Category: Ancient Civilizations

Technology has been an indispensable progressive process in human life. It can be best understood when pursued from the historical background from the evolution of early human beings characterized by the use of simple tools to the complex enormous networks in the contemporary mans world. Nevertheless, technological developments in the ancient civilizations were compelled by some factors that either led to the formation of new technologies or improvements of the existent ones.

Human population increase contributed to technological advancements during ancient civilizations. With their increasing numbers, humans noticed that reliance on hunting alone could not satisfy their food consumption needs, and they resorted to a cultural shift from nomadic hunting and gathering activities to crop growing. Around 7,000 B.C, some groups were doing experiments on intentional cultivation of plants which later led to farming (Scarre and Fagan 376). The agriculturalists inhabited the Fertile Crescent that consisted of the fertile banks of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers (Scarre and Fagan 63). The soil on these fertile hillsides encouraged tillage and other agricultural practices. By 5,000 B.C., agronomy had developed to various parts of the world and new technologies such as the use of primitive plow and harvesting tools came into existent (Scarre and Fagan 100). As evident, the growth in human population kindled agricultural developments which were featured by the use of new farm tools.

Besides populace increase, trade that existed between the prehistoric communities led to technological advancements. Business dealings produced demand for certain commercial items in the market therefore, industries had to be established. To supply the flourishing copper industry with structured mineral transportation, a two-wheeled cart was invented (Scarre and Fagan 33). Nonetheless, the first means of transport which emerged in Egypt and Mesopotamia were sailing boats which came into use before 3500 B.C (Scarre and Fagan 98). As well, trade enabled different individuals to meet and exchange ideas and that is why manufacturing was more prevalent in the New Stone Age period. Notably, techniques such as grinding corn and baking clay became part of human economic activities. Also, the early metal workers began to acquire the new skills of extracting and working the soft metals such as gold, copper, and tin (Scarre and Fagan 34). Therefore, the need to acquire a trade item that one was lacking shaped the skills of the early man in a way that led to the development of industries.

Moreover, the availability of stones and copper ores was a major contributing factor to the development of technology during prehistoric periods. Of all the materials that the early man is suspected to have used in his activities, stone has survived many years. During prehistoric times, Oldowan tools were stones that were deliberately shaped for specific purposes (Scarre and Fagan 9). Stones also led to improvement on how the early man could control fire. For instance, it was realized that striking stones against pyrites to produce sparks made it possible to ignite fires and that saved them the need to maintain fires from natural sources. On the other hand, copper was used alongside tin in making bronze tools and therefore a significant improvement in agricultural tools (Scarre and Fagan 33). The existence of stone and copper ores enhanced the improvement of humans agricultural activities as well as warfare and defense.

In conclusion, technological advancements in the prehistoric period were driven by some factors that either created new techniques or transformed the existing practices. A factor that led to the creation of a new technological order was the rise in the human population. Similarly, trade also created new industries that not only opened the humans economic sphere but also enhanced the spread of skills. The availability of stone and copper changed crop cultivation through advancements in agricultural tools. Therefore, technological advancements that featured in the ancient civilizations were not spontaneous as they might appear.

Work Cited

Scarre, Chris, and Brian Fagan. Ancient Civilizations. 4th ed., Routledge Publishers, 2016.

Throughout its history, humanity has developed numerous methods of multiplication or repeated addition. These can be more or less time-consuming and also vary in effectiveness: while some are better for education, others pursue purely practical purposes. Three such methods are traditional, Ancient Egyptian, and the method of cups and counters. Each of them has its pros, cons, and application: the first is better for comprehending the principle of multiplication in the decimal system, the second  for practical purposes, and the third  for education.

The traditional or long multiplication method is one of the most famous and widely accepted in the world. This method goes back to medieval Italian mathematics and relies on the decimal system as its main underlying concept. This algorithm amounts to multiplying ones, tens, hundreds, etc. of one factor by the ones, tens, hundreds, etc. of another factor, thus reducing any problem to several one-digit multiplications.

The method is similar to cups and counters in the sense that it also relies on the decimal system, but different from the Ancient Egyptian one, which relies on binaries. The pros of this method are its easy operability once mastered and the availability of different strategies to simplify it while learning, such as writing the factors on different paper pieces for convenience (Anu & Vinod, 2016). On the negative side, it requires an understanding of the decimal system and knowledge of multiplication tables before one can proceed. Its best use is for multiplying large numbers in writing.

Ancient Egyptian is another method quite different from long multiplication. As the name suggests, it comes from Ancient Egypt historically, and its central underlying concept is binary arithmetic. Ancient Egyptian multiplication relies on extensive use of multiplication tables for different numbers structured by the binary principle. Since Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing was ill-suited for written calculation, the primary purpose of this method was to reduce the calculation to a sequence of steps that could be carried out mentally (Imhausen, 2018).

Thus, it is similar to both other methods in its intent to reduce multiplication to several simpler steps, but its devotion to binary arithmetic sets it apart. Its pros are convenience  it is easy to operate with multiplication tables at hand  and practical orientation, since it does not require much theoretical understanding of mathematics. Yet it is virtually impossible to operate without physical multiplication tables, and memorizing those would be hard, as they are not limited to one-digit multiplication in a decimal system. Thus, the best use for this method is limited practical purposes, but it is of questionable value in terms of education and theoretical mathematics alike.

Finally, the method of cups and counters is yet another way to approach multiplication. It is hard to pinpoint it historically since it relies on the concept of groups inherent in any multiplication operations. This approach uses countable physical objects of the same type and separates them into groups according to the number system used (Number Facts, n.d.). For better visualization, each group is represented by a container with the same number of objects, such as a cup  hence, cups and counters.

In its contemporary form, this method uses the decimal system, which makes it similar to long multiplication, but sets it apart from the Ancient Egyptian way. Its pros, such as easy visualization and the understanding it promotes, make it suitable for the use in education for the first acquaintance with the concept of multiplication. Yet its cons are quite obvious: one cannot rely on cups and counters in multiplying large numbers, and the method does little except for explaining the concept of groups.

As one can see, different multiplication methods have their pros and cons alike. Long multiplication, with its reliance on the decimal system, is easy once comprehended but requires more pre-existing knowledge than others. Ancient Egyptian method with its extensive multiplication tables is suitable for practice since it reduces actual calculations to a minimum, but is impossible without the said tables at hand. Cups and counters method, while good for early education, is limited to small numbers.

References

Anu, S.R., & Vinod, K. A. (2016). Impact of new multiplication method (paper strip multiplication) to enhance mathematical achievement among primary school students. Academicia: An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 6(11), 52-61.

