Category: Ancient Egypt

There are many similarities and dissimilarities between the sculpture of the Kouros and the sculpture of Menkaure. The Kouros (plural, the Kouri) is an ancient sculpture which represents a “large scale, hard stone, freestanding, nude” Greek man from the Archaic period (650 BCE- 480 BCE) (Dunham, 1). The Menkaure is a greywacke dyad statue representing King Menkaure and a woman from the Old Kingdom of Egypt (2490 BCE- 2472 BCE). This woman’s identity is uncertain, but she is thought to be the king’s wife, Queen Khamerernebty II. This essay shall highlight the various similarities and differences in the style, technique, meaning, and cultural context of both the sculptures mentioned above.

Origin

There is not much evidence regarding who created these works and where they originated. The dyad of Menkaure and his Queen was undoubtedly a work of art meant to perpetuate the Egyptian pharaoh’s glory. It might have served as an offering at the grave to preserve their representations in the afterlife. Excavators first discovered the Kouros under the guidance of George Reisner (Harvard University – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) in 1910. However, there is no such apparent cause why Greek artists created the Kouros or what exactly influenced them for the same. Greek sculptors seem to have taken inspiration from different traditions and the empire’s historical relationships with Egypt and Near East and then combined it with unique native traditions to develop a distinctive Greek sculpture (Dunham, 11). It was initially believed that the Kouros represents King Apollo because of its youthful, charming appearance. Many theorists believe that the Kouri were warriors, or athletic victors or a means to aid homosexual eroticism. However, lack of evidence shows that the Kouros was primarily used as a votive offering or marker for an individual’s grave (Dunham, 6).

One may note that the conventions related to the making of sculptures were different in Egypt and Greece during these times. This comparison between Menkaure and his Queen of the Old Kingdom of Egypt and the Kouros of Anavysos of the Archaic Greek period really showcases the differences between stylized or conventionalized style verses the more realistic approach of Ancient Greece. While anyone with ample wealth could get their sculptures made in the Archaic Greek period, only worthy kings and queens could get their statues and sculptures erected to perpetuate their power in the Old Kingdom of Egypt.

Tools and Techniques Used

There is no literary evidence to describe the tools which early Greek sculptors used to create the Kouros. However, the perfectly carved out figure of the Kouros affirms that sculptors had access to a wide variety of tools and techniques. Greek artists used tools like the point, mallet, flat, and round chisels, among others, to carve and shape the Kouri marble. They also used measuring tools like a square or simple drills and abrasives such as emery and pumice (Dunham, 5). To create the head and arms of the Kouros with greater perfection, they sometimes carved them out separately and then attached them through metal dowels or stone tenons (Dunham, 5).

The tools used by Egyptian sculptors are a mystery. Simultaneously, it is clear that several features of the Menkaure dyad are not complete because the dyad is poorly carved and lacks a proper quote of polish. The woman’s wig does not have any striations, and there is no pleating on King Menkaure’s wilt. Furthermore, the statue’s base is not inscribed, which suggests that the work was not fully completed. A few red pigment traces around the king’s facial region suggest that it might have been painted at some point in time. One can infer from these haphazard incomplete details that King Menkaure might have suffered an untimely death before completing the statue (Thompson, 111).

Major Inferences and Other Facts

The biggest obvious similarity between these two figures is the form and posture that they take on. In both pieces, the forms are very stiff with one leg in front of the other alluding to a walking motion and both arms straight down with their hands clenched in a fist. Menkaure and his Queen stand front-facing, but Menkaure’s head is slightly tilted towards his right away from the Queen. The creator must have thought within an architectural niche to make it seem both the figures are emerging out of the structure (Calvert, n.d.). Queen Khamerernebty II’s forward stride alongside the king is rare, as opposed to female depictions with feet usually closed together (Calvert, n.d.). Her aesthetically proportioned body and her stance highlight her entity as the king’s equal counterpart. This speaks volumes about the status of royal women in the Old Kingdom period. As mentioned above, all features suggest that the statue was left unfinished and incomplete.

Menkaure is only nude only till the waist, beyond which the king is clothed in a short-pleated skirt originally called the ‘shendjet’ (Calvert, n.d.). In contrast with this, the Kouros is an utterly nude figure. According to Dunham, the nude sphyrelaton was common in Archaic Greek sculptures as they principally portrayed a distinct culture of ideal ‘naturalistic nude men’ (Dunham, 112). The back slab supporting the Egyptian sculpture of Menkaure is much narrower than the dyad, making it less visible from the front, whereas the sculpture of the Greek Kouros is perfectly carved out. Thus, the Kouros appears more realistic than the sculpture of Menkaure (Thompson, 111).

Conclusion

The Egyptian sculpture of Menkaure shares many similarities and dissimilarities with the Greek sculpture of the Kouros. By individually studying their origin, process of creation, visual details, and historical information, one can decipher a sizable amount of information about society’s functioning in earlier times. In this case, the statues belong to the Egyptian Old Kingdom period and the Archaic Greek period. Small details such as the unfinished statue of Menkaure, Queen Khamerernebty II’s firm stance, and the nudity in the Kouros’ statue provide significant insights into the historical context of the artifacts. Overall, the art of ancient history reinforces the importance of further archaeological research.

Cleopatra was not acknowledged for the role that she played for Egypt. She was powerful wealthy, intelligent and a successful female leader that intimidated most men during her prosperous years of ruling over Egypt, from 51BC to 30BC. She was by men as a ‘tart’, ‘whore’ and many other degrading names. As summed by Cicero, ‘…her (Cleopatra’s) way of walking, her clothes, her free way of talking, her embraces and kisses, her beach-parties and dinner-parties, all show her to be a tart’.

Going from being forced to marry her brother, Ptolemy XIV after their father’s death in 51BC to keep the Egyptian tradition, as Egyptian royal families were almost expected to marry within the family, as inbreeding was present in virtually every dynasty they say it’s to keep their bloodline pure as their god Osiris married his sister Isis. Then in 44 BC killing her brother to keep the Egyptian throne to herself. She was a highly intelligent woman and an astute politician, who brought prosperity and peace to a country that was bankrupt and split by civil war. When Ptolemy XIV ‘mysteriously’ died, Egyptians didn’t have any thought of it because Cleopatra had Egypt in a successful state.

