Category: Ancient Civilizations

Introduction

In the time period 605-562 BC, Babylon was a renowned power. This time period also coincided with the life time of King Nebuchadnezzar. His father, King Nabopolassar, had created the Chaldean dynasty and had invaded Assyria, forcing them to go towards Northern Mesopotamia. This set the stage for Nebuchadnezzars legendary reign. Nebuchadnezzar used military might to further alienate the Assyrians, together with any Egyptian sympathizers. So consumed was he in this quest that only the death of his father made him return back to Babylon, where he became the next King (mnsu, N.D.).

Architecture in Babylon

Nebuchadnezzars achievements show just how advanced Ancient Babylon was during his time. He is best known for two architectural feats. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are still are a wonder even today. According to legend, Nebuchadnezzar was inspired by the mountainous home land of his wife during the construction. Nearby, Nebuchadnezzar also built the Ishtar Gate, and adorned it with amazing reliefs resembling Babylons imagery of the day: dragons and bulls. The gate was built to represent the goddess Ishtar  god of life, fertility, Eros and war (mnsu, N.D.).

Science in Babylon

Babylons science was very advanced during King Nebuchadnezzars time. They already had astronomers amongst themselves. These astronomers could accurately calibrate time and seasons using the relative positions of the planets and stars. The goddess Ishtar herself was the religious equivalent of the planet Venus in astronomy. Under Nebuchadnezzars influence, both religion and astronomy complimented each other (mnsu, N.D.). It was a testament to the many faces of the otherwise warlike King.

Literature in Babylon

Babylon already had text in their culture during Nebuchadnezzars time: they could read and write. This art was more prominently utilized by members of the government, to enlist the support of the King and the citizens in government projects. The religious leaders also used ancient scriptures put in scrolls to communicate their religious ideologies. King Nebuchadnezzar himself frequently used written letters to address his people. Some of his writings have been recovered, and they point to the fact that though a pagan, Nebuchadnezzar still used incidences of inexplicable events to evoke religious fear amongst his subjects (Ellis et al, 2001).

War

King Nebuchadnezzars reign was full of war invasions into the neighboring lands. In 605 BC, soon after attaining the position of a King Nebuchadnezzar attacked the Egyptians at Carchemish. The Egyptians collective morale was destroyed by their losses during this attack, and soon enough, they fell under Nebuchadnezzars rule. But what followed thereafter was a period of attacks and counter attacks, made worse by intermittent drought periods. Simultaneously, Babylonians were besieging Jerusalem, and ultimately captured its King, Zedekiah. The Kings family was slaughtered, and he was taken prisoner to Babylon. Jerusalem was then utterly destroyed with fire. Any survivors were taken into Babylon as slaves (Nemet and Karen, 1998).

The existing records depict Nebuchadnezzar as a wily king who was able to squash dissenters even from within his own army. In 594 BC he was able to bring under control a raging rebellion within his own army. He also acted against a potential invasion from some tribes living in what is now Southwest Iran. His focus remain steadfast  to capture as many of the surrounding cities as possible. During his reign, he attacked all the tribes in present day Saudi Arabia, Judah, Syria, and Jerusalem. He is said to have staged a 13 year siege on the city of Tyre (Grossman, 2007).

Conclusion

Nebuchadnezzars many faces showed up even in the war zones. He is perhaps the first person to have sent an ambassador, Nabonidus, to intervene and defuse conflict between the Lydians and the Medes in Asia Minor. When he died at around 83 years old, he left a mixed legend: war leader, architect, arbitrator, religious protagonist etc (Grossman, 2007). A mixed legend, but an immortal one nevertheless.

Works cited

Ellis, Roger, Oakley-Brown, Liz (2001) Translation and Nation: Towards a Cultural Politics of Englishness Clevedon, UK, Buffalo, NY Multilingual Matters.

Grossman, Mark (2007) World Military Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary New York, NY Facts on File, Inc., 2007.

Mnsu (N.D.) The Chaldeans. Web.

Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. p. Westport, 1998. Greenwood eBooks.

The Chosen Example

The craftsmanship of architects from ancient Greece is so outstanding that it still influences the current architectural designs. The Met (2018) presents some pieces of classical Greek architecture. One of these sculptures is the marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis (The Met, 2018, para. 1). This part of a column is made from marble, and it showcases the most recognizable elements of ancient Greeces architectural forms. First of all, as shown in Figure 1, this column has volutes  spiral ornaments at the top, which are characteristic of the Ionic order. The style of the Ionic order was often used by Greeks, who adorned the spirals with stone flowers and other types of vegetation. Second, the carving at the top and bottom of the described column are highly detailed, which shows that the ancient architects were incredibly skilled in working with stone. At the bottom, the pattern resembles the scales of an animal or the skin of a plant.