Imhausen, A. (2018). Mathematics in Egypt. In P. T. Keyser & J. Scarborough (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of science and medicine in the classical world (pp. 49-60). Oxford UP.

Number facts: Multiplication and division. (n.d.). Queensland Government Education. Web.

Introduction

It is important to outline the main issue the paper will focus on  gender. Namely, gender is the psychological and social characteristic that helps differentiate males and females within different aspects of society, moreover, created by the human culture itself. Being the most important category of sorting human beings, gender also becomes a vital key issue in terms of gender representation. The set rules on a certain male or female behavior come from ancient centuries and ancient civilizations.

Main body

As such, it has to be said that the womens gender representation is in their appearance, outfits, and social roles. Thus, modern life presupposes various variants of clothing and different social roles for men and women within the US. However, there are those ancient civilizations that used to save the social and gender traditions accurately and have some ancient female gender representations saved until nowadays.

The civilization that is worth investigating is the ancient Maya. It is possible to say according to the book Ancient Maya women by Traci Arden that the civilization put much tense on their womens social representation. The human internments unearthed at Yaxuna claim that the social role of Maya women was far from the tolerantly based organization of the modern society. Maya women experienced the reproductive demands of ancient society and, thus, died at young age suffering greatly.

However, to avoid underestimating the social role of Maya women, the complementary aspect of their lives must be mentioned. Traci Arden outlines gender representation by the following: no man or woman can be complete without the other, with man and woman defined more by actions than by biology. (p. 86) Nevertheless, even though being the main cell in the reproductive chain, Maya women still lived less than men and had more nutritional stress. Not to mention the fact that Yaxuna excavations give evidence of compromised health during the entire life of both elite women and their nonelite sisters; although some elite women could share the power with Maya men. Back in those times one of the social representations of women was the pottery, shell ornaments, and domesticated deers production.

The visual representation of ancient Maya women is presented in jewels and ceramics they were buried with. Maya women were most frequently buried with ceramic vessels, which was evident proof of those women holding an elite status. Moreover, the vessels Maya women were interred with suggested that the dead females were representatives of ancestral or lineage power to descendants of all economic levels (Arden, p.77)

Also, the visual representation of Maya women in ancient society was held through wearing somewhat rough adornments. Of course, compared to contemporary jewels they seem a bit bulky, though it is impossible to doubt the ancients sophisticated taste now. Moreover, the womens adornments were made of wood, feathers, bones, mother-of-pearls, and colorful stones.

Cannot but mention the makeup style Maya women had those days. They used to paint their faces entirely red. Also, women liked fragrances lubricated on their chest, hands, and shoulders. Interestingly, elite women were wandering around with little bouquets, frequently sniffing them.

Maya women were much more prominent than those of all other ancient cultures. They acquired the roles of mothers, nurses, and cooks. Moreover, some of them were even ruling as queens. In a word, it must be said that they were a complete contradiction to other ancient civilizations women.

To be more exact, it is possible to talk about female representation in Early India  a country of colorful clothing and heterogeneous traditional accessories and bodily ornamentation.

Undoubtedly, unlike contemporary fashion ancient Indias clothing ensembles were created in a way that easily distinguished the female gender. As such, the Indian Sari, for example, has neither stitches nor a particular size. Interestingly, this Indian outfit can be worn in many different ways which indicate the status, region, occupation, and religion of a woman. According to Thapar The assertion of women as equal members of society would be curtailed, forcing them to accept the subordinate part (p.66) Supposedly, this resulted in somewhat obedient suppressed feminine gender representation. Indian society built unequal social roles of men and women. Hence, being socially, politically, and religiously unequal India developed certain models of attires that reflected the societys requirements towards female gender representation.

The social role of women of Early India was obedience in terms of marriage and complete modesty in all other spheres of life. A good representation of that served Dupatta  a long lightweight scarf  whose original purpose was bringing modesty to the wearer by covering her chest or head. Besides, it is impossible not to remind the Bindi accessory that is worn in the middle of the forehead as a representation of the marital status of Indian women.

Of course, another aspect that a woman has to be examined through is antiquity. The European way of life and the entire behavior that was characteristical to Europe of those ages formed a certain way of dresses and other outfits women of antiquity used to wear.

For example, the jewels were very heavy and looked bulky. This certainly was an influence of Asian fashion. However, the most important thing to note here is the social role of medieval European women. The main role of a woman was giving birth. As well as in ancient Maya times, the maternity age was very young. This influenced the clothing women used to wear greatly. Namely, they wore the sleeved dresses with a vertical slit, usually laced to allow a woman to accomplish breastfeeding.

Just as in the preceding ages, the fashion of Medieval Europe was divided into the lower and upper classes. Thus, the upper class could afford to decorate their clothes with embroidery in a very rich way.

Womens activities in Medieval Europe were so variable that it is hard to combine them all and give a definite description of what they wore in terms of clothing and jewelry. Finally, peoples have their religions and customs, among which Herodotus finds most significant those defining the spheres of activities of women, burial practices, and economic activities. (Geary, p.43)

Conclusion

So, to make a good conclusion it is to be said that womens visual gender representation varies throughout centuries and countries. What is important is to understand how the social role of women has evolved greatly. Many women of different civilizations expressed their belonging to a specific social group using a visual representation of gender in an extraordinary way relevant to this or that century they lived in.

When being aware of the social roles of women of specific civilizations, it is easy to denote the reason for wearing unexpected ornaments, clothes, and jewels. Just like in India it is Bindi that shows you are married or special ceramics ancient Maya women were buried with indicates their social status.

Bibliography

Ardren, Traci. Ancient Maya Women.Ch. 5: Death Became Her: Images of Female Power from Yaxuna Burials. Press, 2002. Print. 68-88.

Geary, Patrick J.. The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe Ch. 2: Imagining Peoples in Antiquity.. Princeton University Press, 2002. Print. 41-62.

Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300Excerpt: The Creation of Castes. University of California Press, 2002. Print. 62-67.

Introduction

Despite the fact that a man and a woman, according to mythology, are created as two equal principles that make up a single whole, in practice the ancient woman was completely subordinate to a man. The male spirit of rivalry has pushed women out of public life, and in the private sphere, womens freedom has been significantly restricted. Having no electoral and economic rights, a woman in ancient society acted only as a wife and mother.

Vision of Woman as an Underclass

In Mesopotamia, a contemptuous attitude towards a woman as a wild and inferior being has been established at the household level. It was believed that the best thing for an Egyptian woman is when nothing is said about her at all: neither bad nor good. In Ancient India, there was even a saying that the best wife is the one that no one notices. The poets of India created entire bestiaries of female types, deducing each under the guise of a certain animal, where a woman is declared to be not just an insidious and cruel being, but also soulless. Although the poets of Ancient China praised women, they argued that the only type of woman worthy of moderate praise is a woman who is hardworking, not voracious, and does not like to gossip (Ahmed 32).

