Category: American history

Introduction

The Columbian Exchange, triggered by Christopher Columbus’s historic voyage in 1492, forever transformed the world by initiating the global transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This comparative essay will explore the impacts of the Columbian Exchange on both the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the New World (the Americas), highlighting the similarities and differences in the ecological, economic, and cultural consequences that unfolded as a result of this transformative event.

Ecological Impact

The ecological impact of the Columbian Exchange was profound in both the Old World and the New World. In the Old World, the introduction of new crops such as maize, potatoes, and tomatoes from the Americas revolutionized agricultural practices and contributed to population growth. These crops became staple foods and boosted agricultural productivity. Conversely, the exchange also brought devastating consequences to the New World as European explorers and settlers introduced invasive species like rats, pigs, and horses that disrupted ecosystems and threatened native plant and animal species.

Economic Consequences

The Columbian Exchange had significant economic implications for both the Old World and the New World. In the Old World, the influx of precious metals from the Americas, particularly silver from mines in present-day Mexico and Peru, fueled European economies and triggered inflation. The availability of new resources also led to the emergence of global trade networks, such as the Triangular Trade, which connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas. In contrast, the New World faced exploitation and the extraction of resources by European powers, resulting in the forced labor of indigenous populations and the establishment of encomienda systems.

Cultural Exchange and Transformation

The Columbian Exchange had a profound cultural impact on both the Old World and the New World. In the Old World, the introduction of new foods, such as potatoes and corn, revolutionized diets and contributed to population growth. Additionally, the exchange of ideas, technologies, and knowledge expanded intellectual horizons and spurred scientific and cultural advancements. In the New World, European colonization brought profound changes, including the forced conversion to Christianity, the imposition of European social and political systems, and the suppression of indigenous cultures. However, cultural exchange was not one-sided, as indigenous cultures also influenced European art, cuisine, and music.

Disease and Demographic Consequences

The exchange of diseases had a devastating impact on both the Old World and the New World. European diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, introduced to the Americas, decimated indigenous populations who lacked immunity. This demographic catastrophe profoundly altered social structures and cultural landscapes. Conversely, the exchange of diseases from the Old World, such as syphilis, impacted European populations. The introduction of new diseases had long-lasting effects, reshaping demographics and leaving a lasting impact on the population dynamics of both hemispheres.

Conclusion

The Columbian Exchange was a transformative event that reshaped the ecological, economic, and cultural landscapes of both the Old World and the New World. While it brought benefits such as the introduction of new crops and the expansion of trade networks, it also resulted in ecological disruptions, exploitation, and the loss of indigenous cultures. Understanding the comparative impacts of the Columbian Exchange is essential to grasp the complex consequences of this historic event and its ongoing relevance in shaping our modern world.

Indigenous art over the 500-year period of 992 CE to 1492 CE has differed greatly. Within this specific period, the art pieces greatly varied, due to each regional difference as well as having no European influence from colonisers, such as the Spanish. Specifically pinpointing distinctive characteristics during this period can be difficult, due to the differing styles between each region and group of indigenous people. For example, people in wooded areas tended to craft with wood, stone and clay while Inuit people tended to use ivory, a material which was in plentiful supply for them. This in turn helped put a distinct value to each piece and allowed trade to happen between groups and allowed them to establish an early version of currency. Despite this, indigenous arts is a broad term and somewhat inadequate term, as indigenous arts cannot be simply described as an aesthetic piece, like many art pieces, but instead was intended to serve a purpose, such as a container or an effigy of worship, or was predominantly used in “political or military societies” so they could create “weaponry, regalia and panoply.”

One area that had a distinct art style was that of the southwest of North America. Throughout this area, art was more of a practicality than a past time or used for idol worship. Houses of the native people here were an eloquent statement to their crafting expertise, their walls were usually made of stone and packed with sand or clay, insulating them against harsh winter conditions while also keeping them cool in the summer heat. Villages tended to have these homes as three or four stories tall and were able to house several families. The communities of south-western America created various art pieces, as they were distinct masters of weaving, painting and pottery. They tended to use mineral and vegetable pigments which provided colourful decorations when applied with fibre brush to wood, clay or white walls in a fresco style. Abundant kaolin (white clay) deposits helped to create pottery and although small religious stone effigies have been found, sculpture was not one of their highly developed art forms. Art on pottery and other items was essentially linear and geometric in design and has revealed this region’s preference for decorative art (see Figure 1). The craft of basketry and pottery within this region was also used as trade between groups but were also popular for practical uses in the south-western communities. This helped show some of the distinctive features of North American native art due to their traditional media such as weaving and painting while also sticking to a distinct and unique trademark pattern of the south-western groups, which included geometric and triangular patterns.

Another area that had a distinct style was that of the Midwest and the Northern Plains of America. In this area, stone was worked skilfully and in a variety of ways. Pottery was also common but was not worked as well as copper and mica ornaments, which were more widely used materials. Shell and bone were also intricately carved, which helped show their artistic range. Ritualistic structures also existed, usually made as effigy mounds, which were large earthen structures created to look like animals. The Serpent Mound in Ohio is a great example of this (See Figure 2). The Great Plains region was also home to buckskin art and beadwork costumes, feathered war bonnets, and painted shields. A great deal of this region’s art served a decorative and spiritual purpose. Colour was usually achieved through vegetable or mineral pigments, much the same as the Southwest. The artworks of this area vary from realistic to extremely abstract and symbolic. Often, they are usually narrative in context, especially with the Winter Counts, painted records that recounted tribal history or personal records were usually on buffalo hide (See Figure 3). This helps us recognise the distinctive characteristics of Native North American Art because these are distinctively different from the Southwest due to their symbolism but also manage to share similarities, such as materials marking them up to be similar.