Cleopatra built up the Egyptian economy, establishing trade with many Arab nations. She was a popular ruler among the people of Egypt both because she embraced the Egyptian culture and because the country was prosperous during her rule. After her brother’s death Caesar needed to fund his own return to power in Rome, and needed Egypt to repay the debts incurred by Auletes (was a pharaoh of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt). After four months of war between Caesar’s outnumbered forces and those of Ptolemy XIII, Roman reinforcements arrived; Ptolemy was forced to flee Alexandria, and was believed to have drowned in the Nile River. Entering Alexandria as an unpopular conqueror, Caesar restored the throne to the equally unpopular Cleopatra and her younger brother Ptolemy XIV (then 13 years old). Caesar remained in Egypt with Cleopatra for a time, and around 47 B.C. she gave birth to a son, Ptolemy Caesar. He was believed to be Caesar’s child, and was known by the Egyptian people as Caesarean, or Little Caesar.

In this essay I will examine the historical context, early life and achievements of Cleopatra VII, a significant figure from ancient Egypt.

Cleopatra was born in Egypt in the year 69B.C. into the Ptolemy dynasty, who at the time were the rulers of Egypt and were founded by Ptolemy I, in 305 B.C. Cleopatra rose to power around the 1st century B.C. alongside her younger brother Ptolemy XIII (all boy children in the dynasty were called Ptolemy). After several years of co-ruling her brother, they forced her out of Alexandria. Fearing for her life Cleopatra fled to Syria, during which Cleopatra decided to raise an army and ventured to Rome to convince Caesar and his army to help her regain power. Cleopatra then decided to return to Egypt and faced her brother in the Pelusium to crush her brothers reign after which she continued to rule until her death in 30B.C.

Cleopatra was a great female leader who used her wits and guile to navigate her wars and hardships. Cleopatra’s responsibilities included improving the economy and managing trade with other countries she would carry out these actions by establishing trade with the Arab nations and she would embrace the culture of the Egyptian rule. Trade was a big part of the Egyptian success, Cleopatra managed to establish trade with the Arab nations. The Egyptians would typically trade gold, papyrus, linen and grain for cedar wood, copper, ebony, iron, and lapis. Trade would make the Egyptian economy even richer and would support a better life for the people of Egypt.

Cleopatra was known for her religion as she would take the embodiment of Isis. Isis was an Egyptian god who represented good fortune, the sea and travel. Her traditional roles included protector of the dead and healer. Isis was the goddess of life and magic and her symbols included Ankh, her wings and her throne headdress. She would tell the people that she was not the god Isis but that she was the embodiment of the god. As her political role she took on the burden of the pharaoh, she would manage the economic and spiritual well fair of her people and owned a large portion of Egyptian land. Cleopatra was not the only ruler of Egypt for some time. She actually co-ruled with her brother as it was tradition for the two to get married. In conclusion, Cleopatra was a well-known pharaoh who took pride in her achievements and roles.

She married Mark Antony and had three children with him she also had a child with Julius Caesar and her brother who she also married and had a child with, as it was tradition for the two to be married. After Cleopatra’s presumed death Mark Antony took his life at the age of 39 years old resulting Cleopatra committing suicide through presumed poisoning. Another reason for her suicide was that she was going to be executed due to Octavian already finishing and winning the battle. Cleopatra’s passing brought great distress to Egypt. Octavian won the battle resulting in the death of Caesarian (who was the child of Caesar). This tragedy marked the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty and started the rule of Rome over Egypt. Octavian took all of Cleopatra’s riches and used them to pay off his veterans, after this Octavian went on to be an outstanding ruler of the roman empire until his death in 14A.D at the age of 75 years.

This study focuses on the architectural precedents in practice and academic setting as a form of research on the history, processes, and theories as well as the strategies that can be re-interpreted or referenced in the current works. In this case, the ancient Egyptian pyramids in the past are used as precedents to inform the manner of solving certain issues; perhaps in the organization of a plan, detail development, review the existing relationships or strategy advancement for site comparison.

Construction began on the rock and roll hall of fame building in New York on the 20th April 1983. In January 1985 Cleveland, Ohio was chosen as the hall of fame’s permanent home. The building was later opened 2nd September 1995. For more than 40 years as an institution, the rock and roll hall of fame has created lots of memories on some of the greatest artist in the music history. The designer of this incredible building Ieoh Ming Pei, FAIA, RIBA, also commonly known as I.M. Pei. He is a Chinese American architect born in Guangzhou and raised In Hong Kong and Shanghai. I.M. Pei said he was trying to capture the energy of rock ‘n roll in the shape of the hall, but in doing so, he also captured the energy of the ancient Egyptian pyramids. The 150,000 square foot building has a glass-enclosed, double pyramid adjacent to a 162-foot tower both of which rises high above the shores of Lake Erie. The rock and roll hall of fame’s exhibition space stretches over 55,000 square feet and seven levels. In ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as mer; translated means ‘place of ascendance’. The rock and roll hall of fame resembles a supersized glass pyramid the structure pays homage to those musicians who have indeed ascended the summit of popular music. The rock and roll hall of fame plans to install the now revised improvements, they intent to liven up a bleak. Plans for an outdoor stage to have concerts performed by the local bands for five days a week.

The Egyptian pyramid is ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. Pyramid structure was first constructed after 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians began building pyramids until around 1700 BC. The first pyramid was erected during the third dynasty by the pharaoh Djoser and his architect Imhotep. The precedents of this building apart from the largest one includes the oldest pyramids structure which is in Egypt called the great pyramid of Giza also known as the pyramid of Khufu or the pyramid Cheops. It is the oldest of the seven wonders of the ancient world, and the only one to remain largely intact. It is Egypt’s oldest structure which has motivated several buildings and architects in the country and worldwide. The lifespan of these precedents has proved that if well taken care of and properly designed to avoid being destroyed by either deliberate or natural causes. The pyramids mentioned earlier is what the rock and roll hall of fam might look like if the inductees were organized into five increasing elite levels. As of 2012, there are 180 inductees in the performance category which then divides up nicely into five groups each with multiplies of twelve artists. This hierarchy is extremely handy when the future Hall of farmers discuss and determine where they might fit in amongst the rock community. Therefore, they have assigned levels there are no specific rankings within a group. The hall of fame generates a civic identity that reaches out to the public and the people love it, also anchors Cleveland’s developing waterfront as a nationally significant center for entertainment, culture and a learning experience.