In ancient Greece, the imperfection of female nature in general was emphasized. Greek philosophers argued that a girl is born from a union in which, due to youth or old age, there is a lack of masculine strength, and thus a girl is born, which is an undesirable outcome. In ancient Rome, even being free, a woman still did not have civil freedoms. She could not serve in the army, vote in assemblies, be elected to public office, and could not be a judge or prosecutor. The rise of Islam and Islamic civilization caused the deterioration of womens rights: historians mention, among others, such facts as the killing of baby girls by their own parents, who wanted a son and heir to give birth to whom in Islamic culture is considered pride (Özbey and Bardakçi 1799). In Central America, women were also given the traditional role of the keeper of the family hearth. Although widowed women in South America were allowed some activities, such as fur trading, they were still largely dependent on men and marriage.

Role of Class in Womens Status

In Mesopotamia and Egypt, the royal class of women was looked up to very highly, and people often thought of them as part of the divine. The priestesses were next in the social chain, many of whom were somehow connected with the rulers. Female representatives of the other social classes in Mesopotamia and Egypt had a legal status not much different from the status of a slave. In Ancient India, women belonging to the brahmin caste, or priestesses, also had more rights. At the same time, if an Indian girl married representatives of a lower caste, she lost her high status, acquiring a lower status of her husband. The highest stratum of the ruling class in Ancient China was the titled nobility, the women belonging to which had more rights. However, girls from the commoner class, called shuzhen, married to free peasants and artisans, had a legal status no better than slaves (Mitra 23).

For the Greek society of the ancient era, the division into three main classes was important only for men. Women in the slave class, small free producers and slave owners had the same social status. The influence of social status on women in Ancient Rome was similar. It was also quite weak: the wives of commoners, patricians and senators, did not have any legal power, even if they formally belonged to free citizens (Duiker and Spielvogel 90).

In the period of antiquity, there were several early class states in Central America. They were more developed in political and economic terms, so women were listened to somewhat more than in the rest of the ancient world. In South America, the position of women strongly depended on class  women belonging to the nobility occupied a dominant role in the family and society. The rest of the women had a subordinate position, so the scope of their rights depended on the status. In rising of Islam and Islamic civilization, the influence of a womans status was indirect. First of all, the mother of a person with a high social status had the right to give him advice and influence his choice, therefore, a high position in society allowed the women of rising Islamic civilizations to exercise their rights through their sons.

Contributions

The high priests of Mesopotamia, for example, Encheduanna, wrote really important texts for literature, borrowings from which can be found in Greek hymns, Homer and the Bible. Among the rulers of Ancient Egypt there were many strong and powerful women, for example, Queen Hatshepsut. They are known for the construction of many monuments; scholars consider many female rulers to be successful and effective pharaohs in the history of Egypt (Özbey and Bardakçi 1799).

Even the most talented and educated women of Ancient India considered subordination to men and being in the shadows to be the true sign of their mind. Therefore, their main contributions are considered to be the advice and support of outstanding Indian rulers. The only female emperor of China, the head of the country, Queen Zetian, although her figure is controversial, many scientists recognize the establishment of strict discipline that has had a beneficial effect on the further development of China. Women of antiquity in Greece had the opportunity to study in contemporary philosophical schools and could even be recognized for their work. The female representatives distinguished themselves not only in literature, but also in the natural sciences. For example, over the next 15 centuries, Hypatia is considered the only female scientist in the history of mankind (Duiker and Spielvogel 78).

The achievements of the women of ancient Rome are no longer connected with science, but with social activities. For example, Lucretia provoked a popular uprising, which resulted in the overthrow of the tsarist government and the establishment of a Republic (Ahmed 28). The women of the rising Islamic civilization who left their mark in history were the girls belonging to the nobility who opened hospitals and schools for the poor, for example, the founder of al-Karaouin University in Fez Fatima (Ahmed 32). Among the outstanding women of Central America there are many young and ambitious characters, famous primarily for recipes of natural beauty. The achievements of the women of South America are associated with the creation of cultural heritage monuments, for example, household items preserved for their descendants.

Conclusion

Despite the significant restriction in rights, the women of antiquity still made contributions to the world of politics, science and especially literature. First of all, it was possible for those who had a high social status and could directly or indirectly exert influence.

Works Cited

Ahmed, Arazoo. Comparative Study of the Function of Goddesses in Mesopotamian Civilizations, Elam, Iran, India, Greece and Egypts. Journal of Process Management, vol. 7, no. 2, 2019, pp. 2434.

Duiker, William, and Jackson Spielvogel. World History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning, 2015.

Mitra, Durba. Surplus Woman: Female Sexuality and the Concept of Endogamy. The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 80, no. 1, 2021, pp. 326.

Özbey, Ali, and Ay_e Bardakçi. Women in Public and Private Spheres in The Context of Modern Feminist Theories from Ancient Civilizations to the Present. OPUS Journal of Society Research, vol. 14, no. 20, 2019, pp. 17891818.

The stories The Gilded Six-Bits by Zora Neale Hurston and Babylon Revisited by F. Scott Fitzgerald seem to be very different at the first sight. The first one is about the life of two young Afro-Americans who lived happily before meeting a rich white person named Otis D. Slemmons who ruined their family life whereas Babylon Revisited tells us about a man whose wife died and who has a weakness for alcohol has been denied in the custody of his daughter. In fact, these two stories are very similar and one can draw parallels between what happened in Joe and Missys life and what problems Charley confronted in his.

What should be mentioned above all is that in both stories we can trace the connection between scarcity and abundance. In The Gilded Six-Bits the young couple, Joe and Missy, had everything to be happy. The most important thing was that their relations were strong and they loved each other: For several minutes the two were a furious mass of male and female energy. Shouting, laughing, twisting, turning, tussling, tickling each other in the ribs& (Martha Foley, p. 443). This shows that the two of them were having fun and enjoyed the presence of each other. But Missy, in pursuit of money lost the respect and love of her husband which proves that once you have something added you will definitely lose something because there should be a balance. In Babylon Revisited Charley tried to make his financial position better but by achieving this he lost the most precious thing in his life  his family. As a result, his wife died and his daughter was taken away from him. Im sure that if he had a chance to turn the time he would have chosen to have less money and family instead than to be rich but live all alone as when you have money but nobody to spend them for it becomes of no importance to you because something will be missing in your life anyway. It is the fault of most people. They usually start valuing something when it is already lost. This so-called balance between what you have is there in our lives to make people stop being greedy and to value what they already have rather than trying to get something they are not ready for yet. It is very often that people are driven by a desire to have everything remain with nothing in the end and that is what happened with Charley.

