The first ever civilization took place in Mesopotamia between the year 4000B.C.E. After this, river valley civilizations came the classical period (1000B.C.E- 450C.E) which was characterized by a set of great civilizations which constituted China, Persia, India, and Greeko-Roman (Mediterranean) civilizations. These 4 great civilizations did not function independently. They integrated and expanded their territories to cover up large portion of land. However, before we move into discussing this great civilization, and its inventions, it will be important for us to look at what civilization is all about and its origin as well as the first ever civilization that existed in the world. Thus, the next section of this work will go to analyze these above aspects.
A society is said to be civilized when it consists of a system of writings in which symbols are used, has an urban enhancement, and a social stratum laid by a supremacy over the natural environment and by a cultural elite. More often than not, civilized continents always have large and more sophisticated cultures, as opposed to uncivilized countries with lesser or primitive cultures. In the civilized world, Labor becomes specialized in attaining a particular outcome; the society progresses rapidly under farming and new ideas are being brought up on how to expand. Our next analysis will be on the origin of civilization.
It should be noted that humans existed before civilization came up. There were humans but not civilized ones. Thus, the lifestyle of the people who lived before the coming of the first ever civilization was that of hunter-gatherer (nomadic), this period is known as the Stone Age (10000 B.C.E) period where humans used stones as apparatus for farming and they acquired food from their animals through milking and also from wild plants in the forest. The people of this age lived a more egalitarian (classless) lifestyle in which everybody could do what they wanted to get just as much food to feed themselves and their families. As such, humans formed small groups and lived together with one another sharing labor, with the women gathering foodstuffs in the fields while the men hunted for animals. Stones were the principal tool used by these men in hunting for animals but they manufactured hand axes and spearheads from wood and bones in other to help them in hunting. These people were nomads as seen above, as such, they migrated from one place to another depending on the climatic situation. This is how humans spread from Africa to Eurasia, Southeast Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America.
Chinese civilization and its inventions
In Eurasia’s Eastern part, the Chinese people formed a wealthy and dynamic civilization. Under the leadership of the then emperor in 200 B.C Huang Di, the Chinese people created and invented all kinds of goods some of which include; Iron, Porcelain, and silk. They went as far as exporting these goods to other countries thus expanding their civilization.
Papermaking was one of the greatest inventions done by the Chinese during the time of their civilization precisely in the year 105 A.C. This had a great influence on history, as much was able to be written down for the next generation. Central Asia later copied this paper making and later on, the world did through the Silk Road.
Gunpowder was another great invention of the Chinese civilization exactly in the year 1000 A.D. It was manufactured by the Chinese Taoist alchemists by mixing sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter. This product later on spread to Europe during the time of the Mongol expansion.
The Chinese also invented the compass in the year 1100 A.D. an instrument that shows the direction of a place. This compass was mostly used by the Chinese shipyards to enable them to navigate through the sea.
A mechanical clock was also a Chinese invention during the time of its civilization. Yi Xing a Buddhist monk was the brain behind this clock
Inspired by children using lotus leaves to cover themselves during rain, Lu Ban, created an umbrella using cloths to provide shelter during rainfall. This is a major invention for it is still used in our world today as a means of shelter during rains.
A seismograph also known as an earthquake dictator was another invention in China by Zhang Heng in 132 A.D. to determine the direction of an earthquake.
In addition to the above, we could also add a rocket, Bronze, Kite, Seed drill, Roe Crop Farming, toothbrush, paper money, movable type printing, Alchohol, and as well as Acupuncture, as some of the inventions brought up by the Chinese civilization.
Politically, Chinese rule during this period was an authoritarian one. Hierarchy was greatly respected and the emperor was recognized as the father of the community whose authority was given to him from heaven. The emperor was at the top of the community while the lords ruled the decentralized communities.
Indian civilization and its inventions
It is the oldest and made up of a rich history, and culture as well as very firm scientific and technological customs. Classical India made so many significant inventions some of which include;
The zero is a major contribution India made to the history of mathematics. Also, Ayurveda a traditional school medicine to help get good health without the use of prescribed drugs was another invention of India. In recent years, this system has gained popularity across the world and it’s now used by many in several parts of the world. Also, the U.S.B a small device capable of storing large data and doing transfers was invented by Ajay V. Bhatt an Indian American. Board games such as chess, snakes, and ladder came from India. Yoga an exercise that uplifts the spirit and ensures healthy living also came from India. Shampoo used to massage the head was another India’s invention. A button made out of seashells and shaped in a geometric form with tiny holes was an Indian ideal. In addition to the above, wireless communication, the cure for leprosy and lithiasis, as well as natural fibers such as jute, Cotton, and wool were all conceived by India.
Comparison between Indian and Chinese civilizations
Beginning with the religious domain, India practiced Hinduism as its main religion with so many gods, while Confucianism and Daoism (the belief in the respect of one’s leaders) were what was practiced in China.
India employed a stricter system of social hierarchy called the Verna (the class system), where the upper-class group was allowed to marry and interact only with their class. Mingling with the lower class was forbidden. This was not so with the Chinese for they lived as equals under the emperor’s reign.
Indian civilization valued the mind over everything which is why you see yoga and the rest. Meanwhile, the Chinese think not showing an expression is being civilized. There is always this restrain in them. Thus civilizations had different things they valued.
Most of the Indians engaged in medicines and technology as such created more technological instruments such as the U.S.B and the medicine for leprosy. On the other hand, the Chinese were agriculturalist and most of their aim was to create items that could facilitate agriculture. That is why they created instruments such as seed drills, Row crop farming, and bronze.
Comparing them today, equality and freedom of speech do not or hardly exist in China, but on the other hand, India allows its media to freely criticize its government. Thus, there is freedom of speech.
Conclusion
To conclude, one can say there are not many differences between the 2 great civilizations reason being that these civilizations did not isolate themselves from each other but rather, they integrated and worked with each other to expand.
References
Peter N. Stearns, 2007, A Brief History of the World.
Fairbank and John, 1989, China: Tradition and Transformation, Harvard University Press.
R.P Palmer and Joel Colton, 1995, 8th edition, A History of Modern World, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
The Tang and Song Dynasties were two influential periods in Chinese history that witnessed significant political, social, and cultural developments. While both dynasties made substantial contributions to Chinese civilization, they also had distinct characteristics and achievements. This essay aims to compare and contrast the Tang and Song Dynasties, highlighting their similarities and differences in terms of political structure, economic prosperity, cultural achievements, and their impact on China’s history.
Political Structure
The Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) both implemented centralized bureaucratic systems to govern their vast empires. The Tang Dynasty established a highly efficient administration, known for its meritocratic civil service examinations and the codification of laws. Similarly, the Song Dynasty further refined the civil service examinations, placing emphasis on Confucian ideals and education. However, the Tang Dynasty had a more expansive territory and a more militaristic approach to governance, while the Song Dynasty faced significant challenges from northern invaders, leading to a shift towards a defensive and diplomatic strategy.
Economic Prosperity
Both the Tang and Song Dynasties experienced periods of economic prosperity, facilitated by advancements in agriculture, commerce, and technology. The Tang Dynasty witnessed extensive land reforms, increased agricultural productivity, and the growth of a prosperous merchant class. It also benefited from the establishment of the Silk Road trade routes, facilitating economic exchanges with Central Asia and beyond. The Song Dynasty, on the other hand, fostered a thriving market economy, with urbanization, industrialization, and advancements in printing, papermaking, and maritime trade. The growth of a merchant class and the emergence of the “flying cash” system contributed to a vibrant economy during the Song Dynasty.
Cultural Achievements
Both the Tang and Song Dynasties were renowned for their significant cultural contributions. The Tang Dynasty is often regarded as the “golden age” of Chinese poetry, with famous poets such as Li Bai and Du Fu flourishing during this period. Tang culture also witnessed advancements in literature, painting, calligraphy, and the spread of Buddhism. The Song Dynasty, known for its emphasis on Neo-Confucianism, saw the development of important philosophical and intellectual movements. Scholars like Zhu Xi played a crucial role in shaping Confucian thought. The Song Dynasty also saw remarkable achievements in landscape painting, ceramics, and literature, exemplified by the works of Su Shi and Li Qingzhao.