Another area where art meant a great deal was with the Artic regions of Native North America and the Inuit people. It may have seemed unlikely that art would occupy much of this region’s people’s minds, as there was little raw material to work with and there was also the constant need to supply food, which in perspective, should leave little time for craftwork. However, despite this harsh environment, came some of the most intriguing and humorous art works from Native North America. During long winter nights, the Inuit people had ample time to work the ivory they gained from walrus and whales. Since the base material was usually a tooth or a tusk, the shape of these often dictated the shape of the artwork and was usually carved upon. Black pigment, which was from charcoal fires, was rubbed into the carved lines for emphasis. These ancient ivory sculptures which have been excavated have revealed a highly sophisticated style from the Inuit people which was not seen among other regions (See Figure Four). Another predominant feature of Inuit art is their warm sense of humour, which is seen throughout their art pieces. Occasionally in the style of caricature, or occasionally in an early version of a ‘comic-strip’. This was probably prevalent due to the hard-going life in the Artic regions, they believed that humour was important to their psychological health. Another significant feature of the Inuit people was their colourful wooden masks, which were used in social gatherings and ritualistic dances. While many tribes created these wooden masks and coloured them with a clear ingenuity, no North American indigenous people could develop the art of imaginative characterisation that the Inuit people had. Their masks helped combine a variety of factors including realism, imagination and supernatural qualities that is uniquely Inuit (See Figure Five). This helps show the distinct characteristics of Native North American Art because they had their own extremely significant style, which was different from those of the other plains, but still stuck to using them for the same purpose, such as ritualistic purposes.

Another area where art was significant was the Northwest coast of America. It was in this region, the land was richly endowed with cedar and spruce trees, allowing sculptors to reach their finest expression. Tall cedar trunks were used to create totem poles, small wooden figures, masks and other small carved objects that were dear to the North West Coast natives. The role of Totem Poles within this tribe was not typically understood but has been discovered that they were not religious artefacts, but instead memorial documents which recorded one’s social position within their group (See Figure Six) The Northwest Coast Americans were among the first to master metalwork. Majority of their copper came from the local sources, usually mountains which they had to travel quite a distance to gain. The metal was worked by Tlingit and Haida artists into fighting knives, masks and the shield shaped tinneh, which were highly sought. Along the Northwest coast, the Tlingit people of Alaska seem to have produced the more sophisticated sculpture in the Northwest coast. The Kwakiutl people on the other hand, tended to express their feeling for linework through powerful painted carvings; the designs are usually outlined in strong lines, there is less subtlety in their form and the overall feel is of a powerful force. Between the two tribes, are the Haida carvers, whose work is marked by their mathematical precision and lines. This tribe is responsible for the black ‘slate carvings’ which are made of argillite, a stone only found on Haida Gwaii, which is found in British Columbia (See Figure Seven). This helps show the distinct characteristics of Native North American Art because it has some of the most iconic art pieces and some of the most distinctive and well-known art outside of Native American culture.

So, in conclusion, in Native North America, no one region had distinct characteristics, as there was similarities and differences between each region. Each region had their own uses, materials, art media and iconography for their art pieces, while also overlapping with each region. Some were more practical, while some where more decorative and some where more ritualistic and symbolic. We can conclude however, that American art has left an interesting and diverse influence on the art world and can be easily distinguished from other art pieces.

Introduction

The Columbian Exchange, a period of extensive cultural and biological exchange between the Old World and the New World following Christopher Columbus’ voyages, had far-reaching consequences. While it brought about advancements in trade, agriculture, and the exchange of ideas, it also had unintended consequences that significantly impacted indigenous populations. This informative essay focuses on one of those unintended consequences: the devastating effects of disease brought by European explorers and colonizers to the Americas. By exploring the spread of diseases, the vulnerability of indigenous populations, and the long-term implications, we gain a deeper understanding of the profound impact of the Columbian Exchange on the indigenous communities of the Americas.

The Spread of Disease

The Columbian Exchange introduced a multitude of diseases to the Americas, including smallpox, measles, influenza, and typhus. These diseases were largely unknown to the indigenous populations, leaving them particularly vulnerable to their devastating effects. As European explorers and colonizers arrived, unintentionally carrying pathogens, these diseases quickly spread through the native communities, decimating populations that lacked immunity. The lack of natural resistance, combined with overcrowded living conditions and inadequate healthcare, resulted in catastrophic loss of life.

Vulnerability of Indigenous Populations

Indigenous populations in the Americas had not been exposed to the diseases prevalent in Europe and Africa, making them highly susceptible to the pathogens brought by the colonizers. Their isolated and close-knit communities contributed to the rapid transmission of diseases, which devastated entire villages and tribes. Moreover, the social and cultural practices of indigenous societies, such as communal living and limited exposure to external populations, further increased their vulnerability to the introduced diseases.