Flower imagery, situated at the top of the column and under the volutes, is a common decoration for various Greek buildings and temples. However, as the Met (2018) states, this particular sculpture may not have been placed on the outside of the building but instead in one of the rooms. The column appears to be smaller than the other ones found at the same site. Therefore, this marble piece might be intended as a decoration for the interior and not part of the supporting structure.

Examples Origins and Context

This column is attributed to the Hellenistic period, and its creation dates to the 300s B.C. (The Met, 2018). The remains of this stone sculpture once were a part of the Temple of Artemis, situated in Sardis, an ancient city in Lydia. Sardis was one of the most important cities of the Persian Empire. Now, it would be located in the territory of modern Turkey. The combination of various influences in the town was represented by the cultures of Greeks, Romans, and Persians. The described column is a clear example of the Greek contribution to the citys architecture.

The vastness of the Greek influence on the citys appearance could be explained by the strength of the Alexander the Greats empire that was in its bloom in the 300s B.C. (The Met, 2018). The historical importance shows the impact that Greeks had on the city of the Persian kingdom. The context of this column also has a religious side, as Artemis was one of the central deities of ancient Greece. The design of this column and its vegetal adornments might be inspired by Artemis symbols  wild animals and cypresses. Thus, its bottom and top decorations may be referenced to the leaves of a cypress.

Contemporary Architecture Work

Ancient Greek architectures influence can be found in many works and projects that stand to this day. In the U.S., many government buildings and historical monuments use some details of the Greek style. Perhaps, ionic columns and highly-detailed carved decorations make these projects seem more grand and formidable. For instance, the Lincoln Memorial is one of the most famous examples of using a temple-resembling structure with columns, marble details, and vegetal adornments (U.S. National Park Service, 2018). This monument shows that the elements of ancient Greek architecture remain a staple of a powerful and triumphant design.

References

Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis [Image]. (2018). Web.

The Met. (2018). Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis. Web.

U.S. National Park Service. (2018). History & culture  Lincoln Memorial. Web.

Description of the Exhibit

While visiting the Ancient Greece Architecture Gallery which is located at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, I selected a piece of art that expressed the main features of Ancient Greek Culture. The chosen exhibit is two bronze helmets (see Picture 1,2).

The helmets belong to the late 7^th century BCA. Along with the three mitral that were exhibited with them are ones of the finest examples of armor that was found in the south of Crete, where they were obviously made. According to the inscriptions on the armor, the helmets were captured as a trophy and served as a dedication. In repoussé, there is an image of a pair of young people with wings that hold a couple of intertwined snakes. Below them, there are two panthers with ordinary heads. Additionally, there is an inscription on the helmet which says: Neopolis. On the other helmet, there is a picture of a horse on both sides and on the front, there is a lion (Karoglou, 2016). The inscription on the second helmet says that the son of Euklotas, Synenitos, possessed this object.

Similar Examples from the Textbook

The main materials of which most ancient Greek sculptures were made are terracotta, bronze, and ivory. There are many examples of objects made of these materials in the textbook which resemble those that I saw at the museum. For example, there are many pictures of terracotta statuettes, such as terracotta statuettes of an actor, a doll, a standing woman with the articulated arms, a young boy sitting on a chair, and others. There are also bronze items including armor, statuettes, household items, and other objects which are approximately the same style and size. Among them are the bronze statuettes of Artemis, an Ethiopian, a horse, a warrior, and so on. In addition, there are a couple of examples of ivory objects.

Influence of Greek Architecture

Ancient Greece is often considered the cradle of western architecture. Indeed, its architecture, political thought, art, and literature have had a major impact on the western world for more than a thousand years. Regarding the architecture, the influence of Ancient Greece is the most outstanding. Greek architects built some of the finest buildings in the entire Ancient World (Karoglou, 2016). Even today, some of their structures, such as stadia, temples, theaters, and many peculiarities of their buildings are used as a foundation for the construction of modern structures.

The ancient Greek architectural styles are divided into three types, namely, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Doric is one of the oldest architectural orders existing today. Its peculiarities are vertical columns and a plain roof and on the facade. A vivid modern example of this style in the U.S. is Perrys Victory and International Peace Memorial in Ohio. The Ionic order is more elegant, intricate, and delicate than Doric style. This style was dominant in Ancient Greece during the Hellenistic period. A vivid modern example of this style in the U.S. is the Virginia State Capitol building. The Corinthian order is very similar to the Ionic style but with more sophisticated details (Karoglou, 2016). Illustrative modern examples of this style in the U.S. are the U.S. Capitol building and the U.S. Supreme Court building.

Additionally, the consequences of this impact can currently be observed in almost every big city in Europe and the U.S. It is preserved primarily in small details, such as the columns of theaters, the facades of buildings, the bas-reliefs of churches, and various sculptures. Another example of the influence of ancient Greek architecture is the Athena Column by Leonidas Drosis in front of the Academy of Athens (see Picture 3).