Impact on China’s History
Both the Tang and Song Dynasties left a lasting impact on Chinese history. The Tang Dynasty established a strong central government, expanded China’s borders, and promoted cultural exchanges with neighboring regions. It laid the foundation for subsequent dynasties, shaping the political and administrative systems of Imperial China. The Song Dynasty, although faced with political and military challenges, fostered significant advancements in technology, commerce, and governance. Its economic achievements set the stage for China’s later economic development, while its cultural and intellectual legacy continued to influence Chinese society.
Conclusion
The Tang and Song Dynasties were critical periods in Chinese history, characterized by significant political, economic, and cultural advancements. While the Tang Dynasty was marked by territorial expansion and a more militaristic approach, the Song Dynasty focused on economic prosperity, cultural achievements, and intellectual pursuits. Both dynasties contributed to the development of Chinese civilization, leaving a lasting impact on political systems, economic practices, and cultural expressions. Understanding the similarities and differences between the Tang and Song Dynasties provides valuable insights into the evolution of Chinese history and its enduring legacies.
Have you ever wondered how modern civilization got to be the way it is today? Both the Babylonian and Ancient Egyptian empires contributed much to the development of modern civilization, but they did have different ideas when it came to religion and politics. When we think about the first civilizations that successfully established empires, we tend to think of the Egyptians first. Their achievements and views are very well documented and have been at the front and center of many books, movies, and even games. Babylon, however, doesn’t get nearly as much recognition as Egypt. Although they both were settled around the same time and under similar circumstances they developed very differently. From writing and the sciences to religion and government both of these civilizations thrived, and in this document, I will compare and contrast them.
Ancient Egypt was located in the same part of the world as Egypt is today. Mesopotamia was composed of the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians (1, Daily Life). The city of Babylon was, in turn, located in the south of Mesopotamia (5, The Babylonians). They both thrived in a river valley that was otherwise surrounded by desert. “Egypt called the Nile River Delta home” (Ancient Egypt) and Babylon the valley between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers (Mesopotamia). When it comes to writing, “The Mesopotamians, are credited with the invention of writing” circa 3,100 BCE (47, Daily Life). They used pictures and symbols, which were called cuneiform, and this system inspired the Egyptian hieroglyphs (51, Daily Life). Using these pictures, that worked phonetically, the Egyptians recorded history and tax collections around the kingdom (207, Brier and Hobbs, Ancient Egypt).
Medicine and math were of high importance in both of these civilizations. Although they did vary, Egypt and Babylon used two types of healing, magical and medical. In Babylon, sick people had the option of using an āšipu, who would provide cleanses and prayers. They could also opt for an asȗ, as these practitioners created tinctures and remedies that were rooted in basic medical knowledge (77, Daily Life). Egyptians had a similar way of choosing treatments for their ailments. “If they knew the cause of the affliction, such as a crocodile bite, they would use a medical approach in treating the issue”. If the cause was unknown, they would attempt to cure it with magical treatments (265, Brier and Hobbs, Ancient Egypt). Concerning mathematics, the Babylonians mastered algebraic knowledge, whereas Egyptians used basic Arithmetic (84, Daily Life). Since the most the Egyptians had was addition and subtraction, they used shortcuts and the arithmetic they knew to get the result they wanted (279, Brier and Hobbs, Ancient Egypt). In their day-to-day life, Babylonians used a sexagesimal system, counting by sixties, but it was not used in economics as it was confusing. The Egyptians, however, worked with a base of ten for counting and relied heavily on that for daily activities (280, Brier and Hobbs, Ancient Egypt).
Thus far, both of these civilizations have had much in common, but when it came to religion and governance, they were very different. Firstly, the Babylonians believed the world was created due to the union of the gods Apsu and Tiamat (176, Daily Life). Egyptians, in turn, believed the god Ptah created the world by imagining it into existence (44, Brier and Hobbs, Ancient Egypt). For Egyptians religion was a very important part of their lives, although they were not required to do good, they were expected not to do any evil. In Babylon, “The community needed to follow the appropriate rituals and ceremonies or things like plagues, fires, and earthquakes could befall them” (178, Daily Life). In any case, the afterlife expected by the Babylonians was depicted as torturous and horrific, no matter if they were good or bad in life (178, Daily Life). The Egyptians had a more welcoming afterlife to look forward to since it was depicted as something glorious and beautiful that they would be accepted into (53, Brier and Hobbs, Ancient Egypt). Regarding the government, the Babylonians chose a monarch among the population and public approval was important, as ancestry didn’t always guarantee the throne to a successor (218, Daily Life). The ruler was seen as the god’s representative on earth, but he was still considered mortal (217, Daily Life). He or she was responsible for the prosperity of the kingdom and cared especially for the poor and weak among the people (221, Daily Life). “The Egyptian Pharaoh was instead seen as a god who had the ultimate power and divine authority” (73, Brier and Hobbs, Ancient Egypt). He or she would make sure there was order in the kingdom, but this also meant that the people were expected to stay in their respective social classes (74, Brier and Hobbs, Ancient Egypt).
In conclusion, both of these civilizations had a lot in common when it came to their day-to-day activities. They similarly settled in valleys next to rivers, which helped them thrive in an otherwise dry environment. The Egyptians came up with their writing system by taking inspiration from the Babylonians and their cuneiform. Ill people from both societies could choose to go to magical or medical practitioners for help with what ailed them. Although the Babylonians mastered more complex mathematics, the Egyptians still used what they knew to get them the results they needed. Where they differed greatly was their religious beliefs and their ideas on government. The Egyptians believed that simply not being wicked was enough to get them to the wonderful afterlife they knew awaited them. Babylonian peoples needed to follow rituals and ceremonies, since they would be punished if they did not do so. Their afterlife was not something they looked forward to but accepted it as something inevitable. Kings in Egypt were seen as gods and had to be treated as such. The Babylonians chose kings who had the popular vote, as ancestry didn’t always guarantee the throne. They were seen as representatives of the gods as well as protectors of the least fortunate. Thanks to the records kept by both of these civilizations we know much about their daily lives. They created a foundation for much of what we presently know as a society. It then begs the question, where would we be if these societies had never existed?
Works Cited
Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Hendrickson Publishers, 2008.
Leick, Gwendolyn. The Babylonians: An Introduction. Routledge, 2007.
Brier, Bob, and Hoyt Hobbs. Ancient Egypt: Everyday Life in the Land of the Nile. Sterling, 2013.
Oakes, Lorna, and Lucia Gahlin. Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated History. Lorenz Books, an Imprint of Anness Publishing Ltd., 2018.
Religion or culture of origin: Ancient Greek mythology
Who created the world?
Myth 1
According to Rigveda, Purusha was everything that has ever existed. Purusha gave birth to Viraj, an egg symbolizing the unity of male and female energies. Purusha was also born from Viraj. Eventually, Purusha was sacrificed by the gods and disassembled. His body parts became various objects, creatures, and elements of life such as the sky, the air, stars and planets, animals, and people.
Myth 2
In Greek mythology, the world’s first gods appeared out of Chaos.
Who were the main characters involved? What was the process?
Myth 1
The primordial divine beings, Purusha and Prakriti, interacted and made a sacrifice, which served as the starting point of everything.
Myth 2
Gaia, Eros, Tartarus, Erebus. Uranus appeared later created by Gaia without male participation. He fertilized her and generated further creations.
What was the motivation to create the world?
Myth 1
Humans were just one of the parts of everything that appeared after the sacrifice of Purusha.
Myth 2
People were created so that the gods had someone to worship them.
How did humankind come into being?
Myth 1
Different casts of people appeared in different body parts of Purusha. Brahmins appeared from his mouth; his arms became noble warriors, his legs generated simple working people such as peasants, and his feet became the lowest cast.
Myth 2
Prometheus sculpted people out of mud, Epimetheus gave them various traits and Athena made them alive through breathing life into them.
Did the original creator maintain involvement in the newly created world?
Myth 1
After the creation of the world, the new gods and divine beings became the main figures.
Myth 2
Titans created by Gaia and Uranus started to rule the world until they were overthrown by the Olympians, who became the main rulers.
Flood Myths
Myth 1: Manu and Matsya
Religion or culture of origin: Hinduism
Myth 2: Gilgamesh epic
Religion or culture of origin: Assyria and Babylon
Who or what caused the flood?
Flood Myth 1
The flood appeared by itself as a natural cataclysm.