The Ziggurat at Ur was one of the most breathtaking, magnificent structures of all time and is still remains of it are extant at tall Al Muqayyar in Iraq, about 42 kilometers south of Babylon. A few reconstruction drawings show it as a freestanding object similar to an Egyptian pyramid, it was in actuality surrounded by precinct walls and connected to a large square shaped sacristy dedicated to Nanna’s wife Ningal.

As of November 2008, sources cite either 118 or 138 as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids. Most of the pyramids were built as tombs for the country’s pharaohs, their families and their consorts during the old and middle kingdom periods. It took around twenty years for a force of 100,00 oppressed slaves to build a pyramid. The great pyramids today no longer reach their original heights, the tomb robbers and vandals have removed most of the bodies and the funeral goods.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the nature of the plan and section of the building is referenced from the rock and roll hall of fame and ‘A Global History of Architecture’. The design is appropriate in reviewing the conventional approaches to inform the current techniques and processes. Generally, there exist buildings that can be used as the precedence for the construction of modern architecture.

References

1. Rock & Roll Hall of Fame. 2019. About The Rock Hall. Available at: https://www.rockhall.com/visit/about-rock-hall [Accessed 16 Dec. 2018].
2. Ching, F., Jarzombek, M., and Prakash, V. (n.d.). 2010. A Global History of Architecture. John Wiley & Sons Inc.cleveland.com. 2019. Revised plans for Rock and Roll Hall of Fame plaza improvement win approval from Design Review Committee. Available at: https://www.cleveland.com/architecture/index.ssf/2016/03/revised_plans_for_rock_and_rol.html [Accessed 16 Dec. 2018].
3. Pcf-p.com. (2019). Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum. [online] Available at: https://www.pcf-p.com/projects/rock-and-roll-hall-of-fame-and-museum [Accessed 17 Dec. 2018].

During 2550 and 2470 BC, Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, the Egyptian pharaohs erected their mammoth pyramids and temples on the Giza plateau to leave a lasting impact on the land. The Giza Plateau Mapping Project (GPMP), is observing the living quarters of these people and their way of life. GPMP located the settlement, and is investigating the debris left by the pyramid builders to better understand how the pyramid building process was supported. These investigations by the GPMP have revealed an organized settlement that covers some 9 ha and can be divided into 30 distinct areas. It is thought that the settlement was in use during the reign of Menkaure, the last pharaoh to build a pyramid of Giza. The purpose of the GPMP is to understand what nutrition the pyramid builders had to sustain them and what their infrastructure was comprised of.

The Wall of the Crow controlled the input and output of people and supplies into and out of the four sets of eight mud brick galleries. Conscripted temporary groups of unskilled laborers were used to construct the pyramids, they were put into work units called phyles after being organized into gangs. A squad of 2000 workmen would have been split into pairs of rival clans’ of 1000 men each, 1500-2000 men could have inhabited the four sets of galleries. Numerous bakeries have been revealed which were used to produce the daily nutritional intake for the workers. The main staples in diet for the workers were bread and bear as, emmer wheat and hulled barley excrete were found around the site. For example, “This is supported by the fact that nearly 60% of the over half a million pottery sherds from the site are from bread moulds, and remains of beer jars”. Excavation shows eight large mudbrick silos, before the end of the fourth dynasty c. 2500 BC these silos were destroyed. In addition to the gallery sets there is a roofed colonnade, which has a system of troughs, benches and column bases, these structures performed as elevated podiums for the preserving of grain and other nourishment, and in this case a concentration of fish remains from the 25 m-long colonnades. The hall has been thought to have been a common area or public space, and consequentially used as an expanse for public eating. Residences would provide meals for themselves as small silos and ash-filled chambers are present. Workers abandoned the urban development soon after the reign of the pharaoh Menkaure.

The plant residues found were of slim verity, two cereals, several pulses, and common fruits. Similarly, the animal remains are limited to four domesticates (cattle, sheep, goats and pigs) and six species of fish. Unlike most ancient Egyptian settlements, the animal bone remains show no sign of hunting and in addition there is little evidence of nuts or roots and tubers, and no evidence of plants providing oil or fiber. In the gallery sets, the concentration and different types of plant remains are few in number. The hypostyle hall has the lowest plant density and diversity. As with the plants, the greatest diversity of animal species occurs in the houses. “For example, the three gate houses and the royal administrative building contained the remains of what would have been the best cuts of beef, as well as very large Nile perch”. Certain houses in the Eastern and Western Towns also show this pattern, although with more sheep, goats and pigs. In contrast, the galleries and the hypostyle hall contain poorer cuts of meat from cattle, sheep and goats, as well as large amounts of small bony fish. The plant and animal remain so far analyzed indicate that the pyramid builders themselves subsisted mainly on bread, beer, pulses, cattle, sheep, goats and catfish, whereas the inhabitants of the gate houses and the royal administrative building, who were presumably the overseers of the workmen in the galleries, had better cuts of meat. The longer-term residents in the Eastern and Western Towns. appear to have lived on a more varied diet consisting of all these foods. The large amount of meat indicated by the bone remains is likely to have come into the settlement in the form of live animals. Wood was the main fuel used in the bakery ovens; the analysis of wood charcoal shows acacia trees was used as a fuel.

The conscripted workers were sustained on a diet of mainly bread and beer with the addition of other nutrition. Explorations have revealed the intricate system of pyramid building was a huge expenditure not only of time and resources but as well as lives, as a massive cemetery was found. GPMP still plans to continue their exploration of the pyramid builders settlement to further unlock the long-forgotten secrets of the conscripted pyramid builders.