Long-Term Implications

The unintended consequences of the diseases brought by the Columbian Exchange had long-lasting effects on the indigenous populations of the Americas. The loss of lives was immense, resulting in a significant decline in population sizes and the disruption of social structures. The loss of elders, knowledge keepers, and cultural traditions caused irreparable damage to indigenous communities. Additionally, the demographic shifts led to profound changes in land use and resource distribution, as traditional systems of agriculture and land management were disrupted.

Conclusion

The spread of diseases as an unintended consequence of the Columbian Exchange had a devastating impact on indigenous populations in the Americas. The introduction of unfamiliar pathogens, combined with the vulnerability of indigenous communities, led to widespread illness, death, and profound social and cultural changes. Recognizing and understanding these unintended consequences is crucial in acknowledging the lasting effects of the Columbian Exchange on indigenous communities and working towards a more inclusive and equitable future.

Introduction

The Oregon Trail holds a significant place in American history as a route that played a pivotal role in fulfilling the concept of Manifest Destiny. This informative essay explores the historical context, motivations, challenges, and impacts of the Oregon Trail on the expansion of the United States westward. By delving into the experiences of the pioneers who embarked on this arduous journey, we gain a deeper understanding of how the Oregon Trail contributed to the realization of Manifest Destiny.

Historical Context

The concept of Manifest Destiny emerged in the 19th century as a belief that it was America’s destiny to expand its territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The Oregon Trail became a crucial avenue for westward expansion, providing an opportunity for settlers to claim new land and establish themselves in the vast wilderness of the West.

Motivations for Westward Migration

The pioneers who embarked on the Oregon Trail were driven by a multitude of motivations. Some sought economic opportunities, such as fertile land for farming, while others were enticed by the prospect of finding gold or other valuable resources. Additionally, religious freedom, the desire for adventure, and the promise of a fresh start motivated many to undertake the long and challenging journey.

Challenges and Hardships

The Oregon Trail was not for the faint of heart. Pioneers faced numerous challenges and hardships along the way. The journey involved navigating rough terrain, crossing treacherous rivers, enduring extreme weather conditions, and braving encounters with Native American tribes. The lack of proper infrastructure and provisions made the trail a perilous undertaking that required resilience, resourcefulness, and cooperation among the pioneers.

Impact on Westward Expansion

The Oregon Trail played a crucial role in expanding the United States westward. It opened up new territories, allowing settlers to establish communities and create economic opportunities. The influx of pioneers led to the development of towns and the growth of industries such as farming, mining, and trade. The Oregon Trail paved the way for further expansion and the eventual establishment of states in the Pacific Northwest.

Cultural Exchange and Conflict

The journey along the Oregon Trail brought together people from diverse backgrounds and cultures. Pioneers encountered Native American tribes along the way, leading to cultural exchange, trade, and unfortunately, conflicts. These interactions shaped the social and cultural fabric of the region, leaving a lasting impact on both the settlers and the indigenous peoples.

Legacy and Heritage

The Oregon Trail holds a significant place in American heritage and collective memory. It symbolizes the pioneering spirit, determination, and resilience of those who ventured westward. The trail has been preserved as a national historic landmark, with museums, interpretive centers, and markers serving as reminders of the sacrifices and triumphs of the pioneers who blazed this trail.

Conclusion

The Oregon Trail stands as a testament to the vision of Manifest Destiny and the determination of the American people to expand westward. It provided a pathway for pioneers to fulfill their dreams of land ownership, economic prosperity, and a fresh start in the untamed wilderness. The challenges and sacrifices faced by these pioneers are a testament to their resilience and the indomitable spirit that shaped the nation. The legacy of the Oregon Trail continues to resonate today, reminding us of the profound impact of westward expansion and the enduring legacy of Manifest Destiny in shaping the United States.

Coney Island may have more impact on America then someone might think. The 1920s was a time where America was very vulnerable as to what it would become in the future. Mainly because World War I had just ended and the Great Depression. It was a time where America would create all sorts of new inventions and make a bunch of new laws. For example, this is the time where women got the right to vote. This is also the time when Coney Island started to raise in popularity. Also, when Coney Island sheds the light in Brooklyn from all the darkness in World War I. Coney Island is where a poor man could go and have fun during this age. Coney Island was a symbol as to what humankind is capable of.

Coney Island was first and foremost a beach, the occupation of the beach was reflected by the density of New York, where finding space was difficult. Often times not even able to find a place for a towel. It was also a boardwalk, in this pre-cellphone era, the risk if having so many people and no cellphones was becoming lost and away from their friends or family. During the 1870s and 1880s, luxury hotels were built there, and a railroad was extended to the resort (‘New York Amusement Parks’). This made it easily accessible to anyone trying to experience Coney Island.