Flood Myth 2
The gods had a secret plan to start a massive flood.
Who were the main characters involved?
Flood Myth 1
Vishnu working through his Matsya avatar and Manu, the man.
Flood Myth 2
Ea, Enlil, Anu, Ninurta, and Ennui, who are the great gods and Utnapishtim, a man.
What was the motivation for causing the flood?
Flood Myth 1
The flood happened by itself as a natural disaster.
Flood Myth 2
The great gods were willing to erase the civilization of people.
Who survived the flood, and why?
Flood Myth 1
Manu survived the flood because he was warned about it by the fish avatar of the god Vishnu. Manu saved the fish, and in return, the fish saved Manu telling him to build a very big boat. The fish that Manu released into the sea dragged the ship through the waters until they reached the mountains (Manu 2014).
Flood Myth 2
The god Ea broke the secrecy of the gods’ plan about the flood and warned Utnapishtim through the reed wall in his reed house. The god instructed Utnapishtim to disassemble his house and build a big boat to survive the flood.
Did the original creator, or creators, maintain involvement after the flood?
Flood Myth 1
Vishnu and other Hindu gods remained the same important after the flood.
Flood Myth 2
The great gods continued to rule after the flood and even presented Utnapishtim with immortality.
Afterlife Myths
Myth 1: Hel and Valhalla
Religion or culture of origin: Scandinavia
Myth 2: Biblical Heaven and Hell
Religion or culture of origin: Christianity
What is the name of the place or places where people go when they die?
Afterlife Myth 1
According to Norse Mythology, the names of the places where people went after death were Valhalla, the kingdom for warriors that were killed in combat, and Hel or Helheim, the place where the people and other beings go after death.
Afterlife Myth 2
In Christianity, there is a strict division between Heaven and the underworld or Hell. Heaven is the place where the righteous people go and rest in eternal bliss, whereas Hell is a horrible place where the sinners are tortured forever after they die.
What are the characteristics of the place, or places? What form do people take when they go there?
Afterlife Myth 1
In Norse mythology, there was no division between the places where the dead went. In neither of these places the dead are tortured. They are described as the stages of life in the never-ending cycle of being (Death and Afterlife 2014). Only people’s immortal souls can enter these kingdoms, while their physical vessels rest in the physical world.
Afterlife Myth 2
Heaven is normally described as a beautiful place, located high in the sky; the souls of true believers come to Heaven after death and enjoy eternal happiness there. Hell is a scary place filled with fire and demons; the souls of sinners are doomed for all kinds of torture there. Hell is located under the surface of the ground.
Who goes to which location, and how do they get there?
Afterlife Myth 1
Warriors and heroes come to Valhalla through the snowy fields.
Afterlife Myth 2
According to Christian beliefs, sinners and righteous people stand before the god, and he gets to decide who goes where according to the kind of life this person lived.
Is it possible for a human to leave one location to go to another or to return to Earth?
Afterlife Myth 1
In Norse mythology the dead could be in communication with the living beings. Besides, there were occasional cases of people returning from the underworld.
Afterlife Myth 2
It is not possible to leave Heaven or Hell. Souls cannot go from one location to another, either.
Are there gods or supernatural beings in each of the locations? If so, who or what are they?
Afterlife Myth 1
Valhalla and Helheim are inhabited with Norse gods.
Afterlife Myth 2
Heaven has angels and cherubs. Hell is the place where demons are.
Apocalypse Myths
Myth 1: Buddhist Apocalypse
Religion or culture of origin: Buddhism
Myth 2: Ragnarok
Religion or culture of origin: Scandinavia
Who or what will cause the apocalypse?
Apocalypse Myth 1
The degeneration of the human society will make the faith in Buddha fade away and cause an apocalypse.
Apocalypse Myth 2
A massive battle will lead to the end of the world.
Who will be the main characters?
Apocalypse Myth 1
People.
Apocalypse Myth 2
Norse gods, Fenrir, the Serpent, and Ice Giants
What will be the motivation to cause the apocalypse?
Apocalypse Myth 1
The degeneration of spirituality.
Apocalypse Myth 2
A conflict between the gods.
What will happen to humankind?
Apocalypse Myth 1
Humans will be reduced to poverty, sickness, violence and sufferings
Apocalypse Myth 2
Humans will be burnt with the rest of the world and then flooded.
What role does the original creator, or creators, play in causing the apocalypse and any subsequent events?
Apocalypse Myth 1
The universe goes through an eternal cycle of death and rebirth.
Ghalib is an Indo-Persian poet that was writing in the Urdu language and became popular and influential in the XIX century. The lifestyle and conduct of Ghalib were inspiring people, saving faith and belief in their hearts during harsh times. The poem chosen for this assignment is “The “Godless” Lover.” The name of this work refers to the Islamic government dubbing Ghalib godless. Still, in many lines of the poet, one can find Koranic characters and reflections about the relationship between a human and the Creator. Ghalib, in this poem, emphasizes the meaning of God to his soul and puts special stress on the initial presence of God. All the people, according to Ghalib, are the result of creation that would not have mattered if they existed or not without God. It is especially evident in the following lines:
When there was nothing, there was God If nothing had been, God would have been My very being has been my downfall If I hadn’t been, what would it have mattered?
Various tones come across in the poem: negative and positive, and it might depend on the reader and his current condition. Ghalib states that God has always been there for a human, and even if there is no hope and it seems that the world has ended, God will be there to help each soul. The tone of the narrator depends on the perceptions of the reader, his experience, and his current state. The author of this paper tends to believe the poem’s tone is positive, and it reminds of eternal and unbreakable things a man can refer to. Even if the process of human creation would not have existed, a human would still have been united with God.
Robert Bly expressed similar thoughts with the help of different words. He stated: “Our perception of ‘things’ as real doesn’t quite fit with the idea that they don’t actually exist. One Muslim belief sees the universe we know as a mixture of the Existent and the Non-Existent. Things such as trees, streets, people, and clouds all belong to Non-Existence: they are only shadows thrown by a genuinely existent sun.” The genuinely existent sun here is God, and all the people, nature, and other inevitable items of human life are shadows. Staying close to the sun is staying close to God and self. Then all the other aspects will have meaning in each soul’s lifespan.
Indian culture is unique and many-sided, and after hearing the poems sung, the impression from the artwork becomes more meaningful. Some parts of the human soul answer more actively when they hear music. Songs in Indian manner have various qualities of tone hypnotizing and relaxing the listener. The major impression after watching the videos can be described with words calmness, belief, honesty, and truth. Listening to the poems discloses the meaning of the poem deeper and differs significantly from reading the text.
Ghalib is a central figure in Indo-Persian culture as he transferred faith via his poems, raising essential questions for a human. The most important items for an individual are hope and the connection to it, seeking the answers to the initial existence of things, and staying devoted to it. Ghalib was an example of a strong person who never lost hope even after harsh moments of his life. The poem “The “Godless” Lover” underlines the attitude of Ghalib to God and God’s connection to human beings.
When your child is sick, do you call the doctor or pray? Is it an infection that attacks the body or is it a spiritual issue to confront? For many people in our modern times, these questions seem to be absurd. To the educated mind, the association between religion and healing seems an anachronism that is not very compatible with scientific medicine. However, most societies throughout history have shared a religious view of the world, and many of them still have the views today. Medicine and religion had always had a very close connection throughout history, a connection that can be traced back to the earliest attempts to heal the human body and to understand the nature of an illness. In the ancient times, when people knew very little about medicine and the structure of the human body, healers treated the symptoms of common diseases, while the causes of these diseases remained unknown.
The relationship between religion and medicine has always been a controversial topic discussed throughout centuries. Some said that religion is in the way of the medicine and stops it from evolving and changing while others stated that medicine undermines the sanctity of human life and goes against the natural way of life. Despite these controversies, there is evidence of medicine and religion going hand-in-hand and complement each other. This paper is an attempt to explore the relationships between medicine and religion in ancient civilizations as well as some medical practices inherent to the past times.