In the beginning man used to be a hunter and forager. But slowly as time passed, the cultivation of food became a more preferred method of obtaining food and these hunters began to settle down. These settlements occurred around large rivers which had fertile land and abundant food resources. Man began to cultivate these lands, developing farmlands followed by the growth of agriculture began. As these small settlements grew in number, they formed cities which further grew to form civilizations. Many other activities developed and flourished under these civilizations such as craft, art and trade. The development in trade encouraged the farmers to grow surplus crops which helped to acquire new materials, objects and resources. But as man lent towards the need to have and grow through agriculture, doing so was not always possible. The geographical conditions and the weather were not always in their favour, the raw materials required to maintain the growing crops were scarce. These were some of the obstacles in their path. So to combat these problems the idea of irrigation came up. The large water body by which these people had settled began to play a very important role. The various uses of water and some initial practices around irrigation that are used currently have their roots set back thousands of years ago.

The following essay will go through how irrigation as an idea is developed in making various systems in ancient civilizations which helped them further their agricultural practices and make advancements in various areas. The canal system, the building of dams and reservoirs goes far back in history. The settlements around rivers were very advanced and laid out the foundation of the technology used today. These structures were built as an extension of the already existing natural reservoirs and inlets. The embankments along rivers were made to stop the flood water from destroying the crops. In some places, these embankments were extended to form small pols of water which could be later used for irrigation and once the water was used, the silt enriched land was used for irrigation. Many practices like this came up to support each different civilization.

Mesopotamia

In ancient Assyria, there was a shortage of water due to low rainfall and geographical conditions around them were not much supportive either.The harsh sun and the vast deserts are assumed to have been some of the reasons for the troubles faced in developing agriculture in this civilization. Though as the civilization grew, people found ways to collect more resources, large amounts of water was now made accessible and the fields were irrigated.

One of the first basic methods was making an inlet connecting the river to the fields (Kang,1972). The water would then flow where the paths were made, this method is referred to as gravity flow irrigation (Ratnagar, 1981). The irrigation method focused on containing water within the leeves or canals and later when the fields were to be irrigated the walls would be then diverted to the fields (Ratnagar, 1981). The only problem was that the water would dry up due to high temperature and the leftover salt would damage the fields (Kang, 1972). The damaged fields were also assumed to be a reason for the changing positions of the cities.

The Assyrians in their capitals created a system of canals to allow the river water to flow into the city and be used for irrigation and drinking purposes (Bagg, 2000). During some part of the year the rivers Euphrates and Tigris would flood the land and the crops would be destroyed and cause damage. In such times the canals were blocked so that the excess water could not enter the city and be stored for use in the dry season (Willcocks,1910). The population growth was also a factor in developing a more sophisticated canal system to connect the city and the river for water usage. Another reason for such sophisticated building of canals and dams was to grow surplus crops which could be later used in trade.

The extensive canal system that ran through the city transported water and in areas the same canal acted as a waterway, transporting goods (Goldfrank, Goodman, & Szasz, 1999).The canal system by 1800 BCE spread to 10,000 square miles (Goldfrank, Goodman, & Szasz, 1999). In lowland Mesopotamia, the method preferred to water the crops was surface irrigation (Bagg, 2000).

The tools such as Shaduf were used in Mesopotamia for irrigation purposes around 3000 BC. The south region of Mesopotamia faced the most water problems for which irrigation methods had to be improvised to produce crops in a better yield, sometimes shifting the crop, like barley which would grow better in salinized regions (Goldfrank, Goodman, & Szasz, 1999). Although the Assyrian empire is usually known for its conquests, there have been seen the remnants of hydraulic projects in texts and scripts which would support the assumed irrigation practices.

Egypt

In ancient Egypt, rainfall was minimal and owing to its geographical location; the desert surrounded land, promoted water harvesting to nurture the crops. The Nile River hence was quite important for the people of Egypt. The river would flood over regular periods of time and enrich the soil around increasing it’s fertility. The use of artificial irrigation and its advancements had started in the late Pre-Dynastic periods (Mays, 2010).

The crops near the river could receive the water well, but as the irrigation systems developed, new mechanisms such as the shaduf, a form of lift irrigation, allowed the crops to be watered better especially during the summer (Mays, 2010). The shaduf consisted of a long tapering wooden pole whose end was fixed with a bag like structure connected through the ropes and could water the crops as far as 1.5 meters (Scholz, 2015)

The other mechanism through which the water was distributed in fields was the waterwheel or the ‘Noria’ . This device had a pulley system which was connected to a wheel. This wheel had small water compartments like buckets to collect water and would have worked according to the water flow of the river (Scholz, 2015).

The mention of canals and dikes is noted in some texts in the early Egyptian texts, around the bronze age and was commonly mentioned in the Middle Kingdom era (Westermann, 1919). These were connected to the river and lead into the city to irrigate fields, provide water for sanitation and drinking. There are also some remains found of what could have supposedly been a drainage system. Flood waters were harvested using basin irrigation along the Nile to allow more crop produce (Mays, 2010). King Menes was the first to undertake a large scale basin irrigation project (Mays, 2010).

There small earthen canals created on the banks of the Nile and these lead to the naturally formed basins around that area. The water would replenish the soil and the excess amount was allowed to be passed in the city though another set of canals (Mays, 2010). Other than this, the Egyptians even went as far as constructing a dam to harvest water.

At some point the water in the Nile had declined and water needed to be brought into the city for various purposes. The Lake Moeris became a source of water for the people. The level of the lake bed was below sea level and the depression used to store flood waters naturally. So with the further introduction of canals the water was diverted towards the fields (Mays, 2010). It is assumed that a large wall like structure similar to that of a dam was built around it to restrict any unnecessary water flow and collect water for usage (Westermann, 1919).

The Faiyum Depression was another important place from which the Egyptians were able to harvest water. The depression naturally collected floodwater from the Nile. It was later modified to increase its depth and provide water to irrigate the fields (Mays, 2010). The Bahr Yusef was a naturally built canal which was also used to divert water to man made canals leading to fields.