In the year 1895, Paul Boyton selected Coney Island as the nice region for what is now considered to be the very first genuine park for amusement. Performer Boyton, who had a focus globally for acting out publicity stunts, added his massive water circus, Sea Lion Park, without delay in returned of the Elephant Hotel at Coney Island. Two years later on, George Tilyou, who created Steeplechase Park, featured a Ferris wheel decorated with incandescent lights, as well as a horseracing center. In 1903, Frederic Thompson and his friend, Elmer Dundy, opened Luna Park, with its astral attraction, a day out recognized as ‘Trip to the Moon’. Dreamland, achieving the very best factor for the time with a 375-foot core tower as tall as the white fake Beaux Arts buildings (Shaw). These large park owners invested intently in land, buildings, and machinery, giving them unparalleled control over the content material cloth and kind of enjoyment within the park. As a result, Coney Island managed to draw in an estimated twenty million humans at some stage in the summer season of 1909, as well as greater more revenue than Disneyland drew during its opening at some point of 1955 (‘New York Amusement Parks’). At Coney Island, with the entry rate set at ten cents, heaps of hundreds of dollars have been made each summer, with the cash going to each and every associate and investors. To compare it to Disneyland, Coney Island was part of a real city, a neighborhood in Brooklyn. It was not a specially protected secluded atmosphere that rigidly controlled its visitors. Coney Island was open for anybody to come its way.

The amusement park created was the science behind some of the first things that shaped the culture of American amusement in the 1920s. One of them being the hot dog. Although this fine dish already existed, Coney Island transformed the hot dog into a unique American food, the hot dog also popularized roller coaster culture (Pescovitz). Then Charles Loof, an artist, created the first carousel ever in 1875, it operated by steam power, and he carved many of the animals himself (‘New York Amusement Parks’). Coney Island was also the first gated amusement park and can be closed anytime. This didn’t stop the rebellious gangs during the falling time of this park in the 1960s.

One of the greatest structures of Coney Island was the Elephant Hotel. It was, essentially, a wood carcass that was once formed similar to an elephant. Its length from the hind legs to the tip of its trunk was once one hundred fifty feet. Its legs on my own were eighteen toes high and its tusks have been forty toes in diameter (Pescovitz). The forelegs contained a cigar keep and the hind legs held circular stairways, additionally recognized as the diorama, leading to the rooms on the subsequent floor. The entire physique was once covered in a coating of blue tin. Inside the body have been thirty-one rooms that various in shape and size, such as a grand hall, a gallery, quite a number leisure and novelty stalls, and a museum, that was placed near its left lung. The Stomach Room used to be 60 x 35 feet and triangular shaped (Pescovitz). The Cheek Room was once where the traffic would experience a notable view of the Atlantic Ocean and down the trunk. Tragically, the Elephant Hotel collapsed as a result of a hearth in 1896, after being unoccupied for numerous years. After its initial success, it finally grew to become vacant. During the fire, it took almost an hour for the shape to crumple for the reason that it was made from timber and water was once scarce.

Coney Island had a magnificent growth in the quantity of site visitors in the 1920’s due to the introduction of a new subway line that related Manhattan and Brooklyn (Eiland). The subway fare used to be a single nickel, which drew tens of millions of site visitors to Coney Island to experience the many attractions. Thus, causing he nickname ‘The Poor Man’s Paradise’ (‘New York Amusement Parks’). People journey to New York City’s closest beach and spent time on the sand with their family and friends. They loved walking on Coney Island’s regular boardwalk, which contained the newly set up 150-foot-tall Wonder Wheel and five cent hot dogs coming from the resorts Nathan’s Famous. On June 26, 1927, the Cyclone was once built and grew to be Coney Island’s most well-known curler coaster (Pescovitz). Amusement parks such as Luna Park, Dreamland and Steeplechase Park have been very famous with visitors. These parks generated a constant float of profits for the area, while providing fun for households and children.

After the Great Depression, the entertainment parks and other sights suffered economically. Even though people nonetheless traveled to Coney Island because of the inexpensive nickel fare, they weren’t as inclined to spend money when they received there. Most human beings spent time on the beach rather than going to the parks. Another issue that pushed people to flock to the seashore used to be the warmth wave that took location all through the Great Depression. There had been nevertheless some people that had extra money on the facet to have fun, however the entertainment parks had a hard time making a profit. In the 1930’s, most of the leisure parks grew to be bankrupt and shutdown (Eiland). These parks sooner or later opened up again due to new proprietors, but in no way became as successful as pre-Depression days.

The fame of Coney Island began to decline over the years, changing from the family-friendly to shabby and broke-down. The seashore remained famous however the leisure parks began to deteriorate. The entertainment parks unfortunately were no longer in a position to make up for the economic harm that the Great Depression delivered. Starting from the early 1960’s, Coney Island slowly started out to reap a reputation for being unsafe, as so many teenage gangs, such as ‘The Jokers’, congregated there (‘New York Amusement Parks’). The subways had been stuffed with contributors of teenage gangs which discouraged many interested visitors from taking the subway to Coney Island (Eiland). Only a fraction of the attractions remained by the early 21st century; Luna Park closed. Then the Sea Gate district is a residential section which covered Luna Park (Eiland). It additionally grew to become a center of racial tensions due to the fact of the changing population density of New York and an array of new white people from the city.

Coney Island holds a unique place in American history, and the nations imagination. It became a working-class symbol, a symbol of the American democracy, a place where people came to have fun. Coney Island provided thrills that couldn’t be found anywhere else, it had a large combination of rides, circuses, carnival sideshows, magicians and more. This type of feel and positivity changed the 1920s journey to where we are today.