Other illustrative examples of the influence of ancient Greek architecture on modern architecture include such famous structures as the Prado Museum in Madrid, the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., Cambridge University in Cambridge, England, and so on.

References

Athena column [Image]. (2016). Web.

Karoglou, K. (2016). The collection of Greek terracotta figurines at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Les Carnets de lACoSt, 14(3) 67.

Two bronze helmets [Image]. (2016). Web.

There is no doubt that Ancient Greeks can be regarded as one of the groups which have made the most significant contributions to the development of different types of art. Speaking about the particular spheres which have been influenced by inventions made by Ancient Greeks, it is necessary to list the sculptural arts, figures made of clay, traditional and theatrical costumes, stone ornamentation, literature, and architecture (Damala, Hornecker, Van Der Vaart, Van Dijk, & Ruthven, 2016). The latter can be seen as the area of expertise of Ancient Greeks  the architectural decisions proposed by them were so convenient and spectacular that some of their traditional architectural elements are still used all over the world to make buildings more attractive and create the unique atmosphere for people visiting them. Within the frame of the assignment, we were supposed to visit the Met Archive in order to get acquainted with Ancient Greek art and establish links between ancient trends and practices which are popular among architectures nowadays. In fact, there is a range of interesting pictures in the archive but, due to my interest in ancient stone sculpture, I have decided to analyze the column from the temple of Artemis (Pic.1).

The example of the cultural heritage of Ancient Greeks that I have chosen was created in Hellenistic period. Speaking about the general knowledge concerning the column, it is necessary to say that the discussed element presents one of the most recognizable artefacts related to Ancient Greece. The column is made of marble, which has always been regarded as expensive material used in temples and other buildings to glorify them. In reference to the size of the given artefact, it needs to be said that it is more than three meters high. Being one of the most famous stone sculptures, the artefact presents only one section of the entire column. The Temple of Artemis was located in Sardis. The excavations in the territory were initiated by a few researchers at the beginning of the twentieth century, and the discussed artefact was found more than ninety years ago. Speaking about its appearance, it is important to note a range of decorative details located on the top of the column. Considering that each detail was carved without the use of modern equipment, one needs to assume that the techniques of ancient architectures were extremely sophisticated for the time.

Speaking about the influence that Ancient Greek culture still has on modern art, it is important to note that its hint can be found even in those cultures which have nothing in common with Ancient Greeks. In fact, modern people often see Ancient Greece as the country where the outstanding talents of the time were developed. Coupled with the popularity of modern Greece among tourists from different parts of the world and the global interest in Greek mythology, recognizable artefacts act as the things that will always be associated with the country. Apart from that, Ancient Greece often acts as a symbol of education, and this is why this style is particularly good for modern educational institutions. Thus, if we have a look at the Rotunda at the University of Virginia, it is possible to notice a row of high columns, the style which was inspired by Greek and Roman cultures (Donald, n.d.).

In fact, understanding that architectural decisions of Ancient Greeks are simple and sophisticated at the same time, people in many countries imitate this famous style to feel the atmosphere and increase the number of beautiful places in their cities.

References

Damala, A., Hornecker, E., Van Der Vaart, M., Van Dijk, D., & Ruthven, I. (2016). The Loupe: Tangible augmented reality for learning to look at Ancient Greek art. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 16(5), 73-85.

Donald, D. (n.d.). Greek architecture on modern buildings in the U.S. Web.

Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis [digital image]. (n.d.). Web.

Introduction

Among numerous forms of arts and crafts that existed in Ancient Greece, it is possible to mention architecture as one of the most recognizable and influential aspects of this culture due to the combination of beauty and utility. The purpose of this assignment is to choose one example of the Ancient Greek architecture in order to develop a reflection essay on digital field trip. This paper aims to explore the origins and context of the chosen example along with the discussion of its significance for the contemporary architecture and culture at large.

The Description of the Chosen Example

The Metropolitan Museum of Art website offers an immensely diverse collection of various artworks from different historical periods. Thus, I decided to elxplore the example of Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, which is shown in Figure 1 (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2018).

This marble column is from Hellenistic period (ca. 300 B.C.), its height is 1421/8 in. (361 cm), and it is the perfect representation of traditional Ancient Greek architecture and sculpture (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2018). Among various types of columns that existed in Ancient Greece, the chosen one is the Ionic one. The column appears to be significantly massive due to its height and width.

Explanation of the Origins and Context of the Example

It is of high importance to overview the historical context of the example as well as its origins. According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art (2018) website, the columns provenance is Sardis. It is also mentioned that the example was gifted to The American Society for the Excavation of Sardis in 1926 (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2018). The column was originally located in the Temple of Artemis, and it is possible that it was meant to be the central point of the interior design due to its elaborated scale-like patterns and unique foliated base (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2018).