Wabw and Swnw in Ancient Egypt
The main means of healing in Ancient Egypt can be loosely divided into two categories: magic (wabw) and medicine (swnw). In Ancient Egypt doctors, priests and magicians took part in treating illnesses, and, as evident in Ebers papyrus, their role in healthcare was parallel. In contrast to our modern beliefs, any representative of these groups was considered to have a positive healing effect, although there were some differences in the harm they might do in case of an error. The Ancient Egyptian doctor, swnw, had a limited selection of operative tools, although he had other therapeutic tools that he shared with priests and magicians and that included attention to diet, care after the sick person, and the placebo effect. Many of the swnw had titles of the priests while some of them carried titles that were indicative of them being magicians, thus, the relationship between religion and medicine in Ancient Egypt was very close and interconnected.
Body and Spirit in Ancient Greece
The relationship between the body and the spirit has been a complicated question in the history of the human experience. The ancient Greeks described medicine as the most philanthropic act while religion was perceived as an instinctive search of a person for the divine (Hippocrates, 2005, p. 86). In ancient Greece, religion was constantly evolving with medicine connected to it and being under the patronage of god Asclepius. Asclepius was a god-man that could converse within the languages of divine and human and that could heal and save. For this reason, in the early Christian centuries, he was the main antagonist to Jesus Christ. In him, physicians saw a prototype of love and concern for other human beings.
Throughout Antiquity, the Greek society saw the great need in the divine solicitude of human infirmities. It was the person in need of treating who should decide to turn to Asclepius and to the priests-physicians to perform the needed treatment. The Asclepius cult became very popular in late antiquity. Its aim was to renewal in the human soul and the rebirth in human health. Some of the modern terms that included clinic, hygiene, and panacea.
The Father of Medicine
Western medicine has always recognized Hippocrates as the ideal. His works were accepted as authoritative in many kinds of medical problems as well as they were an essential part of training as a doctor. However, despite the fact that his importance has declined in recent decades, he still represents an idea of an ethical ideal, a caring and compassionate doctor. The importance of his writings is associated with three aspects: the still relevant ethical ideal of the doctor, the insights the writings provide into the development of Western medicine, and the influence they exercised over medical thought over the centuries.
Hippocrates was considered a ‘father’ of Greek medicine, because, before him, people recognized only two causes of death – heat or cold. Hippocrates stated that if it were the case, then doctors would be all equally inexperienced and ignorant as well as recognize the condition of their patient simply by chance. On the other hand, if it were not the case, the doctors will greatly differ among themselves both in theory and practice. His opinion was that medicine had possessed all qualities necessary to become a science (Hippocrates, 2005, p. 71).
In the first place, the science of medicine was never sought for, as there was no need for it. If sick men were treated by the regimen that the healthy have, there would be no need for such science. However, the need for medicine appeared because of the fact that the sick could not be treated by following the same regimen the way healthy men do.
Impact of Buddhism on Ayurveda
Ayurveda is a system of general medical practice that includes preventive and prescriptive aspects. It includes a great deal of good practical advice for people in almost every aspect of life imaginable, including diet, exercise, morality, etc. Moreover, it also includes specialized medical teachings on therapy and diagnosis that is aimed at professional doctors. Ayurveda is an all-embracing system of medical teachings that involves several various historical layers and interpretations. This makes it very hard to choose one set of ideas that can be called the Ayurveda foundations. Nevertheless, one of the most important aspects of ideas in Ayurveda is that which relates to the humors (dosa), body tissues (dhatu), and products of waste (mala).
Medical practices of Ayurveda were commonly used in the era of Buddhism. Initially, Buddhism was concerned with the well being of the human mind and soul while Ayurveda dealt with the well being of the human body (Wujastyk, 2001, p. 4). The concept of the human suffering was referred to as Dukkha, and the effort of Buddhism was aimed at finding the way to eliminate dukkha. Buddha was often called a surgeon and physician in the Buddhist literature as he could heal any wounds. Any foreign object to the human body was removed by a surgical procedure; however, grief and sorrow were considered foreign to the human soul. Buddha was said to be able to remove sorrow from the soul and to lessen the suffering in the body.
Harmony of the human soul and mind is one of the principal aspects of Buddhism, thus, the harmonious relationship between Ayurveda and Buddhism cannot be undermined by any religious beliefs or medical principles.
Medicine and Religion in the Medieval Times
Religion dominated all aspects of life in the Middle Ages. The Christian church began establishing monasteries that became hospitals for the sick and poor, later providing medical training. When it comes to Islamic countries, medicals schools gained a massive reputation and were developing very fast.
The Christian Church was determined to help all Christians to heal their diseases, but there were no medical methods for treatment beyond praying and faith. The majority of the population had relied on local healers before any medical institutions controlled by the Church began emerging. However, the Christian Church resisted many medical practices thought to violate the sanctity of human life; for instance, dissection was forbidden until the middle of the 14th century.
In the Islamic countries, religion had a more positive effect on medical practices. Qur’an gave guidelines on taking care of the sick and providing of the poor, thus, many hospitals were founded based on this principle. During the time, alchemists were able to find ways of purifying chemicals and creating medications, thus, Islam was much more accepting of medical practices and encouraged its development.
The Black Death
One of the most tragic but significant events of the medieval civilization is the Black Death that resulted in the decline of society and culture. Although the plague affected everyone, people had the power to change their destiny and battle the disease that forced the society to make quick decisions and acquire an empirical approach toward medicine. Because the majority of the population held an opinion that the Black Death was sent to them because of their sins, they attributed the emerging of medical treatments as a mercy from the divine (Alberth, 2005, p. 5).
Although doctors in the fourteenth century had a considerable amount of prestige in the community, they generally did nothing effective when it comes to the medieval chronicles of the Black Death. They were very often accused of cowardice and greed. One of the harshest critiques belonged to the Florentine chronicler Matteo Villani, who stated, “For this pestilential infirmity, doctors from every part of the world had no good remedy or effective cure, neither through natural philosophy, medicine, or the art of astrology. To gain money some went visiting and dispensing their remedies, but these only demonstrated through their patients’ death that their art was nonsense and false”. However, medieval authors gave equal relevance to the divine origin of the medical practices developed at those times.
When it comes to the religious aspect of the Black Death, a great number of documents criticize the priesthood for failing to administer to the needs of the sick during the plague, including hearing confessions and giving last rites. However, the predominant opinion was seemed to seek solace and hope in the prayers led by bishops and the clergy. Christians usually directed their prayers to God and saints that were known for their mercy and power against the disease, such as the Virgin Mary, St. Sebastian, St. Anthony and St. Roch (Alberth, 2005, p. 94).
There were fundamental differences in the way Islam and Christianity approached the plague. Islam did not recognize the apocalyptic ideas the Christians had when faced with the Black Death. Muslims did not develop a theology of original sin that burdened them with the guilt of plague victims, but instead, they viewed the disease as a natural disaster that God allowed with no reference to human punishment. Above all, Muslims rejected the ideas of contagion because this meant a cause of the disease outside the direct wish of God.
Conclusion
As religion is attributed to the well-being of the human soul and medicine is aimed at preserving the well-being of the body, these two aspects of human life are tightly intertwined. The exploration of the relationship between medicine and religion in the ancient civilizations have shown that religion greatly contributed to the development of medicine, however, like in Christianity, could be in control of what medicine pursued. A prominent example is the relationship between wabw and swnw in ancient Egypt, the two terms that determined magical and medical. These two aspects of Egyptian culture were inseparable, as both magic and medicine took part in the process of treating an ill individual.
Thus, no matter whether religion opposes or protects medicine, their interconnection goes back to the ancient times and should be recognized by historians, medics, and the religious authorities. With this in mind, religious belief should never be in the way of the person’s treatment as there is a bigger chance than a doctor will help a patient rather than a prayer.
References
Alberth, J. (2005). The Black Death: The Great Mortality of 1348-1350: A Brief History with Documents. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hippocrates. (2005). Hippocratic Writings. (I. M. Lonie, J. Chadwick, W. N. Mann & E. T. Withington, Trans.). London, UK: Penguin Books.
Wujastyk, D. (2001). The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings. New Delhi, India: Penguin Books.
Cultures of all civilizations developed in accordance with the established social policy and division of society. The societies of Greece, India, Rome, the Maya and Africa are similar in the presence of a slave system. The African system demonstrates a primitive communal society, the rest of the countries divide citizens into castes and estates. Ancient Greek society demonstrates the greatest development considering the social system.