Religion played an important role in the history of the United States. In some way, it can be said that it helped to shape America into what it is today. However, the belief that some religions are better than others created conflicts between their members. The aim of this paper is to show how different religions were perceived and tolerated (if they even were) throughout the history of America, and what is the situation of tolerance and freedom of religion today.

Religious Tolerance in the History of America

Nowadays, the religions in the United States are numerous and originate from all over the world. The reason for this could be the tolerance America displays towards these religions and the so-called freedom of religion. However, this tolerance towards different beliefs is not really something that was practiced if we take into account the relationship different religions and America had throughout history. And this applies especially to the attitudes that various denominations of Christianity had towards each other and other religions.

Native Americans and Colonial Period

Native Americans were not a monotheistic nation, but they held different religious beliefs especially in the way of spirits and spiritualism. They strongly believed in nature and the Great Spirit, and this became a point of contention when Europeans came to America. These European colonists were predominantly believers of Christianity, and they did not approve of these different religious beliefs and deemed them to be unfounded and false. When they began establishing colonies in their goal of conquering the American land, they exhibited strong intolerance towards the religion that was different from theirs and wanted it to be eliminated. One of the main reasons for the establishment of the colonies, especially English ones, was also the spreading of Christianity, e.g., the Church of England. Even though the spreading of Christian faith came second to the search of profit to most colonists, they still succeeded in their Christianization of Native Americans. By the 19th century, most of the Native Americans were members of one of the Christian denominations.

In the early 1600s Puritans and Pilgrims came to America to escape the religious persecution they were experiencing in England. We would have thought that because they had also experienced intolerance towards their own religion, they would be more tolerant towards others. However, that was not so, and the religious freedom that they sought for themselves was not extended to others. Those that were opposed to it were often severely punished and even banished from the Puritan colonies.

As a result of various religious disagreements, some members of the colonies decided to break away and establish their own colony where they will be able to practice their religion. One of them was a Puritan clergyman Roger William, who was banished after he had disagreed with the policies and theology in his colony. He established the colony of Rhode Island, where he inaugurated religious tolerance and freedom. He did not differentiate between those of his own religious beliefs and those whose religious beliefs he did not agree with (e.g., Quakers and Jews). He also established the separation of the church and the state in his colony, which was not adopted by the other colonies until after America became independent. Eventually, the Toleration Act was passed in 1682 which allowed several other denominations, e.g., Quakers, to build their churches and have public service. They were not legally punished if they did not challenge Puritan’s authority; however, the discrimination towards them still continued.

Independent America

After the American Revolution in 1775, there were numerous laws regarding different religions and religious beliefs. In some states, such as the State of New York, only Christians could hold public office and Catholics were banned from them, whereas, in the State of Maryland, Catholics had a full civil right, while the Jews had not. Thomas Jefferson wrote a Bill in 1779 that guaranteed all citizens legal equality – even those who were not religious. However, the bill did not come into fruition until 1786. The draft was modified and adopted the view that Roger William established in his colony of Rhode Island – the separation of church and state. This meant that the Congress could not make laws that would infringe on the people’s freedom of religion. Furthermore, in 1791 the Virginia Declaration became part of the First Amendment, which allowed for the free exercise of religion.

However, despite the portrayal of the religious tolerance on the side of the early American leaders, the nation itself was not so tolerant. In the 19th century, anti-Catholic movements were going strong as people feared that the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church was incompatible with democracy. Those opposed to Catholicism burned down convents and churches, which also resulted in deaths, as was the case in Philadelphia, where two churches were burned and 20 people killed by the people of anti-Catholic sentiment in 1844.

America in the 20th Century

In the 20th century, another group expressed their hostility towards people with different religious belief – Ku Klux Klan. The group was already established in the 19th century, and with the revival in the 20th century, its members were after all-white, Protestant America. They enforced violence while presenting their anti-black, anti-Catholic and anti-Semitic ideology. Members of the group burned crosses and even killed people, predominantly African American members of the society, until the group was reduced in the Great Depression. Ku Klux Klan was never disbanded in its entirety and is still active today.

Discrimination against Jews was most prominent from the late 19th century until the middle of the 1960s. The fights against the fascism in the World War I and World War II, and the later civil rights movements in the 1950s and 1960s helped to diminish the discrimination against the Jews. And even then, the discrimination against them was not so strong as it was against the Catholicism and African Americans at that time.

In the 1990s with the fall of the Soviet Union, America turned its gaze towards Muslim nations. As a result of the rise of the oil prices in the 1970s and the international crisis in the Middle East in the 1980s, America began to exhibit strong anti-Arab and anti-Muslim feelings. This was further exacerbated with the attack on the World Trade Center in New York in 1993, and the destruction of the Twin Towers in New York on September 11, 2001.

America was seen as a nation that those who are oppressed and persecuted can turn to. The religious discord is deeply steeped into the American history; however, the religious freedom and tolerance are widely spread values in the present day America.

Religion in the Present-Day America

In the American Constitution, the First Amendment clause guarantees the separation of church and state, and says that everyone has a right to practice his or her religion, or no religion at all. And there is no official religion of America precisely because of this Amendment. The presidential candidates, like John F. Kennedy and George H.W. Bush, like to reaffirm the idea of the religious liberty, and identify it as the basis for other rights.