The Influence of Ancient Greece Architecture on Contemporary Works

Further, it is of high importance to state that, aside from its evident historical and cultural significance, the Ancient Greek architectural principles continue to shape the development of contemporary architecture and design. As it is mentioned by Leshem (2016), one of the most prominent concepts in Ancient Greece was Oikonomia, which is defined as the rational management of resources in various spheres of life, including architecture (p. 228).

In his very profound and detailed research on the topic, Anderson (2015) concludes that it is possible to trace the influence of the Ancient Greek architecture in the various representations of Western Canon of architecture. One of the most recognizable and evident examples of Ancient Greek influence on the modern cultural patterns is the Capitol building in Washington, D. C.

Conclusion

It could be hardly doubted that the culture of Ancient Greece has influenced nearly every aspect of the contemporary Western culture by continuous and profound impact throughout the history of development of the modern society. In particular, the influence of Ancient Greece architecture is highly recognized by numerous researchers and scholars. In conclusion, it is possible to state that this reflection essay serves as a profound observation of the impact of the Ancient Greek architecture, based on the analysis of one example from the Metropolitan Museum of Arts website.

References

Anderson, R. C. (2015). Authenticity and architecture: Representation and reconstruction in context. Yearbook for Ritual and Liturgical Studies/Jaarboek voor liturgie-onderzoek, 31, pp. 181-189.

Cogswell, R. (2018). The U. S. Capitol Building. Web.

Leshem, D. (2016). Retrospectives: What did the Ancient Greeks mean by Oikonomia? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(1), 225-238.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art. (2018). Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis. Web.

Example 1

Title: Ivory plaque of a lioness devouring a boy

Date: 9th-8th century BC

Place of origin: the palace of Ashurnasirpal II, Nimrud, northern Iraq

Detailed Description: The carving depicts the scene of a lioness attacking an African boy wearing jeweled bracelets and armlets (Ivory plaque of a lioness, n.d.)

Historical Value: The piece of art is a significant source of learning about Mesopotamian art. It shows the level of carving mastery at the time. The tiniest details are clear and accurate.

How does this image prove or disprove the statement about the nature of art from this region, It has been suggested that the art from the ancient Near East often contains elements that can be seen as fearsome, militant, and/or political in nature? The image proves the statement that the art from the region is fearsome. In the carving, a scene of a young boys death is depicted. Moreover, he is being killed by a dangerous animal. This carving demonstrates cruelty and danger.

Example 2

Title: The Black Obelisk

Date: 825 BC

Place of origin: Nimrud, northern Iraq

Detailed Description: a limestone obelisk depicting Shalmaneser III, praising the kings and ministers accomplishments (The black obelisk, 2017)

Historical Value: The piece shows the mastery of stone-carving art. It is significant as it teaches about the hierarchical structure of the period. Also, it demonstrates the values favored at that time.

How does this image prove or disprove the statement about the nature of art from this region, It has been suggested that the art from the ancient Near East often contains elements that can be seen as fearsome, militant, and/or political in nature?

The image proves the statement about the political nature of art from Ancient Mesopotamia. The king is depicted as the highest element of the hierarchical structure. Tribute bearers demonstrate how people used to please their ruler (The black obelisk, 2017). Also, there is evidence of animal hunting, which is also an image of cruelty.

Example 3

Title: The Warka vase

Date: ca. 3000 BC

Place of origin: Uruk, southern Iraq

Detailed Description: a carved alabaster vase; nearly 100 cm high

Historical Value: The vase presents a great value since it depicts peoples beliefs. The piece tells much about the cultural and religious life of the people (The Warka vase, 2015). Also, it demonstrates the art of carving on stone.

How does this image prove or disprove the statement about the nature of art from this region, It has been suggested that the art from the ancient Near East often contains elements that can be seen as fearsome, militant, and/or political in nature?

The image disproves the statement. The vase does not show any fearsome or political actions. There are images of gods and people carrying gifts to them. The vase shows the implications of marriage traditions.

The Art of the Ancient Aegean

Example 1

Title: Elegant ewer

Date: 1450 BC

Place of origin: Crete

Detailed Description: an urn decorated with reed pattern

Historical Value: The ewer shows one of the tools Minoans used to make their everyday chores easier. The pitcher demonstrates that they cared not only about comfort but also the pleasant outlook of objects (Minoan art pottery, 2013). The historical value is in depicting how important such things were for the people.

How does this image prove or disprove the statement about the nature of art from this region, It has been suggested that the art from the ancient Aegean often contains elements that can be seen as harmonious, exuberant, and non-threatening?