The various developments the irrigation techniques that the people made were simply due to the fact that they wanted to use the produce for other purposes and also to make use of the vast river they had settled around. Since inside the city, the number of people was large these practices ensured their well being and allowed some power to be generated for the rulers as well as flourishing many different activities and occupations.

Indus Valley Civilization

In another civilization, the veil of mystery shrouds the practices it must have had. The Indus Valley civilization, though lasted for a shorter time period than both of the above civilizations, was more complex and differed in various aspects including possibly irrigation.

The residents of Indus Valley did not make similar canals as the above civilizations. This is assumed since the side effects of large scale irrigation were salination of the land and changing positions of the settlements. None of these conditions seem to have been fulfilled (McIntosh, 2008). Though there are remnants of wells and reservoirs in the cities, there are not many similarities in the irrigation systems. The rivers did not have water throughout the year but there was an abundance of groundwater which was seen in the form of large number of wells. The people tended to have public and private wells which would be used for irrigation as well as for accessing the drinking water. The wells were dug to the level from which water could be easily drawn out and these wells were later replenished through the rainwater seeping into the ground. There is assumed to have been a pulley system through which the water was drawn out from the wells. These wells were an important source of irrigation during winter when the water became scarce in some regions (Ratnagar, 1981).

Some standing water bodies were also assumed to have been providing water. But as the water became harder to supply to the fields, small inlets or cuts in the bank of the river known as ‘Chhars’ were made to provide water to the far fields (Ratnagar,1981). There were even remains seen in the cities of Lahore for wheels which could have been used for irrigation of fields (Ratnagar, 1981). The use of a shaduf like mechanism using gears is also assumed to have been used by the people after finding drawings on the remains of pottery. Other than this small scale irrigation was prominently used in highland regions and small ‘Bandhs’ or dams as well as Gabarband were made to store and use water (McIntosh, 2008). Lift irrigation was also observed in the areas near Lake Manchchhar (Ratnagar, 1981). Though these devices were used, some regions of the Indus Valley Civilization had access to tributaries and small rivulets and not the river itself. In these areas, the water bodies at irregular intervals would face depletion due to irregular rainfall. After some time the farmers would go back to using wells for irrigation since digging the ground and acquiring water was easier. Oxens were also used to draw water if manual labour was not enough (Ratnagar, 1981).

The people of this civilization were quite advanced in town planning. Due to this aspect the irrigation method was well built but so was the sewage system of the city. There were proper gutters and paved paths through which the waste of the city was dumped. There were even large baths where water was collected for public use, the biggest one discovered till now is the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro. The city of Dholavira, one of the major sites in Harappan Civilization, has 16 large reservoirs built with steps to allow people to store water and use it when needed (McIntosh, 2008). The reservoirs here were built with good workmanship from burned bricks and bitumen for waterproofing (McIntosh, 2008). These reservoirs were one of the key points in the Indus Valley Civilization as they showed how the workmanship of the people was alongside providing an explanation for the foundation of some of the world’s most complex technologies.

Conclusion

The various methods of irrigation were developed since there was an idea of using the water as a medium of supporting crops to meet the growing population and trade where the surplus grains could be sold. Many animals kept by the people were also fed particular grains which needed to be grown all year round and the stored water could be used to grow them. These methods developed according to the conditions of the land, the way the people lived and the area where they irrigated. The flat plains near the river banks were not the only place where crops were grown, the inside of the city also housed some fields. The development of irrigation systems was done to provide these fields with water and also to save the crops on the banks from flood waters. The Mesopotamians, Egyptians and Harappans all civilizations happened over different periods of time, yet all of them had a very detailed canal construction to irrigate their fields and provide water for other purposes. The Harappans and Egyptians also had a common structure used for storing water, Reservoirs. Both these civilizations used to collect large amounts of water to provide the fields with water as well as for sanitation and drinking purposes. The building of these structures during the later stages of the civilizations is also a marker to show the advancement the people made as the need for the agricultural produce increased. There are many tools which have been used to irrigate the fields such as the water wheel and shaduf whose advanced versions are also seen today. This development has led man to develop machinery like motors and pumps. There are also advancements in the machinery and scale of large structures like dams and reservoirs. The advancement in the field of irrigation, the idea of building such well thought structures for the better living and survival of the people was done thousands of years back. The same ideology has now carried forward in the present with a better output.

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11. Yannopoulos, S., Lyberatos, G., Theodossiou, N., Li, W., Valipour, M., Tamburrino, A., & Angelakis, A. (2015). Evolution of water lifting devices (pumps) over the centuries worldwide. Water, 7(9), 5031-5060.

Architecture… Is an extremely interesting to see, how it develops over time, how each region of the world has its own type, and the amazing effort they took to construct. Some of these edifices is nothing short of amazing. For example, the Pyramids of Giza, the Roman Calcium, and the Great Wall of China are all pieces of architecture that are astounding in their design and structure. I choose to write about Egyptian architecture and Roman architecture. The Egyptians are most notably known for building there pyramids but that’s not all they developed they also constructed tombs, temples and palaces. The pyramids were ornamented with hieroglyphs, paintings, three-dimensional statues, and carved stone images. Roman architecture was known for its ingenuity in the creation of the arch which helped support heavy structures that which would crumble overtime due to its poor structural integrity without the use of arches such as bigger buildings, longer roads, and better aqueducts. Roman’s also created many other structures beside the arch for instance the dome, etc. Usually when someone says Chinese architecture people automatically think about the Great Wall. Now that’s not to say that the Great Wall of China is not astonishing but that there is more than just a wall that stretches 3,700 miles to the architecture of china for example beams, wooden posts, and lintels are what made the frame of the house which focuses all the weight on the beams and wooden posts allowing the walls to be free of the weight of the house this is quite unique because this permits you remove walls without compromising the physical integrity of the roof.