Today, America is a home to numerous religious groups that originate from all over the world. According to Pew Research Centre, the most practiced religions in 2010 were Protestantism (50.1%), followed by Catholicism (24.3%), unaffiliated (16.4%), other Christians (3.3%), Judaism (1.2%), and Buddhism (1.2%) (US Religion Demographics). This diversity points towards the tolerance of different religions; however, in recent years, especially in 2017, there were more hate-crimes and harassments of Muslims and Jews happening. It appears that even though the freedom of religious expression is highly emphasized in America, it is still undermined by those who express their religious bigotry.

Conclusion

My aim in this paper was to present how the tolerance towards different religious beliefs was or was not expressed in American history, and what is the situation in the present day. By using information from the listed sources, it has been shown that even though America today is a country where freedom of religion is highly valued it was not so in its history. There were periods when those that opposed the dominant religion, mostly Protestantism, were being persecuted and even killed. The persecution of different religious beliefs already began when the first colonists came to America and they did not agree with the views Native Americans had when it came to their religion. Throughout the colonial period, various conflicts were being made because of the opposing views of which religion is the right one. After the American Revolution, some progress had been achieved towards the tolerance of different religions and the freedom of religious expression with the establishment of the First Amendment clause. However, this did not completely eliminate the religious discriminations. In the 20th century, the religious bigotry continued with the revival of Ku Klux Klan and the discrimination against the Jews and especially Muslims after the attack on the World Trade Center in 2001. However, America is still the country where religious tolerance and freedom of expression are still highly emphasized. Even though there are still people who like to discriminate those that belong to the religious minority, they are not expressing what the whole population of the United States thinks about them.

References

1. A.U.C., Active USA Center. “The United States of America”. Family Life in the USA – TheUSAonline.com, http://theusaonline.com/people/religion.htm Accessed 30 Jan 2019.
2. Davis, Kenneth C. “America’s True History of Religious Tolerance”. Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 1 Oct. 2010, http://smithsonianmag.com/history/americas-true-history-of-religious-tolerance-61312684/ Accessed 30 Jan 2019.
3. Editors, History.com. “Freedom of Religion”. History.com, A&E Television Networks, 7 Dec. 2017, http://history.com/topics/united-states-constitution/freedom-of-religion Accessed 30 Jan 2019.
4. Editors, History.com. “Ku Klux Klan”. History.com, A&E Television Networks, 29 Oct. 2009, http://history.com/topics/reconstruction/ku-klux-klan Accessed 30 Jan 2019.
5. “Religion in Colonial America: Trends, Regulations, and Beliefs”. Facing History and Ourselves, http://facinghistory.org/nobigotry/religion-colonial-america-trends-regulations-and-beliefs Accessed 30 Jan 2019.
6. “US Religion Demographics| Religion in the US | PEW-GRF”. Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project, http://globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/united-states/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=11&affiliations_year=2010 Accessed 30 Jan 2019.

The beginnings of the American Revolution can find its initial breakthroughs in the French and Indian War of 1754-1760, which also coincided with the Seven Years’ War which ravaged the world. The wars ended with the Peace of Paris on 10th February 1763 and the annexation of French Canada, Spanish Florida, French Caribbean Islands, and trade ports of Africa and India. In the lecture, a focus was taken on exploring the true costs of the war on the Empire and the ways of recovering this debt from the colonies, in particular the American colonies of the eastern seaboard. Additionally, the true wealth of colonies was explored to find discrepancies in their contribution to the war which greatly benefitted them.

Lawrence Henry Gipson’s work outlines the ‘Imperial’ school of thought, showing his sympathetic reasoning for Empire. He outlines the Colony’s initial weak approach to the French and Indian War and the reliance on regulars and lack of support for the troops. Gipson also acknowledges that the French and Indian War removed the reliance of the colonies on the empire for protection from: Native Americans, the French, and the Spanish. Describes the ‘subsequent nine years of fighting’ which ‘destroyed the old equilibrium’ and allowed the colonist a favorable position for freedom and independence. However, Gipson also cites that ‘even before the great war there were those in the province who had begun to view Great Britain as the real enemy’, suggesting that in Massachusetts there was already anti-imperial sentiment. Aforementioned, links together as Boston, Massachusetts was a revolutionary spark in the 1760s throughout the period.

George Bancroft on the other hand was from the Whig school of thought and believed from his writings targeting the 1760s, that American Colonists had a right to freedom of expansion and self-governance independent from the Houses of Parliament. Bancroft explains his grievances on intervention on direct taxes and land control borders of colonies. His detailed description of New York and its bustling free trade sparks his zeal for a whole country dictated by the same means.

From the Sugar Act to the Brink of War

To connect the eve of the revolution to the Declaration of Independence, the lecture included numerous Acts introduced by Parliament to pay debts accumulated in the 7 Years’ War. These include the Sugar Act of 1764, the Stamp Act of 1765, Townshend Duties, and the Currency Act of 1764 to name a few. In addition, the reactions and responses by the colonists were outlined in the form of the Continental Congresses and the unrest experienced in Boston throughout the late 1760 and 1770s. The true motives for independence were now outlined in the works of Samuel Adams’s Circular Letter, and Thomas Paine’s Common Sense.