The image proves the statement. Minoans (one of the civilizations belonging to the Aegean art period) created harmonious and pleasant-looking tools and dishes. The vase demonstrates the artistic choice of form and colors. The author even created a pattern to make the piece look more esthetic.

Example 2

Title: Dolphin Fresco

Date: ca. 1500 BC

Place of origin: the Palace of Knossos, Crete

Detailed Description: the fresco shows dolphins underwater; the author did not try to show the depth, but the movements are rather realistic

Historical Value: The fresco is important historically. It shows the esthetic feelings of people living during the Aegean period. The colors are vivid, and the dolphins look quite realistic (Dolphin fresco, 2013).

How does this image prove or disprove the statement about the nature of art from this region, It has been suggested that the art from the ancient Aegean often contains elements that can be seen as harmonious, exuberant, and non-threatening?

The image entirely proves the statement about the harmony and absence of threat in Aegean art. the artist portrayed the beauty of underwater life. There are exuberance and peacefulness in colors and movements. The fresco is the embodiment of serenity.

Example 3

Title: The Mask of Agamemnon

Date: 1550-1500 BC

Place of origin: Mycenae

Detailed Description: a funeral mask made of gold

Historical Value: The artifact shows the burial traditions of the period. Also, it demonstrates peoples craft (the neat work of smiths). The great historical value is emphasized by the masks nickname  Mona Lisa of Prehistory (Dilouambaka, 2016).

How does this image prove or disprove the statement about the nature of art from this region, It has been suggested that the art from the ancient Aegean often contains elements that can be seen as harmonious, exuberant, and non-threatening?

The piece proves the statement about Aegean art. The mask symbolizes respect for the deceased people. There are no signs of cruelty or hatred. The material  gold  indicates the exuberance of the image.

References

The black obelisk. (2017).

Dilouambaka, Ethel. (2016). Seven Ancient Greek artworks you should know. The Culture Trip.

Dolphin fresco. (2013). Web.

Ivory plaque of a lioness devouring a boy. (n.d.).

Minoan art pottery. (2013).

The Warka vase. (2015). Web.

Description of the Selected Example

The selected example is one of the central objects in Ancient Greece exposition that can be found at the Metropolitan Museum. It is a marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, which dates back to ca. 300 BC (Marble column, 2018). It is a stone sculpture made of ivory marble. It is a section of an Ionic column that is currently 142 1/8 inches high while the original column was more than 57 feet high. Its distinguishing features are elegant foliate carving on the capital as well as the torus with its vegetal pattern that is exceptionally performed. This piece of Greek art can be viewed on the website of the Metropolitan Museum.

Origins and Context

This marble column is a gift from The American Society for the excavation of Sardis in 1926. Still, the creation of the temple was brought from roots back to 300 BC. Currently, the column is a part of a homogeneous group of materials from Sardis, which are significant for the whole Greek exposition of the museum (Lazzarini & Marconi, 2014). This fragment of an ionic column includes base and capital that are made of medium-grained marble found near Sardis.

The column was one of those that provided structural support for the Temple of Artemis at Sardis. Still, there is evidence that this column was not a part of the outer colonnade but, most probably, was placed in the east or west porches (Marble column, 2018).

According to another version, the column can be from an inner room as well as from the inner back porch of the temple. The temple was built by Greeks to honor and worship Artemis, the Greek goddess of chastity, virginity, the hunt, the moon, and the natural environment. The name of Artemis as well as those of other gods was a frequent topic in the Hellenistic world of art (Stewart, 2014). This temple was the fourth largest Greek ionic temple although its construction was not finished. On the whole, the temple itself and the elaboration of a column provide proof of craftsmanship typical of the Hellenistic period.

The Impact of Ancient Greece on Contemporary Cultural Patterns

Greek culture is considered to be one of the most influential cultures in the history of humanity. Its impact is particularly evident in the architecture. Pieces of Greek-inspired architecture are found across the world. The ideas of the famous Greek landmarks were borrowed by many architects and can be seen in buildings and monuments. One of the popular architectural styles inspired by Greek culture is the neoclassical one.

It is broadly applied to construct diverse official buildings. For example, in the United States, the White House, the Supreme Court Building, and the Longworth House Office Building is decorated with classic ionic columns. Still, one of the most popular buildings created about the Greek culture is the US Capitol (Ionic columns, 2018). The design of the whole building can be found by the website.

While the Capitol is bigger than any of the Greek temples due to the more developed technical devices at times it was created, it is decorated with several ionic colonnades that also provide a supportive function. It is a great example of neoclassical architecture and proof of the impact of Greek architecture traditions on contemporary culture.

References

Bigler, B. P. (2016). United States Capitol. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web.

Ionic columns. (2018). Web.

Lazzarini, L., & Marconi, C. (2014). A new analysis of major Greek sculptures in the Metropolitan Museum: Petrological and stylistic. Metropolitan Museum Journal, 49, 117-140.

Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis. (2018). Web.

Stewart, A. (2014). Art in the Hellenistic world: An introduction. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

The Mycenaean civilization was discovered by Heinrich Schliemann and was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Greece. They were proven to be warlike and were ruled by a king. Their palaces presented proof of war with images of Mycenaeans fighting wild men decorating the walls. They borrowed the Minoans culture, art, and writing and were an agriculturally based palace culture. They didn’t leave much behind, there was no poetry, religious texts, fables, and no codes of law. So, trying to figure out the beliefs of the people who lived there is difficult. However, we do know that there was a final collapse to the Mycenaean kingdoms. The main story for the crisis that happened was the arrival of the Dorians which meant war and dislocation. Wars and invasions did happen along with natural disasters. The evidence is so fragmented that it does not support any one reason for the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. New studies and research have found evidence that may provide a better explanation of what happened.

The results of excavations carried out by the Iklaina Archaeological Society led us to review or beliefs about the Mycenaean civilization. Their discoveries also uncovered a capital of the Mycenaean empire, but up to that time they have modified what archeologists believed. They found cyclopean architecture, urban structures, linear B signs, and aesthetic murals. Although, with what we know, these finds were only found in the big palaces such as Mycenae, Tirynth, Thebes, and Pylos. The discoveries also showed that Pylos took over Iklaina at some point, while others thought it might have been part of an early federal state. These findings have given us the opportunity to reconsider existing evidence. While Iklaina was a secondary capital of the kingdom, according to linear B records, it had some autonomy. Professor Kosmopoulos clarified: “Based on existing evidence, this system of governance was the most ancient version of a two-tier governance system: in other words, a central authority and subject semi-independent regions”. This new information alters what we already know because the government is not what we thought it was in this specific city. Iklaina has now been proven to be much more advanced than we thought it was (‘Pylos Excavation Findings’).

Another study has shown that a long drought was likely to have been the cause to the end of the Mycenaean civilization. Researchers Martin Finne and Karin Holmgren together with archeologist Shari Stocker conducted this study. An analysis of a stalactite from a cave in the area reached this conclusion. The stalactite came from a cave on the islet of Schiza right off the Peloponnesian coast and provided a clear picture about the climatic conditions during the Late Bronze Age in Pylos. The goal of this research was to figure out climatic conditions during the period when the palace collapsed. The main theory for this destruction was a former period of drought. However, the new findings show that a more profound period of drought occurred after the palace’s destruction. The administrative system could have survived a short-term dry period, but the long-term period of drought that began to develop after the first period would cause the system to fall apart. This period of drought could have contributed to the political and economic order being destabilized. This caused agricultural surpluses to be eliminated, which made it difficult for elites to reform and for the palatial system to be reestablished. Based on what we know from the history books, this study revises traditional interpretations. The main theory for the fall of this civilization is war and invasions, but the history book also says that natural disaster could’ve caused it too. So, this study provides a better explanation of how a drought and climate change could’ve caused the fall of the Mycenaean civilization (‘Navarino Environmental Observatory’).

An investigation has found that the Mycenaean civilization collapsed due to an uprising or invasion. This research was conducted by German archaeologist Joseph Maran and geophysicist Klaus-G. Hinzen. The observations they made from investigating two citadels support the prevailing theory of earthquakes causing the collapse of the civilization. However, non-seismic causes could also explain the seen damage, and some of the structural damage was definitely not caused by earthquakes. Their results show that a destructive earthquake is unlikely to have caused the end to Mycenaean period of the Bronze Age. This research compliments the theory of the Dorian invasion for the final collapse of the Mycenaean civilization (‘New Study Finds’).

Mycenaean Greece represents mainland Greece’s first advance civilization with its palatial states, urban organization, art works, and writing system. A warrior elite society dominated this area and consisted of a network of palace states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social, and economic systems. Mycenaean Greece crumbled in the eastern Mediterranean with the collapse of the Bronze Age. Numerous hypotheses were proposed for the demise of this culture, including the Dorian invasion and actions related to the ‘Sea Peoples’. Other explanations have also been suggested, such as natural disasters and climate change. With numerous evidence pointing in different directions of what could have been the cause of the collapse of the civilization, there is no way to know for sure what happened.

The ancient American civilization with the most tightly knit society and the greatest territorial extent, was developed by the Incas of South America. The Inca Empire began with the one small kingdom of Cusco in the mountains of Peru. It started expanding territory in 1438 to cover much in South America’s west coast. The Inca Empire did not last so long, from 1438, when the Inca ruler Pachacuti and his army began conquering land, until the Spaniards came in 1532. The Inca civilization was different from other civilizations by being socialistic. This point refers to existence of socialist minds far before than our century. It was working system that people lived under control of that system for a long time. The Inca Empire had highways which connected all empire. Thus, they achieved to connect cities, and this fact show that they had enough well-organized management methods, however, the Inca society did not have writing system. Another drawback of the Inca society was less development of trade and it is result of socialistic government. Despite the fact that they had a communalistic society, it does not mean that there were not social classes. In this paper, you will get information about social classes, communalism, method of keeping recordings.