Unique Correspondence of Social Order to History and Culture
A strict caste system has characterized Chinese society for almost all ancient dynasties. In the era of the Qin Dynasty, the social division was based on the criteria of wealth and usefulness to the state (Strayer 404). The preservation of traditions has become one of the foundations of Chinese society. The democratic idea predetermined Ancient Greece historically as one of the most powerful for a long time. The clear social structure was conditioned by the development of arts, crafts, and architecture. Roman society was clearly divided into social groups: enslaved people, slaveholders, warriors, artisans, and free peasants. Roman culture took the best achievements of its predecessors and multiplied them thanks to a clear social hierarchy. Ancient African civilizations were mainly large communities of farmers. The slave-owning structure was highly developed, but enslaved people could become free after several generations, unlike in other civilizations. African social structure was similar to the primitive communal layer, which ensured the slow historical development and domination of pagan culture.
The openness of Indian society to diverse influences has predetermined the emergence of a vibrant, diverse culture. The social stratum of Indian society was a transparent caste system: priests, kings and warriors, farmers, and enslaved people (West and Snyder 108). The social structure of the ancient Maya was also rigorous. Society was divided into nobles, commoners, peasants, and enslaved people (Strayer 786). Scribes were considered a particularly privileged caste; such a structure implied a focus on cultural development.
Social Order that Seems to People the Toughest
The most difficult for people seems to be ancient Rome’s social structure and social system. At a certain point in historical development, the oppression of enslaved people and the demands of the warrior class turned out to be too strong. Focusing on foreign policy, the seizure of new lands, and ignoring internal state problems led to one of the most powerful empires of the ancient world.
The Most Effective Social Order
One of the most effective socio-political systems was Greece. The main advantage was democracy, the involvement of citizens in the management of policies. Slavery in this context cannot be considered a significant disadvantage since it is inherent in almost all ancient communities. The effective system of Ancient Greece was promoted not only by democracy but also by the division into city-states with effective local self-government.
The Preferred Social Order
The system of ancient Greece seems to be the most preferable and successful for life. The desire for democracy and the development of solid economic centers led to the prosperity of ancient Greek society. The direct participation of citizens in the political life of society seems similar to what modern states strive for. The developed state system and cultural achievements make this ancient country attractive for living.
Conclusion
After comparing the social system of different ancient peoples, it becomes clear that it plays one of the defining values in the further development of the state. The primitive communal system of Africa and the ritual-oriented order in the Mayan society is unsuccessful. Greece, Rome, China and India show the greatest development, mainly due to a clear social structure. The preservation and value of culture also directly depend on the order in society.
Works Cited
Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010.
West, Sherri, and Snyder, Anthony. Readings in Global History. Kendall Hunt Publishing Company, 2008.
There are many ancient civilizations that have had a great influence on the world, leaving various concepts and items that would shape the world as it is known today. However, Mongolia’s effect in that regard, is one of the most notable, as this country used to be known as one of the largest empires in the world. To this day, its expansion triggers a sense of surprise and interest, motivating scholars to review its history more thoroughly. This text will feature two influential elements that have left a mark on the world and speak about an action that has affected my life.
Discussion
One of the reasons why the empire’s expansion and reputation are so surprising is its people. It was created by a group of pastoral peoples, which would span from the Pacific coast of Asia to Eastern Europe. This location, as mentioned earlier, would then become one of the largest land-situated empires in the world. The expansion has left a large and impressive impact on world history.
The Mongols successfully developed a reputation as rather fearsome warriors. This was attributed to their insight into their enemies’ tactics and the capability of adapting to various factors, such as terrain and the number of soldiers in the enemy’s army. Aside from those characteristics, the Mongols benefitted from the use of espionage, diplomacy, and fear for their victories (Cartwright). The bloodshed they caused on multiple battlefields would result in local generals being labeled as “hounds of war” and their soldiers being perceived as an ominous threat.
The Mongolian military was well-trained and taught to be loyal to Genghis Khan. They were successful at identifying talented individuals in conquered territories and would later use them for the further expansion of their army. The recruits’ training involved diversionary tactics, improving agility, adaptability, and endurance (History on the Net). Adaptability was strengthened with the help of the soldiers being prepared for various outcomes and circumstances, which would later work to their advantage during the army’s future conquests. All of these aforementioned factors are a vivid explanation of their frightening reputation and successful conquests.
The second impact the Mongolian empire had on world history lies within their approach towards religion. In spite of their fearsome reputation, they were rather accepting of religions different from their own (Strayer 535). It is important to mention, however, that they would not change their own religion, as they believed their faith was chosen by the heavens (Shi 111). Mongke, Genghis Khan’s successor, contributed to the promotion of religious tolerance (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica). Said acceptance was followed by one condition: they should not be used as the center of political opposition and they prayed for the khan (Cartwright). This helped Muslims find more converts among Mongolian troops and assisted Christians with acquiring the freedom that they lacked during the control of the former.
The first change was a rather multifaceted one, as the fearsome reputation was beneficial to the Mongols. However, it is understandable that it was not a positive fact for the people being conquered by them, as it was rightfully based on the structure, skills, and morals of the military. The second change demonstrated flexibility in the way religion was perceived in the empire. This means that it was a rather positive feature since all religions were safe as long as they were not used for political opposition and they prayed for the Khan’s wellbeing. The unusual approach to people’s beliefs is a valid example of a compromise during that time.
My life has featured some rather impactful decisions as well. For example, once I met a guy in my school who had the reputation of a weird person. My classmates believed that he was enthusiastic to the point of being quite annoying. This made me hesitate to talk to the student for a very long time. However, eventually, I decided to finally talk to him out of curiosity.
The boy did not mind at all, and, before I could notice, we were talking for a very long time. It turned out that he liked history as much as I did and was very knowledgeable. In fact, the guy appreciated the facts I knew as well. We would later discuss the past of different countries, such as China, France, Mongolia, and Italy. What surprised me about my new acquaintance is that I eventually learned a valuable lesson from him.
I used to be a very doubtful person, but the guy seemed so brave and courageous about everything, it felt as though his life was full of unusual experiences. He noticed that I was more shy and indecisive, so every time, he would motivate me to do things I liked, but did not have the courage to do. As a result, I became more assertive and would accept any opportunity that could ensure a positive memory, and I am very thankful for it.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Mongolian empire was notable for two features that left an impact on world history. The first one was their fearsome reputation, which was caused by the structure, skills, and knowledge of their military. This characteristic, along with espionage and diplomacy, helped them successfully conquer multiple territories. The second feature was their acceptance of religions different from theirs. This gave Christians more freedom and granted Muslims the opportunity to spread their beliefs. My own life involved a rather influential decision as well. After being doubtful, I decided to get acquainted with a weird student from my school. This guy later helped me become more assertive, motivating me to experience life in all its glory.
Works Cited
Cartwright, Mark. “Mongol Warfare.”World History Encyclopedia, 2019. Web.
The helm of history and the nerve center of civilization have changed hands many times during humankind’s existence. Isolated cultures either remained hidden and protected or were discovered and conquered by conquistadors (Duiker and Spielvogel 23). As seen throughout Europe, conflicts between neighboring civilizations may arise when they vie for territory and authority. Many occurrences led to civilizations’ emerging, flourishing, and collapsing. Constant conflict from all sides or a corrupt governmental structure can bring down any society. China and Japan maintained their power and prosperity as ancient Greece and Rome fell.
There was constant warfare among the ancient Greeks, but it was usually limited to small-scale conflicts. Many Greek civilians had their suits of armor and weapons and were always prepared to serve in the armed forces (Taub 249). Many military operations took place in the summer so people could return to their farms in time for the fall and spring harvests. Anxiety about one’s social status surfaced occasionally; like the Greco-Persian Wars, uprisings from below the social strata were sparked by discontent with the established order. The destruction of Ancient Greece was hastened in part by constant warfare. Grecia was divided into independent city-states before Alexander the Great’s conquests. Attributable to his death, the former generals were politically divided and eager to reclaim their former leadership positions. Cultural hubs of the Greek world shifted from Athens to places like Antioch in Turkey and Alexandria in Egypt. Rome was experiencing a power shift due to the Battle of Corinth in 146 B.C. In 147 B.C., the Roman Empire conquered Greece and established its control over the country.
