormous variation in the tombs between men and women. The men received more wealth and offerings compared to the women. Despite this, tomb building was always occurring, rituals were taking place daily and many of the deceased were still being mummified. Therefore I agree with the statement that ancient Egyptians were obsessed with death.

However, some people could disagree with the statement by saying that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with the River Nile. The Nile flooded annually every year, and this was important because it deposited silt which made the ground fertile for agriculture. I know that agriculture was the economic base of the Egyptian state and agriculture depended on the Nile. This meant that the Nile`s annual flood became an important event to the ancient Egyptians, so much so that without it, ancient Egyptian civilization would have collapsed. It also became significant because of rainfall overall but the northern delta has long been rare and irregular. As a consequence, Egyptian civilization became heavily based on agriculture and the Nile became the most important natural resource in Egypt. As a result of this, Egyptian farmers became dependent on the Nile to water their fields and prepare the soil for cultivation. This shows how agriculture became at the forefront of ancient Egyptian society and consequently, many working-class laborers were employed to work in agriculture. I also know that the success of agriculture in a certain year largely depended on the height of the flood of the Nile. For example, the height of the ideal flood was 6.7m. If the flood was below this, it would be classed as very low and would often result in a famine that year. Conversely, if the flood was above the ideal, it would be classed as too high and would consequently sweep away a village. This shows how Egyptian life, especially of ordinary people, began to revolve around the annual flood of the River Nile, and therefore it can be argued that they were obsessed with it.

Another reason why the ancient Egyptians became obsessed with the River Nile and its annual flood was that besides the River Nile were large floodplains that were 25km across and were ideally suited to large-scale cultivation. This means that the landscape was well suited to agricultural farming and subsequently the ancient Egyptians could use the natural resources of the Nile to their full extent. Without the Nile and its annual flood, there was no fertile land. This developed the reliance on the Nile to supply minerals for the soil that aided agriculture and therefore the Nile became the center of economic and social life for ancient Egyptians.

In addition to this, the Nile became so prevalent within ancient Egyptian society that they based their calendar and seasons around the annual flood. This was because the flood happened at the same time every year, which meant that the calendar and seasons could correspond with when the river flooded. I know that the Egyptian calendar only added up to 360 days, so they added five more days that celebrated the birth dates of the five deities; Osiris, Isis, Horus, Seth, and Nepthys. I know that the Egyptians believed that the god Osiris was linked to agriculture and annually recurring events in nature, a significant example being the annual flood of the Nile. Therefore we can see how the Egyptian calendar, religion and beliefs, and the annual flood of the Nile all interlink. This shows how important the River Nile and its annual flood were to the ancient Egyptians because it not only provided the civilizations with food from agriculture but also structured society and life, proving their dependence on it. Therefore we can see that some people would disagree with the statement and argue instead that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with the River Nile and its annual flood.

Overall, I agree with the statement that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with death because they spent so much effort and time into perfecting the mummification process to ensure the deceased passed into the afterlife. For example, they performed rituals at the funeral celebrations, such as the opening the mouth ceremony which aided the deceased in the afterlife. Not only this, but the act of building tombs for the deceased in conjunction with the daily rituals that took place shows the dedication from the Egyptians in order to secure a path into the afterlife for the deceased. I know that reaching the afterlife was critical to ancient Egyptians as they saw this to be a place with a direct connection to the Gods. Worship to the gods, such as Ma-at, during the daily rituals, was also important in the lives of ancient Egyptians as this created a link between the living world and the Gods. Therefore all these actions taken by the ancient Egyptians showed how important death was to them. Conversely, other people may take the view that Egyptians were instead obsessed with the River Nile and its annual flood. This is a pertinent view because the annual flood of the Nile brought silt upon the river bank which made the land fertile for agricultural use. This became prominent in the lives of ancient Egyptians because, without this, there would be no Egyptian civilizations. This dependence on the River Nile made it become the forefront of Egyptian society and subsequently, Egyptian civilians, especially working-class laborers, became heavily involved in agriculture. The Nile also became embedded in the structure of society through the Egyptian calendar. This was because the annual flood occurred at the same time every year so corresponded with the seasons. Therefore we can see that it can be argued that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with the river Nile because it became a huge part of society. As a result, life revolved around agriculture and the annual floods of the River Nile. To conclude, although the River Nile was a prominent part of ancient Egyptian life, I think that the ancient Egyptians were more obsessed over death because society was heavily focused on reaching the afterlife and being reborn which was demonstrated through the building of the tombs. In addition to this, ancient Egyptians are famously renowned for their treatment of the deceased in mummification which is mainly because it is unlike any other society, ancient or modern. Therefore we can see that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with death and thus I agree with the statement.