Furthermore, in each story, there is something that causes a problem for the main characters. It is a temptation the characters cannot resist. In The Gilded Six-Bits this temptation is money, namely golden money, which Missy cannot resist. Throughout her life, she used only silver money and was absolutely satisfied with it but when she met Otis D. Slemmons she was easily seduced by gold and desire to have it: Oh Joe, honey, he said he was going just me dat gold money and he jes kept on after me& (Marta Foley, p. 448) which with no doubt spoiled her because the desire to have something youve never had before sooner or later predominates over common sense. World literature abounds with stories about the Gold Rush which serve as a vivid example of what gold can do with people thats why there is no wonder that golden money turned out to be able to seduce Missy. The protagonist of the story Babylon Revisited faced a much more serious problem. Alcohol addiction ruined innumerable human lives and in this story, one can observe a perfect example of a person losing the sense of his life, in this case, it is Charleys daughter because he is not able to give up drinking. On becoming alcohol-addicted people lose everything and only some of them with the help of their friends and relatives manage to cope with the problem of alcoholism. As Charley had friends: a crowd who had helped them make months into days in the lavish times of three years ago (Francis Scott Fitzgerald, p. 217) who also were drinking heavily because it was the way of their lives, to quit drinking was difficult for him. Having a reason to do this he almost succeeded in giving up drinking but when the last hopes for getting his daughter back vanished he got back to his friends and his harmful habit which made his life at least a bit easier: Charley went directly to the Ritz bar with the idea of finding Lorraine and Duncan& (Francis Scott Fitzgerald, p. 229).

And finally, informal language is used in both of the stories. The descriptive narration in The Gilded Six-Bits is done in Standard English. It is not difficult to notice that the dialogues are performed by the characters in American Vernacular English. By confronting the language the characters are speaking and their way of living as well as their mores the author is trying to have the reader make a comparison. What Zora Neale Hurston tried to show is that irrespective of nationality and the level of education all people are equal in their moral values and deserve to have a happy life like everybody else. She tried to show that if your skin is of different color it doesnt mean that you should demand from a lifeless than the others. As for Babylon Revisited, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses an informal style of writing in this work. Here it should be noted that informal language prevails in Fitzgeralds works and namely this is why in his times it was difficult for him to earn public recognition. The public didnt take his works seriously because of the informality of the language they were written in. The lexicon of the day makes Babylon Revisited closer to the reader helping him get right into the center of the events and becoming a part of the story. It must be admitted that the style the story is written in is very important for producing a proper impression on the speaker because if the style is chosen incorrectly the author will fail to disclose the sense of his piece of writing to the public.

Despite the similarities between these two stories, there is one difference that is hard to ignore. It lies in the way the stories end. As it is easily understood, The Gilded Six-Bits ends happily with Missy having a baby and her husbands revival of her feelings to her. The forecast for the development of their further relations is pretty favorable. In contrast, the protagonist of the story Babylon Revisited does not seem to have a happy life having been denied custody of his daughter and turning to alcohol again trying to ease his pain. This is basically what constitutes the difference between The Gilded Six-Bits by Zora Hurston and Babylon Revisited by Scott Fitzgerald.

In conclusion, regardless of the fact that people described in these two stories lived in different periods of time, they had similar problems and their own ways to fight them. Both The Gilded Six-Bits by Zora Neale Hurston and Babylon Revisited by F. Scott Fitzgerald give a reader a very good lesson of what greediness and alcohol addiction may lead to.

References

Martha Foley. 200 Years of Great American Short Stories: Edited by Martha Foley. Houghton Mifflin,1975.

Francis Scott Fitzgerald. Babylon Revisited, and Other Stories. Scribner, 1960.

Heraclitus and the Nature of Reality

Heraclitus said that basic substance in the universe is fire. He was drawn to this conclusion because he believed that everything changes. He was the one who made the commentary that no one steps into the same river twice (Moore & Bruder, 2008, p.26). He had a profound understanding of change. He was not only looking at the change that people were able to accomplish by deliberate actions. He also realized that change occurs even if there was no visual evidence of transformation. Thus, Heraclitus can be considered a real genius on account of this revelation alone. However, Heraclitus was unable to correctly identify the exact nature of change (Moore & Bruder, 2008)

Empedocles View

Empedocles tried to harmonize the two different philosophical frameworks of Heraclitus and Parmenides. At first glance, it seems like Empedocles was offering a diplomatic solution to the conflict. In todays language it seems like Empedocles was trying to play it safe by not siding with one philosopher. However, a careful scrutiny of his proposition created a new way of understanding the physical world. Empedocles was one of the first philosophers to correctly identify the true nature of things. It is true that objects change, however, its basic element does not change. This idea paved the way for understanding molecules and atoms (Cohen, 2011).

Anaximanders View

Anaximander proposed an alternative view that contrasted with that of Heraclitus and Thales. He proposed that the best way to understand the world is not to look for the basic element. He proposed that the solution to the problem is to look for the basic processes and natural powers that were precursors to change. His major contribution was to provide a non-mythological view on how things came into existence. However, he cannot substantiate his claims.

Compare and Contrast the views of Parmenides and Heraclitus

Parmenides was not interested in discovering the basic element. He knew that people change and objects are subjected to change. Thus, he reasoned out that these appearances are mere illusions. His views were a stark contrast to Heraclitus view about change. Nevertheless, Parmenides theoretical framework failed to develop an acceptable defense with regards to the concept of illusion.

It is easier to believe Heraclitus proposition and disregard Parmenides arguments. Heraclitus did not only provide the philosophical framework that explains the inevitable nature of change; he also proposed that change is the byproduct of a cosmic order called the logos (Moore & Bruder, 2008, p.26). Heraclitus believed that change in the physical world was never random or haphazard (Moore & Bruder, 2008). This proposition is close to the modern understanding of the nature of change.

Protagoras View

Protagoras believed that knowledge is dependent on the perception of the human being. Therefore, Protagoras asserted that there is no way to determine absolute knowledge. In its basic form Protagoras proposed that our personal views are valid even if others believed that it is wrong. This made sense from the point of view of sensory organs. Two individuals may have seen the same event; however, they differ in the interpretation of the event (Moore & Bruder, 2008).