There were several reasons for Rome’s downfall as well; the Gothic War was a major factor in the decline. The Huns had been terrorizing the Goths, so in 376 A.D., they sought refuge in the Roman Empire. However, due to a lack of provisions, the Goths rose and drove the Romans out from the Greuthungi battlefield. During the Battle of Adrianople in 378 A.D., the Romans were wiped out by the Goth uprising and the Greuthungi since their force was too thin. Rome’s internal collapse was primarily precipitated by the empire’s treatment and ties with its barbarian subjects (Duiker and Spielvogel 45). Even after the Sack of Rome in 410 A.D., the Goths still strived for greater power. In 476 A.D., Odoacer overthrew the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and the once-mighty Roman Empire lay in ruins.
Conflict, insurrection, and governmental upheaval were all factors in the decline of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. In contrast to these challenges, the Chinese and Japanese civilizations remained relatively stable throughout history. China responded to external influences by ensuring the stability of domestic institutions before engaging in international trade (Weller 29). Italian explorer Marco Polo helped build a fabled trading route in his exploration of China. More items became available in more locations because of the Silk Road trade. Attributable to its luxurious feel and beautiful sheen, silk quickly became central Asia’s de facto currency. Silk was in high demand worldwide because the production and care of silkworms was a closely guarded secret in China. Since China was still Asia’s only supplier of silk, the region’s trading networks kept expanding. Despite being attacked by nomads, China has managed to maintain its unity.
There were parallels between the Chinese and Japanese languages and cultures. Self-respect, reverence for elders, and veneration for nature were important tenets of both Confucianism and Shintoism. The attained equilibrium permeated all levels of government, all the way down to the commonwealth. The economic and monetary systems maintained excellent order and consistency (Weller 23). When people followed the advice of great thinkers, there were fewer uprisings. Age differences between European and Asian civilizations are notable. The unique historical and geographical conditions experienced by each culture accounted for these differences. In the case of Ancient Greece and Rome, they were frequently attacked by hostile powers. In contrast, China and Japan maintained their longstanding convictions; they sought isolation to hold on to their ancient customs, even as they incorporated some progressive ideas from other cultures. Formerly, they traded to extend their sway over other communities while mitigating any potential blowback. In the end, China and Japan outlived Greece and Rome.
Hunter-gatherers had been pushed to the edge of their geographic range by 300 A.D. The culture was shaped by its interactions with neighboring powers, China and Korea. However, it was adopted in China to support the Yamato dynasty. When Buddhism arrived in the middle of the sixth century, it created competition between Shinto and indigenous religions. The Emperor of Japan, Yamato, was increasingly influenced by powerful noble families. As the emperor’s influence waned, regional lords emerged as powerful actors. Minamoto family members relinquished their position as Shogun in 1185 after rising to power through a civil war between two powerful families in the 12th century (Duiker and Spielvogel 34). Writings of poetry and prose that have stood the test of time came from the imperial court. It was also at this period that the samurai warrior caste emerged. The shoguns’ power was abolished, and a new constitutional monarchy led by Emperor Meiji was founded. Following his father’s death, the Meiji Emperor’s son assumed the throne as the Taisho Emperor. A new democratic leader was installed in the country while he was battling a chronic illness.
Japan established its imperial dominance over Korea and conquered much of northern China during World War 1. When ties between the military administration and the civilian population of Japan broke down, Japan became an easy target for other powerful countries. In 1941, the Japanese army attacked the United States and hammered the American navy at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, although the loss of oil and petroleum was the most pressing issue for the Japanese. Popular culture in Japan celebrates the 196 nations that have contributed to making the world a better place to live and meet new people (Zhang 47). Every year, millions of tourists worldwide go to this country. Kyoto, the ancient Japanese capital, and Mount Fuji, a magnificent volcano close to Tokyo, are just two of the country’s numerous well-known tourist destinations. Japan’s rich history includes several languages scattered around the globe during World War II. History has made Japan and the globe as implausible as they are today.
Overexpansion was a primary factor in the decline of Rome and other great civilizations. The greater Empire exerted tremendous influence over the smaller ones. As more Romans converted to Christianity and abandoned their traditional beliefs, religion played a significant role in their history. Regular warfare was common as each city-state sought to establish its superiority over the others. This was not the only blow to Greece, but it certainly did not help their cause when trying to rally again to take on Rome. Since each Greek city-state had its government and rulers, their relationships were constantly shifting. During this time, these empires struggled to achieve victory over their foe. Warfare, insurrection, and governmental disruption were aspects of the downfall of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Peace, governmental stability, and unity made the Japanese and Chinese civilizations thrive.
Works Cited
Duiker, William, and Jackson Spielvogel. World History, Volume I: To 1800. 7th ed., Wadsworth Publishing, 2012.
Historical texts depict a wide array of barriers and oral methods utilized to avoid pregnancy. Even in ancient civilizations, women and men used various methods to plan their families using their understanding. Although early intra-uterine devices (IUDs), cervical caps, diaphragms, and condoms showed improvements in contraceptive effectiveness, some substances introduced into the vagina in the ancient civilizations were mechanical and toxic and could potentially cause discomfort injury. Throughout the extended history of trials to control pregnancy, social influences have been significant as research ideas. Moral and religious beliefs have interconnected with social and economic factors in the adoption and ban of contraception. It was unlawful to provide contraception information in most ancient civilizations, but health care providers had the authority to recommend methods in some cultures due to health concerns.
Premodern Period Contraceptives
During the course of history, several information sources describe the utilization of various birth control methods. These methods were in the type of magical chants and charms, potions, and devices, and they were all utilized to avoid conception. However, their safety and efficacy left a gap to be filled. For instance, the texts of Aetius of Amida instructed females to dress in cat testes in a hose around their belly button.1 The 13th-century women from Islamic culture were recommended to urinate in a wolf’s urine to prevent pregnancy. Other contraception methods included withdrawal (coitus interruptus) and abstinence, which are seen as the oldest known methods. Although not a pregnancy control method, infanticide (used by the Spartans) and abortion (used by Muslims) also had a significant role in establishing family size all over history.
Besides, historical writings portray a wide range of oral contraceptives, including formulas with allegedly sterilizing products such as bark or leaves of poplar, willow, ivy, and hawthorn.2 Several women perished from strychnine, mercury, arsenic, and lead poisoning during the middle ages because these products were considered highly contraceptive.3 Barrier birth control methods were proposed, such as smearing alum to the uterus and covering the reproductive organs with genitals.4 Contraceptive diaphragms made from mixtures of pomegranate seed, lime, and a crocodile or elephant dung were put in the vagina to avoid pregnancy. Other contraceptives included gold balls depicted and used in Casanova, sponges, sicklewort leaves, and wool tampons immersed in wine.5 The following transitory histories demonstrate the several ways that men and women across cultures tried to enjoy their sex life while planning their families sensibly during the ancient civilizations.
Behavioral Methods
Most of the ancient birth control methods were dependent on sexual deeds and are still applied today by millions of individuals worldwide. For centuries, abstinence, breastfeeding, foretelling fertility, and ancient people utilized outercourse to prevent unwanted pregnancies. Even today, these methods still play a significant role in family planning. Continuous abstinence, especially for women, was very crucial for ancient individuals who knew the relationship between vaginal sex and conception. After their initial menstrual period, women in different cultures were required to abstain from sex. Activists believed that both husbands and wives should live without sex to control the size of their families.6 Although abstinence among women in ancient civilizations was primarily intended to ensure the paternity of the children by their husbands, it played a significant role in preventing unwanted pregnancies out of wedlock.
Complete breastfeeding can delay menstruation and ovulation. Women from different cultures, especially the underprivileged, have used extended lactation to set apart their pregnancies throughout history. Women from ancient Egypt were recommended to breastfeed their babies for three years to reduce the high rates of infant mortality and decrease the number of unintended pregnancies.7 Individuals have tried hard to understand how a woman’s fertility works. Although the process was not well understood, various ancient cultures tried to introduce contraception methods based on their knowledge then. For instance, in ancient India, vaginal sex was urged during menstruation as it was believed that menstrual blood was semen, and babies were formed when it joined with a man’s semen.8 Therefore, this was the perfect time for couples to make babies.
Other cultures, such as the Jewish culture, prohibited sex during and days after menstruation as they believed that the woman is in her peak fertility after menstruation. In ancient Europe, periodic abstinence was compulsory due to religious reasons, which might have had a significant impact on preventing pregnancy. Christian men and women were obligated to abstain from sex for at least five months every year – during menstruation, at least three days before receiving communion, all Sundays, all feast days, 20 Pentecost days, 20 Advent days, and 40 Lent days.9 Sexual intercourse was also prohibited during pregnancy. In ancient civilizations, everybody had to abstain from sex during these times because spiritual union was obligatory.