As other civilizations, the Inca society also was divided into four classes social classes. They were prohibited to wear gorgeous clothes, to drink alcohols, or decorate their clothes with gold or silver decorations. At the top of the class was the Sapa Inca, the most powerful person in the empire. People considered him as the god on the earth, or the son of the Sun. He wore the gorgeous clothes which were decorated with gold and silver, and he did not wear the same clothes or decoration twice. The king was belonged to the first class of the Inca society. He had many concubines, but only one of them was allowed to be the real wife. The eldest son of the king was considered as the next ruler of the reign. The second class was royalty, the family of ruler or the sons of Sapa Inca. The third social class was nobility, which included royal relatives and were known to be educated. At the end of social class was the ayllu, which included the rest of population. The ayllu are seen to be exceptionally vital to the society and are seen as significant to the well-being of the society. In spite of existence of social classes, there was primary version of communalism, and this communalism mostly revealed in the ayllu class.

Ayllus were mostly spreaded class among the Inca society. They were busy with cultivating, farming; furthermore, they were also following religious rituals. The Incas had domesticated many animals, such as llamas, dogs, alpacas, birds, guinea-pigs. Among those animals, llama and alpaca was the most important, so these animals create the basements of cattle-breeding. Locals got wool from these two animals, then women combine the wool with cotton which grown in coastline in current Peru and crochet in their oven fabrics. The wool which had gotten from animals was distributed equally among worker who had contributed in that field. Each family had their own house and little garden next to their house; whereas, they were dealing with farming, or cultivating collectively. Beans, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, peppers were just few of the vegetables which were grown by the Incas. In the ayllu class, member of this class had equal rights. They had rights to play games together, to graze their domestic animals in the same meadows. Moreover, they had equal portion of lands to be busy with cultivating, but hunting wild animals in large areas could be possible only with the permission of the state, so once in a year government organized activity of hunting, and males of society surrounded large forests and began hunting animals. One part of the hunted animals was given to the hunters, the rests were entity of the state.

The Incas had divided men according to their ages. The males whose age were between twenty-five and fifty were called purics. Purics were married and capable to work. One hundred purics created a century, and a century was also divided into ten decuries. Ten centuries created phratry, and ten phratry created one tribe, therefore, it is estimated that in one tribe there were roughly 10 000 purics. At last, combining of four tribes were called province.

Periodically, reports were announced by government, and preserved at archive in capital of empire-Cuzco. The crop, wool, and meat which was received from hunting and other products were distributed among people equally. Due to primary socialist society, trade had not developed in the Inca society, and they did not use money. There was limited local trade, so three times in a month families could barter their products in local stores. Although most of farming was done collectively, purics had right to own two llamas, and also to use their wool and meat.

The Inca society did not have writing system, and it raises the question how they kept records. They had their own decimal counting system. They counted all annual record with this system, it was called quipu. Quipu consisted of cords and threads. There were knots in each thread, and those threads were colorful. Knots in each threads represented decimals, and colors represented social classes. As a logical result of it, they were divided people to decimal numbers. Quipu was kept capital of the Inca Empire – Cuzco.

Annually decurions should give information to the officials who authorized with keeping quipu about birth and death rate of the death in those decuries. In the over populated decuries, people were transported under populated areas. Males could also be taken into the army, or other fortune, which can expect them they could be part of two different classes which was not included usual four classes.

Differ from four main classes, there were also two unusual classes. They were called yanacuna and acclacuna. They could be part of one of these two classes. Yanacuna were chosen from males to work for rulers, or royal families. They did not have clan rights as other commoners, but in the overall their welfare was better than other common peoples. They sometimes could get some very expensive prizes and rewarded some official position which other purics could never get. The next unusual class was acllacuna. They were chosen among girls whose age was eight or nine. They were chosen from centuries which number of them was more than one hundred. Some of them had been priestesses at the age of fourteen. They were living in the convents under the control of matrons. They were not only interested in religious rituals, but they worked and knitted clothes for higher officials or priests; however, most of them were allocated for being concubine of the emperor.

Social obligations were also existed in this society. Purics were used in the social obligations, so they were considered the workforce of the empire. They were used construction of ways, or building of castles.