Pythagoras View

Pythagoras was one of the first philosophers who proposed a mathematical explanation to the stability and true nature of the physical world. In other words, there is a mathematical basis for the creation of objects. This proposition also explains why there is relative stability and order in the cosmos. This is a radical view especially if one will compare it with Heraclitus assertion that everything changes. Pythagoras did not only claim order, he also pointed out the predictable nature of the design. It took hundreds of years to validate his claim. However, Pythagoras made his mark when he proposed the idea that there was a way to mathematically describe objects in the physical world.

Anaxagoras View

Anaxagoras expounded on the ideas proposed by Empedocles. When Empedocles postulated that things are unchanging he made the proposition that there was no way to divide physical objects into simpler particles. Anaxagoras made the counter-argument that there is a way to simplify matter. He said that physical objects were comprised of smaller particles (Moore & Bruder, 2008). The only weakness of Anaxagoras view was that he did not believe in the presence of atomic or sub-atomic particles. Nevertheless, his ideas enhanced the ancient worlds understanding of particles, and it paved the way for the discovery of molecules.

Early Greeks and Nature of Reality

It can be argued that Empedocles provided a clear and overarching theory on the nature of reality. He was able to cover both ends of the spectrum. He was correct when he said that things change. At the same time, he was correct when he proposed that objects are secure in their identity, because the basic elements are unchanging. His idea explains the existence of transformational processes, while at the same time explained the existence of identifiable objects that are not eradicated or altered by these transformational processes (Moore & Bruder, 2008). For example, there are transformational forces that change the natural objects that surround a house. However, the structure of the house remains the same for many years. The only criticism to Empedocles view is that he borrowed its components from different sources.

Platos Criticism of Protagoras View

Plato disagreed with Protagoras proposition that knowledge is subjective. Plato started his critique of Protagoras philosophical framework by saying that his predecessors view was wrong. Plato argued that intuition enabled people to perceive knowledge. Therefore, Plato asserted that there is a way to know absolute truth.

Aristotles Notion of the 4 Causes

Aristotles notion of the 4 causes was a brilliant framework to help the ancient world understand the nature of things. The only problematic aspect was the first cause, which Aristotle called the formal cause, because this is not the way modern people interpret the term cause (Moore & Bruder, 2008, p.65).

However, a change of perspective will enable readers to realize that the first cause is actually the design of the object. In addition, it can be argued that Aristotle did not remove his epistemology from divinity. Therefore, the first cause can be interpreted as the creator behind the object. The second cause is also a brilliant proposition because it explains the materiality of the object. The third cause is also a major breakthrough in epistemology, because it paved the way for understanding the natural processes involved in the creation of an object. Finally, the fourth cause enabled people to organize objects and living things in accordance to their respective purpose.

Aristotles 10 Categories; Third Man Argument; and Theory of Forms

Aristotles ten categories of being enabled people to classify things in a more organized manner. He provided a way to differentiate things based on ten basic categories: 1) quantity; 2) quality; 3) relationships; 4) place; 5) time; 6) posture; 7) constitution; 8) passivity; 9) activity; and 10) substance. Aristotle was correct when he said that these categories of classification enabled people to appreciate objects and organisms in a better light.

Aristotle differentiated his view by limiting the forms within particular things. His Third Man argument attempts to explain that universal forms have no independent existence. Aristotle seems to have a better explanation considering that coins do not have a monopoly on circularity (Moore & Bruder, 2008).

Compare and Contrast Plato and Aristotles Views

It seems like Platos idea about change and forms is dictated by an overarching theory that involves divinity. In other words, Plato believes in the first cause, which is God. He said that the first cause explains the origin of things. It is a plausible explanation based on the context of ancient Greek philosophy, because there is a need to justify the origin of change. Aristotle proposed a different route. He did not provide a clear distinction or counter-argument of Platos position. Aristotle on the other hand provided the explanation why things are different from others. He said that the genus of the object or organism provided some sort of template, and the specie or specifics provided instructions on what aspect to differentiate (Moore & Bruder, 2008).

Plato and Aristotle are in agreement that one of the primary components of an object is a concept called form. In other words, a coin looks circular because it assumes the basic form of a circle. The core design of a coin requires the concept of circularity. It is important to highlight this similarity, because Plato and Aristotle believed that objects follow a certain design (Moore & Bruder, 2008). However, Aristotle enhanced the basic idea of Plato, because he added that aside from the form component, the object also requires matter (Moore & Bruder, 2008). Without the matter component, the object ceases to exist.

References

Cohen, M. (2011). Reading in ancient Greek philosophy. IN: Hackett Publishing. Web.

Moore, B., & Bruder, K. (2008). Philosophy the power of ideas. CA: California State University Press. Web.

Different cultures and eras have their own perceptions of love that they eloquently communicated through various creations of literature, including poetry, epos, and philosophical pieces. Symposium by Plato is remarkable in this regard because concepts recorded in this work can be traced in multiple poems composed in distinct regions, centuries after this fundamental source was produced.

One of the primary ideas about love that can be observed in Platos composition is the unity of Earth and Eros, which means that the material world and love are inseparable phenomena. Moreover, love is regarded in Symposium as a driving force of life, the law of attraction, and the major source of goodness. These notions of love are also central in many Ancient Egyptian poems, including My God, My Lotus. In this piece of poetry, lovers who dwell on the opposite sides of the river are pulled to each other by the force of love that endows them with the power to overcome all obstacles and eventually reunite. This dominant theme of the poem will be analyzed in this essay, along with other conceptions of love embodied in Platos Symposium.

Before conducting a conceptual analysis of My God, My Lotus, it is appropriate to take a look at the poems form and contents. The piece can be logically divided into two parts: the one narrated by a female persona and the one  by a male persona. Their speeches are in juxtaposition and cannot be regarded as a dialog but must be rather seen as internal experiences shared with an undefined audience. According to Fox, the Egyptian love poets chose monologs as a form of expression mainly because they aimed to present personality and emotion rather than a complete relationship (221). Such an approach allows exploring each persona in isolation and sees the role of romantic feelings in individuals lives and worldviews.

However, it is valid to note that even though the Girl and the Boy in the selected poem do not communicate in a conventional sense of the term and do not respond to each other, their monologs are interconnected thematically and logically. The Girl calls for her lover  Oh my hero, my beloved! Come and see me!  and he intuitively reacts to her call by taking action (Puchner 72). In this way, it is possible to say that the lovers have an internalized, natural aspiration to re-join.

The main love theme commences unfolding in the Girls monolog. She starts to long for closeness with her lover as the north wind blows and prepares for the meeting with him by beautifying her body, adorning it with the finest royal linen, and anointing it with aromatic oils (Puchner 72). The first part of the poem introduces readers to the way people in Ancient Egypt could perceive love and reveals its high value in their eyes.