Jack P. Greene and Richard M. Jellison’s The Currency Act of 1764 explores the colonial reaction and response to the Act. In detail, Greene and Jellison explain how some colonies, like Maryland, were able to adapt by investing in stocks of the Bank and creating a new mode of transaction. Joseph A. Ernst would agree initially as Virginians welcomed the abolishment of currency however acknowledges that just a year after, Virginia would join a movement in favor of repealing the Act. Greene and Jellison also reveal that Delaware did not consider the Currency Act a ‘major grievance’ unlike all the other colonies.

On the other hand, Greene and Jellison do outline that the Currency Act’s ‘psychological effects were especially important’ in terms of the revolutionary movement. The effect that the Act had on the largely agriculturally based colonies was extensive as debt could not be paid and was a large driving force for popular demonstrations in Boston. They point the blame at merchants and crown agents who failed to find agreements with parliament. In addition, they go on to mention that American legislators now could not rely on spokesmen of the colonies to find ‘enlightened solutions to their problems’.

James F. Hrdlicka explains in historiographical terms the steps to revolution. He explains why the revolution did not happen during the imperial crisis of the 1760s on ‘any number of occasions’. Using Pauline Maier’s ‘ideological interpretation’ to explain the gradual intensification was down to real Whig thought of ‘order and restraint’. He also includes Timothy H. Breen’s work to validate how the ‘order and restraint’ wavered into revolution in the ‘ten-year gap between the Stamp Act and the outbreak of fighting’. Breen suggests it was needed to build trust within the fractured colonies and set the foundation of the constitutional assemblies.

The War of Independence, 1776-1783

This week’s lecture focused on the catalyst of war and the major events conflicted within the War of Independence. The division of the colonies into the Patriotic ‘Whigs’ and the Loyalist ‘Tories’ collated the demographics for the two sides with the Whigs centering upon New and Loyalists in the other dominions of the New World. The lecture was broken into three parts: the Declaration of independence and the committee of five; the Northern Campaigns which saw initial success until the battle of Saratoga as well as the intervention from France and Spain; and the Southern Campaign which saw the pinnacle defeat of by a Franco-American force at Yorktown. The War concluded with the Treaty of Paris in which American independence was sealed and hegemony of North America was broken.

The article written by Stephen Conway was especially interesting when in discussed the idea of a ‘Military Europe’, in which militaries across Europe shared ideas and personnel in throughout Europe’s war colleges. In addition, the journal also states that Army employed Hessian mercenaries to fill the ranks. These mercenaries had a mixed relationship with soldiers and were hated by the soldiers of the Continental army who saw them as a foreign force. The continental army also sought support from Europe by employing officers such as Friedrich von Steuben to assist George Washington in Europeanizing their force.

One thing that I found compelling was the use of Native Americans and slaves as auxiliaries of army. According to Colin G. Calloway, ‘The Indian people’ participated in shaping colonial and revolutionary society and in turn the armies of the revolutionary war. Calloway discusses the many Native Americans who had integrated into colonial society and subsequently colonial armies, however the number of such men could not be known due to the Europeanization of their names. Conway cites that ‘about four hundred Iroquois tribesmen accompanied General John Burgoyne’s army’. Initially, European agents pushed for native neutrality but as the war continued, American, Spanish, and French agents began lobbying support amongst the tribes. Ultimately, the war resulted in conflicts between native tribes, especially the Iroquois. It also paved the way for future American colonisation of indigenous lands.

Governing the Nation, 1776-1791

This week’s lecture we covered the development of the United States government from the disorganization caused by independence to the forming of a national federal government. Beginning with the Congressional period in 1776, in which individual states found more autonomy in creating their own bills of rights and constitutions. Due to the disputes over votes and land the Confederation period began in 1781 and unified all states into a single confederation to support the war effort. However, this was a failure as the confederation congress was inferior to individual states leaving it weak in levying revenue and settling disputes. The final Constitutional period in 1789 marks the final stage in American governance and the Federal system we see today.

This week’s article written by John C. Koritansky on Alexander Hamilton’s Philosophy of government and administration was particularly interesting in how it related Maddison and Hamilton’s federalist theory ‘closer to a constitutional monarchy’. Koritansky admits although the United States government is democratic it has had to make an ‘uneasy peace’ with the advantages of having a sole president to pursue ‘progressive reforms’. As well as progressive reforms, the decision on the process of removal of ‘subordinate executive officers’ was not expressed in the Constitution. However, as Koritansky presents the ‘decision of 1789’ allowed for the president’s executive power to include the removal of these subordinate officers and therefore fell into the federalist interpretation. This is particularly evident within the context of the rise of the federalists of 1787-1788, as they realized the necessity of a central government that was powerful enough to protect the individual states and executed federal authority in the removal of corrupted officers. As well as, maintaining peace and order between states which could not have been preserved by the previous Confederation.

Alternatively, the Antifederalists edited by Cecelia M. Kenyon within the introduction remarks that ‘Antifederalists wanted more limitation and checks written into the constitution. This in turn was to prevent the sole president and his party from enforcing ‘constitutional tyranny’ upon the people of the United States. Their worry of Federal control and reduction of inter-state power is what essentially brought about the Bill of Rights to protect individual citizens liberty and rights. Although it must be acknowledged that in The Federalist papers article No.84 discusses the proposal of a bill of rights.