The Inca Empire had highways, which shows that how developed civilization they were. One was along coastline, another one was in highlands, but there were also many secondary roads, which connected capital of empire, Cuzco, with other parts of empires. Cuzco was also education center of the empire. The Incas also had founded the solution to deliver information inside of the empire, so on the ways they had built post houses in every two or three miles, and in each post house at least two people attended there. When it was needed to deliver any information, one courier who attended in that post house ran and gave information to the next post houses, and in the next post houses one of the runners deliver information to the next one, and it continuous until the news reached to its place. There were also inns on the roads for travelers, and they could be located from twelve miles to eighteen miles. In those inns were basics needs, such as foods, clothing. Common people could not use those roads, they could be only used by officials, couriers, or soldiers. As a result of it, those ways had never been crowded.

As a conclusion, the Inca society had one of the most amazing societies. In this paper, I analyzed lifestyle, working methods of governmental organizations, social classes of the Inca society.

Mesopotamia, the world’s biggest civilization, was the first to dwell in one location. They built numerous components of civilization and did not rely just on hunting animals and gathering plants for food since they knew how to produce and thus could store food for the winter. This enabled them to begin developing products and ideas to make their lives a bit easier. Since Mesopotamia’s innovations and significant successes enabled succeeding generations to extend and utilize these accomplishments to make their lives simpler and better, such as the use of medicine, arithmetic in everyday life, and so on, all of these inventions have had a significant impact on the present world. As a result, mathematics, medicine, and agriculture are three components that have had a significant effect on present civilization.

The Mesopotamians are attributed with developing mathematics roughly 5,000 years ago (factsanddetails.com). They possessed a broad grasp of mathematics, including four basic operations, fractions, and so on, which helped them keep adequate records. Early mathematics was simply a sort of counting, and it was used to keep track of items like sheep, harvests, and traded products. Later, it was employed to handle more complex agricultural and maybe architectural challenges. It was implemented to overcome complex astrological and geometrical difficulties during the late Babylonian period. The Sumerians were aware of the Pythagorean theorem as early as 2000 B.C. The cuneiform tablet of Tell Hamal depicted an algebraic-geometric table with triangles denoted by perpendicular lines drawn from the right angle to the hypotenuse (factsanddetails.com). These mathematical ideas aided the Mesopotamians in surveying, construction technology, accountancy, the creation of lunar and solar calendars, and a variety of other contributions to speculative mathematics. To comprehend, mathematics is a strong instrument for worldwide information exchange, making it one of the most significant features that have substantially affected present humanity.

The Babylonians achieved significant medical advancements. They employed reasoning and medical history to diagnose and cure illnesses with myriad lotions and medications. Using logic and medical information, they were able to detect and treat diseases using various lotions and treatments (ducksters.com). According to a recent study by Health Ahoy, Babylonian medicine is a term that refers to the healthcare traditions and practices of ancient Babylonian society. Medicine in ancient Babylonia was mostly dependent on magic, with no scientific approach other than diagnoses and prognoses, which were also immersed in spirituality (healthahoy.com). In Babylonian medicine, enchantment and invocations were utilized just as much as, if not more than, natural therapy and medicines. Medicine is more akin to a collection that is sensitive to tiny and huge discoveries and inventions rather than a massive one. It is possibly one of the most important parts of human history since it directly affects our capacity to exist. Humans have a greater chance of achieving progress in other areas since they can live for longer periods. People have more time to think now that they aren’t battling to survive, and this is what has brought us to this point. As a result, medicine is regarded as one of the biggest triumphs, as prior medical technology has benefited scientists and people studying medicine in diving further into the concept and producing breakthroughs. As humans continue to discover new viruses in the future, their prior knowledge of medicine will benefit future generations in learning more about it. Medicine is a complex subject that is tough to grasp and create.

Agriculture is also one of the most significant achievements since it is the source of most other achievements, and its presence may even be considered to be dependent on it. Agriculture transformed civilization from a nomadic hunter-gatherer pattern to a centralized, sedentary, communal framework (worldhistory.org). When humans were hunter-gatherers, they spent the majority of their time tracking animal migrations, hunting, preparing food and foraging. Apart from developing food, there was a limited possibility for growth. Once humanity had established agricultural practices had advanced, it was no longer necessary for the entire community to be in charge of food production. Food was provided by a portion of the population, while the remainder pursued other pursuits. This resulted in commerce since non-farmers would have exchanged with farmers. Then a way of tracking this commerce must be devised: writing and mathematics. As a result, agriculture is critical since it produces the majority of the world’s food, products, and a variety of other goods.

Nonetheless, mathematics, medicine, and agriculture are three significant areas that have had a significant effect on present civilization. The Mesopotamian heritage laid the groundwork for succeeding civilizations to build on. Their breakthroughs and substantial triumphs have enabled following generations to expand and exploit these achievements to make their lives simpler and better, such as the use of medicine, math in everyday life, and so on, all of which have had a huge influence on today’s world. As technology advanced throughout the years, it finally made every component of Mesopotamian society simpler to utilize than previously.