In the ancient past, an efficient calendar technique and a novel vaginal mucus technique were other popular techniques used by women to prevent pregnancy. Women with consistent menstrual cycles could count days to determine their unsafe and safe days. Women were trained to identify their cervical discharges and recognize their safe days when they could consider unprotected sex.10 Africans were amongst the initial people to become familiar with their fertility sufficiently to plan their births in the ancient past. They noticed that examining the properties of their cervical secretions could assist them in avoiding or planning pregnancies.11
Withdrawal of the penis during intercourse before ejaculation is another contraception method used during ancient civilizations. Although it was considered a sin by Christians, it was among the most accepted birth control techniques in the world. In ancient India and China, men were inspired to practice withdrawal without ejaculation because people believed that ejaculating caused a significant loss of masculinity. Too much ejaculation would weaken men’s staying power and would be less likely to produce baby boys. Although not practiced as a birth control method, this withdrawal without ejaculation in a woman’s vagina acted as a contraception method. Since sexual pleasure was considered a sin by most ancient Christians, having intercourse without ejaculation was not considered a sin because having ejaculation was the only man’s pleasure during sex. Therefore, sex without ejaculation was the only innocent sex man could get. Although it was not formerly understood as a birth control method, withdrawal was broadly practiced among Christians and other religious cultures, and it helped in family planning in a way. In Genesis, there are references of withdrawal (coitus interruptus) as a contraception method when Onan ejaculates on the soil to avoid fathering a child with Tamar – his late brother’s wife.
Outercourse is a word that stands for other alternatives to penile-vaginal sex, such as masturbation. Masturbation and other nonreproductive sexual deeds are contraceptives in that they cannot lead to pregnancy. The Kama Sutra is one of the greatest written celebrations of nonprocreative sex practices practiced in ancient civilizations. Authored in 400 CE, the Kama Sutra describes erotic nonprocreative sex, which was part of life for the ancient Hindus. In ancient New England, outercourse was urged by the practice of “bundling.” Due to the long distances for courtships and the scarcity of bedroom areas, unmarried partners slept in one bed, either completely clothed or with a barrier between them. It was allowed for the young couples to become intimate but not to have vaginal sex. Anal and oral intercourse were other forms of outercourse used during ancient civilizations. Women and men were discovering the pleasures of seduction and outercourse to prevent pregnancies.
Barrier Methods
The barrier contraception methods used in ancient civilizations include condoms, vaginal sponges, contraceptive suppositories, films, jellies, creams, foams, cervical caps, and diaphragms. In China and Japan, condoms were used before the 15th century. In China, condoms were made out of lamb intestines and oiled paper. In Japan, they were made of thin leather and tortoiseshell.12 They were mainly intended to prevent sexually transmitted diseases. They were usually one-size-fits-all and had to be put in water before wearing. The first female condom is believed to have been utilized in ancient Greece. Due to a curse, King Minos ejaculated scorpions and snakes that killed the women he slept with13. As a result, his physician thought of inserting a goat’s bladder into his partners, thus holding all these poisonous animals before they could cause any harm.
All over history, females have been using various constituents to obstruct the passage of semen to the uterus and soak up semen. In South Africa, women used vegetable seedpods; in ancient Greece, empty halves of pomegranates were utilized; in Japan and China, wads of bamboo, moss, and seaweed were used. Sponges were possibly the most universally applied materials to absorb and block semen. Ancient Hebrew texts describe a contraception method of inserting natural sea sponges in the vagina to avoid conception. The texts recommended that the sponge had to be soaked in vinegar would prevent semen from getting into the uterus. Before the 15th century, French women used a soaked sponge in brandy to make the sperm weaker.14 The contraceptive sponge was used to protect girls who were too young to endure pregnancy, to prevent the risk of fertilizing another egg in pregnant women, and to avoid pregnancy while the mother was breastfeeding.
Barrier control methods can be dated back to 1850 BCE in ancient Egypt when substances were buried with deceased women to avoid pregnancy in the next life. The contraceptives they used included crocodile dung, sodium carbonate, and honey.15 In 1550 BCE, Egyptians used cotton bandages soaked in fermented acacia juice to prevent conception. They would insert the sponge in the vagina, and the acacia in the sponge would develop into lactic acid, which was an effective spermicide. In the 6th century, Greek women smeared their cervixes with cedar rosin mixed with wine, alum, lead, or myrtle. It was also recommended that the men smear their penises with vinegar, gallnut, pomegranate, or alum.16 Aristotle proposed smearing the vagina with cedar oil, lead ointment, or olive oil mixed with frankincense.17 In the first century, Indian women utilized rock salt immersed in lubricant for contraception18. They also used palasha tree seeds, ghee, honey, and elephant dung. Cocoa butter contraceptive suppositories were also used by some ancient cultures in Europe in the ancient civilizations.19 Ancient American slave women would chew the bark of cotton roots to avoid conception as it was believed to contain compounds that obstruct the production of progesterone, making it impossible for pregnancy to continue.
Ancient versions of cervical caps or diaphragms also existed in ancient civilizations.20 Women placed items that would obstruct semen from reaching the uterus in their cervixes. These substances had been utilized for years all over the world. Asian prostitutes used oiled paper discs to cover their cervixes. Opium balls, vegetables, fruits, rock salt, tree roots, silver, seeds, pepper, wool, rubber, beeswax, tissue paper, and sponge have all been used to cover womens’ cervixes in attempts to prevent unwanted pregnancies.21 In Ancient Rome, women used a bronze pessary to block the cervix. While it could stay there during sex, such sex would be painful.
In ancient Britain, there were several pessaries that were being used throughout the empire.22 Sponges enfolded in silk nets with withdrawal strings were used and marketed in magazines and newspapers in the US. However, there were laws that put down the distribution of contraceptive information and devices in ancient civilizations.23
Hormonal Methods
According to an ancient Greek myth, Persephone declined to eat anything else apart from pomegranate seeds when she was taken from her mom. Medical historians believe that she only consumed pomegranate seeds because they were among the best ancient oral contraceptives. That prevented her from conceiving a baby when she did not want to be. Greek women distinguished her for many years, and men were prohibited from these celebrations. Four plants – pomegranate, vitex, pine, and pennyroyal were key to these secret rituals. All these trees are now known to have contraceptive effects.24 It appears that women met to share the birth control secrets that Persephone acquired from her mother.25 In this way, they learned the various ways they could control unwanted pregnancies and conceive only at the tie of their choosing.
During the seventh century BCE, a stimulating contraceptive market developed in North Africa. A flowering plant known as silphium was believed to be a reliable contraceptive that it had a high demand all over the ancient world.26 Women from different cultures used herbs to plan their families. For example, women in Sri Lanka and India ate papaya when they wanted to prevent pregnancy. The papaya seeds were also used as a male contraceptive. They believed that eating them on a daily basis could reduce the sperm count of a man to zero – a process that was overturned when the man stopped consuming them. Modern researchers are usually surprised to find out how effective these ancient contraceptives were at preventing unwanted pregnancies.
Contraceptive information started vanishing in the 13th century in Europe because those who had the information became more dreadful about disseminating it. After all, sharing contraceptive knowledge at this time was considered heresy or witchcraft – which were punishable to death. In colonial America, African-Caribbean slaves became adept in contraceptives because they did not want to bear children who would later be sold as slaves by their masters.27 Therefore, women ensured that they utilized the available means to prevent conception.
The birth control pill emerged in the mid 20th century and was used by millions of women for family planning. However, the foundational research for the pill was based on the notion that several generations of Mexicans had been consuming a particular type of wild yam, the Barbasco root – for birth control. The progestin that was combined with estrogen to make the first pill was extracted from this yam. Although the first pill was not perfect, its straightforward application and simplicity spread to millions of females, and for the first time, they were able to disconnect vaginal sex from reproduction. That shows the effectiveness of the ancient use of the wild yam in avoiding pregnancy.