These ritualistic preparations carried out by the Girl show reverence not only towards her lover but the feeling as such. In this way, it seems that love is endowed with a divine status, which is also reflected in the poems title. As stated by Puchner, lotus was the most important Egyptian flower, whose aroma was held to excite the senses (72). It is possible to say that the Girl refers to her lover as a lotus and a god because the thoughts of him bring a foretasting of the great virtues and pleasures of love.

At the same time, the second part of the poem leads to the climax and reveals the significance of Eros in Egyptian songs to its full extent. In anticipation of seeing his beloved, the Boy crosses the river even though floodwaters are powerful in this season, and a lot of other dangers threaten his life during this endeavor (Puchner 72). It is worth noticing that through depictions and images of the physical world surrounding characters, poets mainly aimed to disclose the psychological reality.

As Fox states, not only does this world provide a pleasant backdrop to the expression of love, it also reveals the authors idea of a lovers view of the world (227). In this regard, floodwaters, crocodiles awaiting their prey on the sandbank, and the very distance between the Boy and the Girl can be regarded as dramatic elements and symbols of obstacles to lovers reunion. These elements also help emphasize the power of Eros, as the characters overcome them no matter what.

It is love that makes the Boy brave and strong enough to reach the opposite shore. Noteworthy, he praises the beloveds feelings and emphasizes her role more than his own. He believes that:

It is her love

that makes me strong.

She casts a water spell for me! (Puchner 72)

This stanza also verifies the assumption about an elevated status of the beloved ones and love in Ancient Egypt. Moreover, it seems as if love gives supernatural powers to the character.

The poems rich imagery and symbolism indicating divine properties of love are compatible with the reflections of Phaedrus, Hesiod, and Parmenides about the highest spiritual quality of this feeling expressed in Symposium. They state that love is a mighty god and the eldest of the gods  the source of life itself and the greatest benefits for all human beings (Plato). Moreover, they note that love bestows great inner strength on people: that courage which& the god breathes into the souls of some heroes, Love of his own nature infuses into the lover (Plato). This courage inspired by love makes both men and women dare to die for their beloved-love alone (Plato).

All these conceptions are reflected in a profound aspiration of the Girl and the Boy in My God, My Lotus to reunite and embrace each other. Lovers reunion provokes thoughts about the pleasantness of being and harmony, an ideal state epitomized in the very essence of Eros. Based on ideas recorded by Plato, the lovers in the selected Egyptian song strive to reach that perfect state because it is in nature of all animate beings and inanimate things present in the material world too long for this perfection.

When it comes to love-inspired courage in My God, My Lotus, it is depicted with the help of comparisons. For instance, when wading through the river waters, the Boy found the crocodile to be like a mouse and the surface of the water like dry land (Puchner 72). The divine and magical properties of love can also be seen in the protagonists conviction that his beloved casts a water spell to help him cross the river easier (Puchner 72). From a certain perspective, it looks like the Boy and the Girl in love obtain supernatural abilities. Overall, the provided examples demonstrate that Eros is represented in the poem as a phenomenon through the contact with which a person can become close to a realm where miraculous creatures and gods live.

Lastly, rich imagery is utilized in My God, My Lotus to depict and emphasize the virtues of love. But firstly, it is appropriate to specify here what is implied by virtue in this case. As noted in Symposium, while courage and willingness to die for love can be considered a virtue as such, goodness is also achieved through long-lasting, honorable attachments between males and females. At the same time, an honorable attachment is the one in which any service is rendered to the beloved selflessly (Plato). As it was already mentioned before, the Boy and the Girl tend to praise each other, and, thus, they meet the latter requirement of virtuousness. In addition, one may find some prompts regarding the honorability of their love affair. The main one is the image of a tilapia fish in the Girls monolog:

Ill go down to the water with you,

And come out to you carrying a redfish,

Which feels just right in my fingers (Puchner 72).

While Puchner states that tilapia is a well-known erotic symbol (72), Manniche notes that it is a symbol of fertility and rebirth (40). It is likely that in the abovementioned stanza, water is represented as a symbol of sexual intimacy, whereas the redfish stands for rebirth through the creation of a new life. Although this is just a free interpretation of the symbolic meanings, it helps support the hypothesis about the nobility of the lovers relationships and shows the thematic interconnectedness of the poem with Platos composition.

It is valid to conclude the analysis by saying that Egyptian songs captured an ideal view on romantic relationships, passion, and love. Although it is hard to tell whether ancient Egyptians practiced the same values that are depicted in poems of that period, such literary pieces as My God, My Lotus, nevertheless, bear incomparable cultural significance. They incorporate mythological elements, as well as customs and traditions, and, thus, reflect common worldviews of the people. Moreover, considering the purposes of the present writing, the selected Egyptian song is important as the poetic messages contained in it allow tracing the affinity of Ancient Egyptian ideals of love with those proclaimed in other cultures and literary pieces, including Platos Symposium.

In both of the analyzed works, the literary characters acknowledge the power of love and are amazed by it. As one of the oldest and most mighty gods, Eros pervades the matter and affects everyone. Thus, love can be regarded as something simple and granted but, through contact with it, an individual gets a chance to become elevated and let miracles happen in their lives. In the case of the female and male personae in My God, My Lotus, the miracle of love takes a form of courage that crushes all obstacles on the way towards their reunification. And, in accordance with statements made in Symposium, the willingness to take great risks and even die in the name of honorable love can be considered one of the primary features of a virtuous personality.

Works Cited

Fox, Michael V. Love, Passion, and Perception in Israelite and Egyptian Love Poetry. Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 102, no. 2, 1983, pp. 219-228.

Manniche, Lise. Sexual Life in Ancient Egypt. Columbia University Press, 2002.

Plato. Symposium. Internet Classics Archive. Web.

Puchner, Martin. The Norton Anthology of World Literature, Volume A. 4th ed., WW Norton & Company, 2012.

The struggle for womens rights has been fierce, lengthy, and challenging to achieve. Women all around the world continue to work relentlessly towards achieving gender equality. Although a significant progress has been made, it is important not to forget where it all started. For this essay, the focus is on how Madea is treated by the men in Athens, as seen in the Euripides version and how her reaction came from the feminist within her. Madeas husband betrays her and continues to be respected whilst she is seen as an unworthy woman for losing a man. In ancient Greece, men saw women as equal to slaves or the lesser gender. This is an issue still evident today, and Madea should be seen as a proto-feminist trying to get away from the misogyny that shelters her instead of a villain. In todays society, many feminist movements continue to fight the stereotypes against women, Madea herself fights against this as well. While many see her as a villain who has lost her mind, Madea is a feminist character that uses power and violence to overcome the misogyny that women from her society face.