One of the first and greatest civilizations to arise near the Mediterranean basin was Egypt. Ancient Egypt is a civilization in the northeastern region of Africa that dates from to 3100 BCE. Most of the civilization was located near the Nile river. The Nile provided the Egyptians with an everlasting source of water perfect for animals and fish to hunt as well as transporting materials from a quarry to a building site. Ancient Egypt at the time ruled over territory outside of modern-day Egyptian borders, they controlled the area in what is known today as Sudan, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine. Ancient Egypt was a giant stepping stone in every aspect of culture but one of the most noticeable ones is the architecture with everything they did. It was amazing to see the astronomic achievements completed by this ancient society and for many years. It was believe to be impossible to create most of the buildings with the limited technology available at the time, for example, the pyramids. A pyramid is “a huge stone tomb of ancient Egyptian royalty with a square base and triangular walls that slope to meet in a point at the top” (Edwards 11) or a geometric structure with a square base and four triangular sides. This is considered one of the most structurally stable shapes for projects involving heights and large amounts of stone. Other cultures such as the Aztecs also created pyramids but not like the Egyptians they took it to a whole new level with the creation of Giza the workers used 2.3 million blocks of limestone and granite to build the Pyramid, which stands 146 meters high, weighs about 6.5 million tons, and has been standing for roughly 4,500 years. The first pyramid created in Egypt was a stepped pyramid which is an architectural structure that uses flat platforms or mastabas and gradually adds on top of it creating a pyramid like construction this type of pyramid was quite prevalent in central America, but for the Egyptians it didn’t work to well and it soon collapsed and the idea abandoned. Through the process of creating pyramids they would make them taller and taller and with that they made them smoother. As the pyramids got taller the more problems they faced because as they add stone they heavier it got creating such an immense weight that it would compromise the base of the building making them create a much stronger foundation to support such monumental construction. Unfortunately, this was discovered after the foundation of one of the pyramids started to cave in on its self and the pyramid was two thirds the way done so the builders at this point tried to reduce the angle of the top portion so that they could complete it and make it more stable, and this pyramid is known as the bent pyramid or the bent pyramid of Sneferu. Not much is known about the construction progress of the pyramids since there is no found recorders of the construction methods. Archaeologists and engineers have been debating this topic for centuries and there are countless ideas of how they were made. The Egyptians were not just known for the pyramids they also created Obelisk long pointed monolithic pillars, which are originally constructed in pairs at the entrances of ancient Egyptian temples. Obelisk were carved from a single piece of stone; the earliest ones are located in Cairo it once stood in front of a temple at a height of 80 feet tall. Obelisk have carvings of hieroglyphs that characteristically include religious dedications, usually to the sun god, and commemorations of past rulers.

The Roman Empire began in 27 B.C.E and grew to be known as one of the greatest ancient civilization in the world. It spanned from the Britain all the way to Egypt and parts of the southeast coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans were practical people when it came to architecture and engineering their main focus was the military which in a kingdom this large is quite difficult since the sheer size of empire made it difficult to transport goods and services including the transportation of soldiers. But this didn’t stop them from pursuing their goals. Roman architecture in its practicality served the roman state which is important for an increasing population that was centered mainly in urban areas. With so many people in such a confined area complications would soon arise such as drainage was a common problem, as was security. This, in addition with Rome’s desire for increasing power to lands beyond Italy, required their public structures to be grandly fortifying as well as purposeful. This is shown in one of the biggest and most well-known roman architectural achievements – the Arch. The Arch was extremely revolutionary and was also considered the ancestor of modern architecture because of the way it displaces weight. The way an Arch displaces weight is by directing its pressure throughout the sides of the Arch and down towards its base, this creates a strong channel underneath it which allows for support of substantial buildings. This is known as compressive stress and it can also be defined as the pressure of the weight is compressed by the shape of the arch, because the stress is focused both down and outwards, walls or other structures were often required to reinforce the arch. The Arch allowed ancient builders to make larger, more complex buildings that could hold more space and people which intertwines itself with the practicality of Roman architecture.

Work Cited

1. Edwards, I. E. S. The Pyramids of Egypt. Penguin Books, 1993.

Creation myths are used to explain ideas about religion, social structure, cultural values, and beliefs, as well as events in the natural world. In ancient cultures, they are often an accumulation of ideas about the world that people were seeing and experiencing. These myths can have similar themes and influences over each other, especially with regard to biblical and Near Eastern examples.

Myths at their simplest are ancient stories. Oral traditions that have been passed down and performed, with no known authors. Few have survived in their entirety, and the ones that have are interpreted through epics and songs, tragic dramas, and narratives. Myths are reflected in art, from ancient rock paintings and crude fertility goddess statues to black-figure depictions of the Trojan War decorating Hellenic amphorae. They are a deeply ingrained aspect of society and culture, both in the ancient world and today, and are a form of entertainment, inspiration, and warning, often with a key moral focus. Creation myths are extremely important, as they explain how and why ancient cultures believed the world came into existence. Creation myths provide reasons for natural occurrences before the time of scientific explanation with similarities across different cultures and periods, like the importance of water. Some specific examples are shown within the biblical, Egyptian, Greek, and Near Eastern creation myths, which tell us about religion, society and culture, and the natural world.

Creation myths in ancient cultures can be used to explain the development of religious beliefs and practices often associated with the gods and the natural world. Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Babylonian creation myths are all centered around deities associated with elements of nature emerging from primordial chaos to create the known world. The biblical creation stories are quite separate from this, whilst containing some similar themes. Ancient Greek religion is polytheistic, similar to ancient Egyptian and Babylonian religions, with the gods central to the myth that existed as part of the natural environment. Plant believed that these myths were not religious texts, but explained religious practices and worship. The Greek creation story explains why some gods must be venerated as opposed to others, as the Olympians come to supremacy after defeating their forefathers. Each of these gods has a purpose but is very human in nature, so to please the gods and bring good fortune, particularly in warfare and harvest, they must be worshipped and honored. Like in the Greek myth, the Egyptian god Atum rose up out of the primordial waters named Nut. Over time, Atum became connected with the sun god Ra, and: “His emergence from the water was associated with the rising of the sun and the dispelling of chaotic darkness”. This became a continual process as the sun rises and sets each day, and ancient Egyptian mythology became greatly intertwined with these acts of daily creation. Similar themes continue in Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation myth from around 1900 BC. Once again, creation emerged from the primordial waters, with the gods, the world and the people quickly following. The myth was not intended as an origin story like many of the others were but instead as a way of praising Marduk, the main god of Babylon, and explaining his rise to kingship. The biblical creations within the Book of Genesis are the most separate from the others described, as they are based on the monotheistic religions of Judaism and Christianity and are found in the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. These myths have many authors and versions, as they were originally oral stories passed down. All of the biblical creation myths center around one omnipresent and omnipotent God who created the world in 6 days and rested on the 7th. This is integral to ancient biblical religions, as part of the faith practice is the Sabbath or day of rest each week to commemorate God’s rest. Similar to the other myths, creation emerged from a primordial substance.