Using contraceptives after vaginal sex is a prehistoric practice. There have been various post-coital techniques that women and men throughout history have used. One method involves getting the ejaculate out of the vagina before fertilization occurs. This has happened in various ways. The woman possibly utilizes her fingers to guide urine to clean out the ejaculate from the vagina.28 Another way was the woman sneezing or blowing out her nose a number of times, then shouting loudly and jumping backward several times.29 Early Hebrew women were believed to be able to eject the ejaculate out of their vaginas by forcefully contracting their vaginal muscles.30 A much less strange way of removing the ejaculate was using a vaginal douche. This method involved using a syringe full of a mixture of alum and mixtures of raspberry leaf, green tea, hemlock bark, or oak. This recipe was claimed to remove most of the semen in the vagina and damage the fertilizing properties of any remaining semen.31
In the 9th century, a Persian doctor commended inserting paper into the vagina. The paper was could into probe-shaped material and smeared with ginger water.32 They were functional but caused infections that potentially caused death. Most of these ancient contraception methods were not tested for safety and thus caused adverse impacts to their users.
Ancient Period Contraceptives
The difference between the contraception methods used in the ancient era and those developed later is that the subsequent contraceptives were established on a more accurate understanding of the contraception process. The evolution to a modern age of birth control devices was exhibited by the discovery of the male condom by physicians in ancient civilizations. Also, in ancient civilizations, both the contraceptive nozzle used to insert a fluid solution of zinc sulfate or alum into the vagina and the contraceptive sponge were available in some cultures.
People throughout ancient civilizations understood that various plants could help avoid pregnancy. Some barks or seeds were used as natural spermicides – chemicals that destroyed sperms before fertilization.33 Several intravaginal devices comprising of barriers of diverse shapes or paddings became widespread to avoid pregnancy. Also, although it was not considered a contraception method, abortion was practiced in some ancient cultures. However, the practice was highly prohibited by the laws due to the complexity of the practice in the ancient world. Some cultures allowed women to undertake abortions after a divorce so as to prevent getting a child with a hateful husband. Women used secretive phrases to refer to various vaginal douches, suppositories, and powders because it was prohibited to market contraceptives in most ancient cultures. The original IUD used in ancient civilizations was a loop made of silkworm belly.
Modern-day contraceptives, mainly the IUD, cervical cap, diaphragm, and condom, represented an improvement in terms of efficacy compared to ancient contraceptives. Although all except the IUD depended on penis withdrawal and thus required a higher degree of conformity, they presented an improved contraceptive efficacy than the earlier methods. However, the safety of the ancient birth control methods was still a major concern. Various constituents put inside the vagina were irritating and toxic. Some mechanical tools had the possibility of injury and discomfort.
Factors That Influenced the Availability of Contraceptives
Various legal obstacles and social issues have impacted the availability of birth control methods, including health effects, familial organization, gender relations, religious prohibitions and beliefs, social or economic class, and moral arguments.34 Moral pressures on child conception were apparent in ancient Greece, where Plato argued that “if too many children are being born, there are measures to check propagation [and] a high birth rate can be encouraged and stimulated by conferring marks of distinction or disgrace.”35 Throughout history, religion has been a key player in instilling social attitudes toward birth control. While Judeo-Christian faiths formerly opposed contraception, the Roman Catholic Church has likely been its most insistent opponent.
Moral arguments are interconnected with class and economic factors in support of contraception. Ancient philosophers believed that overpopulation resulted in the overuse of scarce resources and lacked enough resources. Therefore, they advocated for underprivileged families to avoid childbearing. However, access to contraception seemed to be less available to the less fortunate, the very individuals in whom society deemed birth control as most necessary. Class differences in birth rates were clear in the early civilizations when contraception advocates were advocating for the rights of poor women.
Numerous legal hindrances impeded the efforts of those wishing or seeking to provide contraceptives. For instance, the Catholic Church disallowed all contraceptive information and devices, although it was independent of local and state laws. However, the public was granted the chance to loosen up the ban, but most chose to keep the law operational. It was prohibited to disseminate information on birth control in most ancient cultures, even though women wanted such material and asked for it from physicians, creating a challenging situation for doctors who preferred providing contraception devices and information. There were no many writings existing in the ancient past regarding birth control methods.36 that physicians could use on patients in the event that contraception was clinically allowed. The restriction of the negation was clear: contraceptives were only to be given by healthcare providers exclusively for health concerns.
Conclusion
The use of contraceptives is not a modern or new idea. Even ancient societies understood the connection between vaginal intercourse and ejaculation and the consequent conception of a baby. Some of the ancient contraception methods were interesting. However, most of them were unsuccessful, and many were not safe if not essentially deadly. Throughout the prolonged history of efforts to control birth, social dynamics have been of great significance, affecting the utilization and access of these methods. Disputes encompassed the development and initiation of contraceptives, and in some cultures, it was highly contentious and extremely politicized. With the arrival of oral contraceptives, women acquired the ability to plan their families for the first time and consequently gained control over their lives.
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Footnotes
Asbell B. The Pill: A Biography of the Drug That Changed the World. New York: Random House, 1995, p. 6.
McLaren A. A History of Contraception: From Antiquity to the Present Day. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Basil Blackwell, Inc., 1990, p. 15.
Finch BE, Green H. Contraception Through the Ages. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1963: p. 98,99.
McLaren, A History of Contraception, p. 16.
Finch, Contraception Throught the Ages, p. 98.
Speroff L, Darney PD. A Clinical Guide for Contraception, 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1996: p. 27.
Lipsey, Richard G., Kenneth Carlaw, and Clifford Bekar. “Historical Record on the Control of Family Size.” (2005): p. 337.
Fowkes, Charles, ed. The Illustrated Kama Sutra: Ananga-Ranga, Perfumed Garden: The Classic Eastern Love Texts. Park Street Press, 1991, p. 3
Ranke-Heinemann, Uta. Eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven: Women, sexuality, and the Catholic Church. New York: Doubleday, 1990, p. 8
Knowles, Jon. “Vasectomy Lapel Pins.” personal remembrance. Tracking Your Fertility Pattern to Prevent Pregnancy. New York: Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 2001, p. 7
Shivanandan, Mary. “Natural Sex. New York: Rawson.” (1979), p. 18
Parisot, Jeannette, and Geraldine Rudge. Johnny Come Lately: A short history of the condom. Journeyman Press, 1987, p. 19
Rose, Herbert Jennings, Herbert William Parke, Charles Martin Robertson, B. C. Dietrich, and Alan AD Peatfield. “Minos.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. 2016: p. 17
Keown Jr, Kenneth K. “Historical perspectives on intravaginal contraceptive sponges.” Contraception 16, no. 1 (1977): p. 4.
Suitters, Beryl, and Fédération internationale pour le planning familial. The History of Contraceptives: University of Chile, Casa Central, Alameda Bernardo O’Higgins, Santiago... Fanfare Press, 1967, p. 24
Himes, Norman Edwin. “Medical history of contraception.” (1936), P. 21
Suitters, The History of Contraceptives, p. 25
Himes, Medical history of contraception, p. 33
Chesler, Ellen. Woman of valor: Margaret Sanger and the birth control movement in America. Simon and Schuster, 2007, p. 29
Suitters, The History of Contraceptives, p. 18
Himes, Medical history of contraception, p. 12
Asbell, Bernard. “The pill: a biography of the drug that changed the world.” (1995), p. 4
Chesler, Woman of Valor, p. 13
Hawley, Richard, Barbara Levick, Barbara Levick, and Beryl Rawson. Women in antiquity: new assessments. Psychology Press, 1995, p. 21
Riddle, John M. Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance. Harvard University Press, 1992, p. 34
Riddle, Contraception and Abortion, p.19
Tone, Andrea. Devices and desires: A history of contraceptives in America. Macmillan, 2002, p. 14
Himes, Medical history of contraception, p. 5
Skuy, Percy. “Tales of contraception.” North York, Ontario, Canada: Janssen-Ortho (1995), p. 4
Himes, Medical history of contraception, p. 13
Bullough, Vern L., and Bonnie Bullough. Women and prostitution: A social history. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1987, p. 11
Suitters, The History of Contraceptives, p. 13
Asbell, The Pill, p. 8
Asbell, The Pill, p. 9
Plato. The Laws. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1942, p.15
A Selected Bibliography on the Technique of Contraception and Social Aspects of Birth Control. New York: Holland-Rantos Co., 1931, p. 11