Notably, throughout the play, the belittlement of women in ancient Greece society is apparent. In her interactions with the male characters, Madea ends up being insulted various times. Jason betrays Madea, moves on easily and starts a new life, while due to the lack of rights for women, Madea is left with nothing. When she takes matters into her own hands, Jason describes Madeas attack as one triggered by nothing but sexual jealousy. This claim is essential for understanding the way Jason perceives Madea and all woman, for that matter. It is not only Jason that portrays how men trivialized women, but also the historical understanding of how men have treated women in society. Corinth women point out at the end of the prologue in the first choral ode how men in the past had controlled women representations. Euripides submits that male poets of the past had little or no faith in women. However, Euripides argues that with greater understanding and foresight, the poet needs to amend womens representation (413-31). Enough evidence of women mistreatment and perception in Greek society existed in their history, which warranted action.

Nonetheless, the relationship between men and women in ancient Greece is the basis for womens oppression and frustration. What makes the situation worse is the circumstances under which women are pitied against in a patriarchal society. Women are left with little or no option but to commit unimaginable offence such as infanticides to achieve self-fulfilment. Madea does not deliberately choose to plot for revenge, but the situation compels her. Madea is frustrated by the idea that she has to endure the dissatisfaction of her family life since women have no right to decide otherwise once they are married. In lamentation, Madea concedes that we wives are forced to look to one man only even when one is already dissatisfied (Euripides 24). For men in Greek society, the situation is different. Once a man gets tired of her wife, he has the options of abandoning her and look for another one, but for a woman, death is better. To Madea, the thought of having to persevere after her husband chose to remarry is too much. The disappointments, anger, and loathsome forces her to plot deadly revenge.

Additionally, gender roles have continuously barred womens advancement from achieving equality in society. In most cultures worldwide, women are given the roles perceived inferior to match their conventionally thought lesser gender. The same scenario transpired in ancient Greece, where womens responsibilities involved tending to their husbands, staying home and bearing children. They had few rights in comparison to male citizens. Women were unable to vote, own land, or inherit anything. During her marriage, Madea gave all sorts of help to Jason. Thats when life is most secure and safe when a woman and her husband stand as one (Euripides 10-20). But all changed when Jason decided to marry Creons daughter. Jason deliberately hurt Madeas emotions by overlooking her submissiveness and obedience. As a wife, Madea did not complain about meeting the expectations of her husband or society, no matter how vile some appeared. The pain of abandonment, betrayal, and contempt becomes too much that warrants her ridiculous revenge mission to champion for the voiceless.

Other than the gender roles, status quo, and societal support of the oppression of women, feminist tend to fight subjugating laws and leaders. In ancient Greece, the crown supported the mistreatment and oppression of women by not helping them overcome marital issues. For instance, Creon escalated Madeas suffering by deciding to banish her for fear of revenging against Jasons decision to abandon her and marry the kings daughter. Understandably, the king is aware that supporting Jasons idea of remarrying is wrong as it demeans Madea and all Greek women at large but goes ahead to back it. Madea cries that for a divorce loses women all respect, yet no one comes to her rescue (Euripides 270-80). Unfortunately, Creon does not see the pain in Madea and is quick to order her out you there, Medea, scowling in anger against your husband. Im ordering you out of Corinth. You must go into exile, and take those two children of yours with you (Euripides 310-320). Madea realizes that she has only herself to fight for the reputation and respect of the women of Corinth.

Madeas actions, though seemingly barbarous, parallels the modern Feminists activities in the quest for equality and recognition of women in society. After noting that making a stern statement in the community requires a well-calculated move, Medea chooses to do the worst but achieve the desired results of emancipating women. Madea uses her power to attempt to liberate herself from the continuous oppression. To get back at Jason, she defies the norm and demonstrates how powerful a liberated woman can be. Modern feminist movements have opted to damaging buildings, monuments and anything that will make a statement as they desire to be heard, just like Madea. Her emotions were dismissed by her husband. Madeas violent acts against the king, his daughter and her children can be seen as her statement. Madea sacrificed her life and reputation for the sake of the entire womens fraternity in ancient Greek society, reflecting the efforts of both first and second-wave feminist.

Importantly, feminist tend to cleverly navigate their ways through the law to attain their objectives. Madea, in the same manner as modern feminists present a robust case against women oppression, and wittingly defended her actions. For instance, when the king banished her, Madea challenged the decision with concrete facts. She said, But, Creon, let me ask you something Im the one abused, so why banish me? What have I done? (Euripides 280). Here, Madea delivers a solid case opposing womens oppression, where the authorities always perceive them as the trouble makers. Men win the support of the law and leaders without much struggle due to their gender and the perception of society that men are always right. Madea tries to make Creon understand that her actions are triggered by the injustices she has suffered because she is a foreigner and a woman. Hence, Madea swore to redress the injustices that compromise her rights and the legitimacy of her course.

While it appears that Madea is mad, it is her determination to pursue her course that becomes central to her life. When Creon refused to listen to Madeas side of the argument, he became Madeas third enemy, who she swore to make all of them corpse. At that point, it did not matter to Madea if she acted like a person who had lost her mind. All her concern is the ability to materialize her plans. She does not want Jasons marriage to turn her into a laughing shock in the community. As a result, Madea is devoted to destroying every remaining trace of her connection to Jason, including killing her children. Her decision is not a matter of personal loss or profit but loyalty to the course. One can understand that Madeas frustration represents what all women usually feel when society subjugates them. It reaches a point, women, mostly feminists, choose to heed the call of their fury to settle the injustice once and for all.

Overall, women have strived through hardships to obtain equality and recognition in society since ancient times. Contemporary feminist utilizes every available strategy, including violence and law defiance, to make a statement regarding their quest for freedom. In ancient Greece, women equally experienced an unfriendly society where men were valued more than women. Women occupied the lower rank almost at the same level as slaves, as lesser gender. In Madea by Euripides, Madea is a perfect example of a woman oppressed by stereotypes accepted as societys norms. Medea chose to fight for her rights using what appears in the eyes of many as brutal and barbarous methods. However, to Madea, revenge through violence is the only way her statement can get much-needed attention. Ideally, Madeas actions reflect the struggles and challenges feminist have gone through in the fight for equality.

Work Cited

Euripides. Medea. Johnson, Ian, translator, 431 BC. Web.

Prominent Western philosophers have given lasting contributions to the subject matter: Socrates developed his famous dialectical method, Plato talked about diverse education and Aristotle saw education as a moral training. Rousseau, on the other hand, went against prevalent currents to argue that the true nature of education can be found in free pursuit of knowledge without social corruption.