Creation myths are valuable for explaining social structures and political interests, as they reflect directly what was occurring in a culture at a given time. Greek creation myths are an important influence on social structure and politics as the myth follows the genealogy of the Greek gods, which reflects the concerns of elites in their status, which is often established by their ancestors. Greek kings and aristocrats often cited the gods and heroes as their ancestors, as divine succession was propaganda to build power. Pinder states: “Both gods and people had a common ancestor: they were both descendants of the earth”. The Olympian defeat of the Titans is an important explanation that power is not assumed, but must be won by the ruler, and that Zeus represented patriarchal rule and power. The Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elish, is important socially and politically as it represents a time when Babylon rose to ‘political supremacy’ and Marduk became the national god. The myth is interpreted as a yearly ritual to renew the kings’ divinity and can precursor to religious and political changes. The myth is ritually performed on the 4th day of the new year festival – Nisan in Akitu. The festival represents the temporary reassertion of chaos and its defeat by Marduk – reenacting and conceptualizing the themes of creation found in the Enuma Elish. Biblical myths do not have as big of an impact on social structure and politics, as the type of religion developed in Judaism and Christianity is very different from the polytheistic traditions of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Babylon. One God is the Creator and Ruler, and there is no social status depicted, all beings are equal under God. Like the Greek myth, the Egyptian gods had a hierarchy that people modeled themselves after. Monarchy evolved with the pharaoh as king with a divine connection to the gods.

Creation myths have a significant cultural value for societies as they explain or instruct aspects of the world that would otherwise be unknown. Myths were created to answer the unknown questions that humans have been seeking for centuries: ‘Who am I?’, ‘Where did I come from?’, ‘Where am I going?’, ‘Why am I here?’. The exact meanings can be difficult to dissect, as they have been retold throughout generations, where information that was deemed important at the time was added, and information seen as secondary was omitted. Creation myths are particularly important for culture as they can provide valuable insight into humanity’s purpose. In the biblical creation stories, humans were created for a purpose, to be custodians of the earth in the divine image of God: “Then God said, ‘Let us create mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground’”. God created man in his own image makes them important, it gives humanity itself significance and comfort in existence. In the Egyptian creation myths, humanity’s creation was accidental: “After therefore I had united my members I wept over them, [and] came into being men and women from the tears [which] came from my eye”. Whilst humankind’s creation was not intentional, it still holds value as the same Creator who made the earth they live in and the gods they worshiped also made them. Reflecting this view, pharaohs are often represented as divine themselves. Human value is less prominent in the Greek and Near Eastern creation stories, but the gods in these myths also have more human characteristics, which play out in competitions, love affairs, and rivalries. This creates explanations for human existence and how involved the gods are in human lives. Plant explains that myth explains the rule of the gods in very human terms. Humans are not created with great importance, but through external actions, they become more significant. In Hesiod, before Prometheus steals to fire to protect humanity, they were nothing more than the other animals that had been created, but they had no natural gifts as they had been given to other animals. The fire symbolizes physical protection as well as wisdom, which puts humanity on a level between the gods and the rest of life, giving them greater importance.

A culture’s beliefs about the natural world are significantly impacted by how nature is represented in creation mythology. Within the Greek Parthenon particularly, the gods represent physical embodiments of nature and natural occurrences, like the seasons, weather, plants, and animals: “Then she brought forth long hills, the lovely homes of goddesses, the nymphs who live among the mountain clefts. Then, without pleasant love, she bore the barren sea with its swollen waves”. The ideas around primeval waters that appear in all four creation myths are extremely interesting and are prominent within nature and religion. Water, oceans, rivers, and streams have a lot of cultural significance, particularly in life and the life cycle. In Hesiod, the goddess of love, Aphrodite, was born out of the water, and water indicates the wet seasons in harvest when seeds shall grow. Ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern religions have similar themes within their stories. The first lines of Enuma Elish state: “When there was no heaven, no earth, no height, no depth, no name, when Apsu was alone, the sweet water, the first begetter; and Tiamat the bitter water, and that return to the womb, her Mummy, when there were no gods”. The water is referred to as the womb, a place of life-giving. All things are born from the water equally, the world, the gods, and man. Ancient cultures understood and respected this fact. Unknowingly, these myths in many ways signified scientific truth long before it was understood. All life evolved from the ocean, and the natural cycles of the seasons, day and night, and weather patterns had to be understood and utilized. Creation myths are a way for ancient cultures to explain the natural occurrences around them, to teach about the rising and setting of the sun, the seasons, and when the seeds should be planted, would grow, and be harvested. This is also reflected in the Nile for ancient Egyptians. The Nile River was a source of life, and tears, another form of water was the source of human life. Water and nature are also extremely significant within the biblical creation: “And God said, ‘Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures’”. God gave the earth to humans to protect and dominate it: “And God said to them, ‘Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have domination over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth’”. Nature is so significant in creation myths as it is the basis of life and the world. The complexities and brilliance of the earth and its systems could not be explained without attributing the power and forces of gods and goddesses to it. Creation myths explain how ancient cultures viewed and valued the natural world around them, and understood how it enabled them to live.