How to educate the young most efficiently has been one of the central philosophical issues since the Ancient Greek period. Virtually every famous philosopher in the Western tradition has held a view on education and argued for it in his writings. However, final solutions to key issues have not been reached. Even though they were intellectually quite closely related, Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle held diverging views on the issues of education, and the radical critic of Enlightenment, Jean Jacques Rousseau, together with his followers went against the entire Western tradition in terms of his views in this domain.

Socrates was one of the most famous philosophers and educators of the Hellenic period. Perhaps even more famous is his teaching method called the Socratic Method or Socratic Dialogue. In this method, the teacher uses questions and problematic observations to elicit arguments from the students. The method serves as a tool that shapes and polishes arguments (Noddings 1995, p. 12). Socratic dialogue is still practiced by educators, but it is effective mostly in the domain of hypothesis forming and argument building, while in the area of factual knowledge it finds little use.

Plato developed a Utopian view of education in his conception of the ideal state. He believed in diverse education, which meant that it is necessary to determine the inborn talents in different persons and develop those talents as much as possible. In his ideal state, some people would be warriors, others would be craftsmen and the most intelligent ones would-be rulers. The height of human achievement is the ruler mentality equipped with knowledge of art, history, philosophy and mathematics (Noddings 1995, p. 13).

The contradictory part of Platos philosophy is that he believes that the highest positions should be given by merit while at the same time stating that the society should determine the educational route of each child.

Aristotle was mostly concerned with moral education. He believed that it is not enough to transfer cognitive abilities to children, but that the school has to instill moral character in the young. In line with his theory of morality as a habit, he saw moral education as a moral habit formation or a process similar to training. The right to question moral assumptions comes only after the person has already completed the necessary moral training and achieved the moral character (Noddings 1995, p. 15).

Rousseau was one of the thinkers that started to question the entire tradition of educational theory stemming from the origins in Ancient Greece. Because he viewed society as a corruptive force, his position was that the social environment should work as a facilitating factor in the learning process while avoiding all negative, corruptive influences (Noddings 1995, pp. 17-18). Learning should come from the inward impulses of the child and the opportunities for learning should cater to those demands.

In conclusion, the problems related to education do not cease to fascinate philosophers. Prominent Western philosophers have given lasting contributions to the subject matter: Socrates developed his famous dialectical method, Plato talked about diverse education and Aristotle saw education as a moral training. Rousseau, on the other hand, went against prevalent currents to argue that the true nature of education can be found in free pursuit of knowledge without social corruption.

Reference List

Noddings, N. (1995). Philosophy of education. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.

Introduction

In the time period 605-562 BC, Babylon was a renowned power. This time period also coincided with the life time of King Nebuchadnezzar. His father, King Nabopolassar, had created the Chaldean dynasty and had invaded Assyria, forcing them to go towards Northern Mesopotamia. This set the stage for Nebuchadnezzars legendary reign. Nebuchadnezzar used military might to further alienate the Assyrians, together with any Egyptian sympathizers. So consumed was he in this quest that only the death of his father made him return back to Babylon, where he became the next King (mnsu, N.D.).

Architecture in Babylon

Nebuchadnezzars achievements show just how advanced Ancient Babylon was during his time. He is best known for two architectural feats. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are still are a wonder even today. According to legend, Nebuchadnezzar was inspired by the mountainous home land of his wife during the construction. Nearby, Nebuchadnezzar also built the Ishtar Gate, and adorned it with amazing reliefs resembling Babylons imagery of the day: dragons and bulls. The gate was built to represent the goddess Ishtar  god of life, fertility, Eros and war (mnsu, N.D.).

Science in Babylon

Babylons science was very advanced during King Nebuchadnezzars time. They already had astronomers amongst themselves. These astronomers could accurately calibrate time and seasons using the relative positions of the planets and stars. The goddess Ishtar herself was the religious equivalent of the planet Venus in astronomy. Under Nebuchadnezzars influence, both religion and astronomy complimented each other (mnsu, N.D.). It was a testament to the many faces of the otherwise warlike King.

Literature in Babylon

Babylon already had text in their culture during Nebuchadnezzars time: they could read and write. This art was more prominently utilized by members of the government, to enlist the support of the King and the citizens in government projects. The religious leaders also used ancient scriptures put in scrolls to communicate their religious ideologies. King Nebuchadnezzar himself frequently used written letters to address his people. Some of his writings have been recovered, and they point to the fact that though a pagan, Nebuchadnezzar still used incidences of inexplicable events to evoke religious fear amongst his subjects (Ellis et al, 2001).

War

King Nebuchadnezzars reign was full of war invasions into the neighboring lands. In 605 BC, soon after attaining the position of a King Nebuchadnezzar attacked the Egyptians at Carchemish. The Egyptians collective morale was destroyed by their losses during this attack, and soon enough, they fell under Nebuchadnezzars rule. But what followed thereafter was a period of attacks and counter attacks, made worse by intermittent drought periods. Simultaneously, Babylonians were besieging Jerusalem, and ultimately captured its King, Zedekiah. The Kings family was slaughtered, and he was taken prisoner to Babylon. Jerusalem was then utterly destroyed with fire. Any survivors were taken into Babylon as slaves (Nemet and Karen, 1998).

The existing records depict Nebuchadnezzar as a wily king who was able to squash dissenters even from within his own army. In 594 BC he was able to bring under control a raging rebellion within his own army. He also acted against a potential invasion from some tribes living in what is now Southwest Iran. His focus remain steadfast  to capture as many of the surrounding cities as possible. During his reign, he attacked all the tribes in present day Saudi Arabia, Judah, Syria, and Jerusalem. He is said to have staged a 13 year siege on the city of Tyre (Grossman, 2007).

Conclusion

Nebuchadnezzars many faces showed up even in the war zones. He is perhaps the first person to have sent an ambassador, Nabonidus, to intervene and defuse conflict between the Lydians and the Medes in Asia Minor. When he died at around 83 years old, he left a mixed legend: war leader, architect, arbitrator, religious protagonist etc (Grossman, 2007). A mixed legend, but an immortal one nevertheless.

Works cited

Ellis, Roger, Oakley-Brown, Liz (2001) Translation and Nation: Towards a Cultural Politics of Englishness Clevedon, UK, Buffalo, NY Multilingual Matters.

Grossman, Mark (2007) World Military Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary New York, NY Facts on File, Inc., 2007.

Mnsu (N.D.) The Chaldeans. Web.

Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. p. Westport, 1998. Greenwood eBooks.