We can learn a lot of significant information from ancient creation myths, particularly those of biblical, Greek, Egyptian, and Near Eastern origins. Creation myths were used to explain the world as it was known and the events that occurred around people. They often have similar themes around nature, and we can discern information about religion, society and culture, cultural and political conditions, and beliefs about nature. These ancient stories often have a moral focus, and were a form of entertainment, art, inspiration, and warning. Through stories of gods and ancient creation myths in their own ways, each explained how life was born from the primordial waters, the value of human life and social structures, and how to harness the natural cycles of nature, from day to night, from season to season. Creation myths tell us how people survived without an understanding of science for thousands of years, and how complex systems of information can be explained in simple and creative ways.

Do curses really exist? Are there ancient spells that could still be in effect today? These are questions that could directly relate to the story of King Tutankhamun, the Egyptian pharaoh. While his death took place centuries ago, the mysteries surrounding what happened to him and those who have disturbed his resting place continue. There have been many speculations and assumptions made about the young king and how he died. Some people think it may have been because of a previous conflict that occurred, and others think it may have been the trace of malaria found in his system. This essay will explain some of the theories and what some archeologists think happened after the embalming process and the wrapping of King Tut’s body, how they think he died, and the mysterious curse everyone has been raving bout.

When King Tut’s body was re-examined after being sealed in his tomb in 1323 B.C., there was a mysterious burn mark found. Some British researchers think he had a rushed burial and was put into a lot of sunlight, which caused the oils that he had on him to get too hot and ‘cooked’ the young boy king. He was buried directly under the sun, also he was not properly stored away, which goes to show that they either did not know what they were doing, or they just wanted him to be buried in such a hurry they didn’t even let the painted walls get dry. Robert Connolly, a professor at Liverpool University, had samples of King Tut’s skin and bones in his office, which he let the team members examine. When the team examined the pharaoh’s remains, they discovered his flesh had indeed been burned after he was sealed in his tomb, which was unusual because of the attention the mummification of a king attracted. Experts now think the oils used in the embalming process soaked in linen and mixed with the oxygen caused a chain reaction, which made his body temperature exceed 380 degrees Fahrenheit.

There have been many theories of how he could have passed. One accusation, made by Stephan Lovgren, was that King Tut died because of a broken leg. The scientist said that based on a CAT scan King Tut had a thigh fracture that became badly infected and led to the young king dying at the age of 19. Another theory was that he was in a chariot accident. This theory came about when they discovered he was missing some ribs and they looked as if they were forced out. It was also said that his heart simultaneously stopped due to trauma. Soon after his death is when the talk of a curse occurred.

It was said that anyone who came in contact with the deceased body would be cursed. One weird occurrence was Sir Bruce Ingham who received a mummified hand with a bracelet that read ‘Curse he who moves my body’. A few months following this, his house burned down, and when he tried to repair it, it was hit by a flood. The second occurrence was George Herbert, a financial banker of an evacuation team that helped move King Tutankhamun’s body. It was said that he passed from an infected mosquito bite four months later. The debate of whether or not this curse is true or not is still up for debate.

In conclusion, King Tut was a young king who died at a really young age. There are many different theories of the cause of his death and the curse, whether or not it’s true or a myth. The purpose of this essay was to lay out some of the theories and what archeologists think happened after the embalming and wrapping of King Tut’s body, what they believed was the cause of death, and the mysterious curse everyone was raving about. The fort that had the most evidence that supported it was that he died from a chariot crash. Although there have been many strange happenings with people who have disturbed King Tut’s tomb, the curse of King Tut is a complete myth that started out as a rumor to protect the king and his belongings after he passed. The strange deaths were completely coincidental.

According to National Geographic, in an issue released in 2010, a group of scientists carried out CT Scans on Tutanankhamun’s body in 2005. This analysis confirmed that King Tut was not killed due to a blow to the head, as many people believed. The analysis revealed that the hole in the back of his skull had been made during the mummification of the pharaoh and also showed that the pharaoh was only 19 when he passed away. The scientists also discovered in the CT images of the mummy that King Tut’s left foot was clubbed, one of his toes was missing a bone, and the bones in the part of the foot were destroyed by necrosis which is tissue death. The clubbed foot and necrosis would have disrupted his ability to walk. There were 130 walking sticks found in the tomb and some of them indicate that they have been used. However, people do argue that the damage to the foot could have been caused during the mummification process.

The CT scan also showed that there was extreme damage to the rib cage. One cause of death proposed during this analysis was a chariot accident. The young king might have been riding a chariot during a hunt or a battle and the damage to the chest by a kick from the horse. Others have suggested that a hippopotamus may have killed Tut even though those animals are extinct in Egypt today. Victims can suffer serious injuries which include massive tearing, deep puncture wounds, and crushed bones, and if combined, it could be fatal.

Genetic testing revealed that the young pharaoh was the grandson of the great pharaoh Amenhotep II, and almost certainly the son of Akhenaten, who was the most controversial figure in the history of Ancient Egypt. But it is also believed that Tutankhamun’s health has been weak since the day he was born. His mother and father were brother and sister. Ancient Egypt wasn’t the only country to establish royal incest as part of their culture as this can have political advantages as well harmful consequences. Married siblings are more likely to pass on damaging genes which can cause their children to be vulnerable to various genetic defects. In this case, Tutanakhamun’s deformed left foot could have been one of the genetic defects. His wife Ankhesenamun was also revealed to be his half-sister and the two mummified fetus were revealed as their two daughters who were stillborn. Though his tomb was historical and filled with splendid and lavish objects, archaeological evidence has suggested the young pharaoh was weak and sickly and spent most of his life trying to undo what his father had started.

Though his bone disease was severe, it would not have been fatal. Then the mummy was tested for genetic traces of different diseases and based on the presence of DNA, a parasite called Plasmodium falciparum was identified. This made it clear that the young pharaoh was infected with malaria and had contracted the most severe form of the disease a couple of times. Malaria could have killed Tutankhamun as the disease can generate a fatal immune response to the body, and circulatory shocks and this could lead to a coma or death. However, Malaria was a common disease in Egypt during that time and Tutanankhaum may have gained some immunity to the disease but on the other hand, this disease could have severely weakened his immune system. This could have also been the reason for the unhealed fracture of his left leg. All these factors could have contributed to his early death.