The Vision of Empire: Parliamentary Sovereignty

This week the lecture took us on a pro- viewpoint to understand parliamentary sovereignty that inevitably led to the Revolutionary wars and American independence. In revision of this, we had to understand the ancient Anglo-Saxon unwritten constitution that in turn affected freedoms and liberties throughout the Empire. As well as this, covering the: Magna Carta, the civil wars of 1642-1651 and the Glorious revolution which cemented Parliamentary sovereignty over the monarch. The became the sentiments that inspired American revolutionary thinkers and created the American constitution. In addition, it also allowed us to understand the true motivations of parliament before the revolutionary war in the idea of ‘virtual representation’ and total control over the colonies.

The article George III and the American Revolution written by P. D. G. Thomas was this week reading. It was particularly interesting on its protection of the King George III and the outlining of colonial propaganda during the revolutionary war. He defends the King as he remarks that ‘George III certainly had the objective of restoring the Crown’s power of appointing minister’ but then would simply ‘let them govern’. As read in the Declaration of independence, all the blame of injustice with the colonies is attributed to King George III. However, as Thomas states, ‘To portray the King as a hardliner is evidently misleading’ and that ‘his hopes were centered on a political solution’. He explains the constraints for a monarch within a constitutional monarchy and the George III could not challenge Parliament but only advice. While also acknowledging George’s change to a hardline policy near to the Declaration of Independence as hostilities broke out at Lexington and Concord.

In J. C. D. Clark’s, The Language of Liberty 1660-1832, he tackles the emerging differences in the social dynamics of the North Atlantic. Interestingly he expresses that emergence of Nationalism which he suggests was created by American patriotism during the revolutionary period. He outlines that as ‘ national awareness’ increased through culture, for example phrases like ‘God save the King’ and ‘Rule, Britannia’. Anti- awareness engulfed all social classes within the colonies. The hatred of the royalist culture is evident in the Declaration of Independence which cites ‘The King’ as the sole fabricator of tyranny. In turn, created a ‘matrix from which American revolutionaries chose to fight to escape’. This emergence of nationalistpatriotic propaganda as well as anti-monarchical sentiments in the colonies created the radical revolutionary attitude against King George which is alluded to in Thomas’s work.

The American Revolution as a ‘Social Revolution’?

Our lecture this week was looking at the American revolution as a ‘social revolution’. Identifying the significance of popular rebellion and crowd action in the years leading up to the declaration of independence. Beginning as early as 1765 in the Stamp Act rebellion in which stamp collector for crown were harassed and some houses were burnt down. Progressing into the unrest within Boston which caused: The Liberty Riot of 1768; The King Street Riot of 1770 (Boston Massacre); and the Boston Tea Party of 1773. All of which derived from the ordinary inhabitants of Boston, key figures for popular rebellion throughout the revolutionary period. We also explored the popular participation in government from 1774 onwards. As previous colonial elitist leaders supported the beneficial to protect their assets, poorer ‘new men’ began to make a more formalized institutional role in politics. For instants, Continental Association was created to enforce the boycott of goods and the committees of safety to mobilize local war bands and locally govern.

Merrill Jensen’s The American people and the American Revolution is particularly interesting in its description of the so-called ‘new men’ which filled the leadership vacuum created by opposition to the policy. Some of these ‘new men’ rose to political positions of power from the middle and lower classes which explicitly suggest a popular ‘social revolution’ especially in the period of ‘upheaval between 1774 and 1776’. Additionally, it must be noted that Jensen targets these ‘new men’ on their anti-democratic rhetoric’s. Outlining, that in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, ‘no members of the convention disagreed with the proposition that democracy was the fundamental evil of the times’. These ‘new men’s’ anti-democratic stance within the Constitutional period indicates the need for the Federalist ideologies in guiding a stable government with a fair democracy to achieve order.

Richard B. Morris in his journal Class Struggle and the American Revolution would disagree as he states that ‘The Whig elite began the war, and in the main that same elite was in control at the end’. Contrasting Jensen’s opinion of the ‘new men’ who were from the middle to upper classes. Interestingly, when comparing the French and American revolutions he remarks that ‘leadership in both revolutions was not recruited from the ranks of the failures but rather from the ambitions and successful’.

Women and the American Revolution

This week’s lecture covered Women and the American revolution centering on the subordinate roles played by Patriotic women. One outspoken woman of the time, Abigail Adams wife of John Adams, took an active role in advising her husband on conditions at home. The corresponding letters between the two allude to the fact that elite white women were not passive in asserting their rights outside of the gender sphere. In addition, we understood the role of women in pre- and post-revolutionary period, for example the women’s role as mothers and wives in moderating opinions and behaviors of husbands. Eventually, women in this period did not have suffrage but that did not restrict their political impact. Women participated in large crowd actions in food riots and the boycott of goods making crucial contributions towards the war effort. The spirt of women during the revolutionary war would be significant in achieving rights for women in the 19th and 20th century.

The article Women and the American Revolution in Georgia written by Ben Marsh takes a noteworthy glance on the effects and responses of women on both Patriotic and Whig factions. It is particularly interesting when presenting the women who broke out of the ‘women’s sphere’ during the tough times of the revolution within Georgia. He cites Laleah Johnston and her actions at the siege of Savannah in sending her teenage sons to join the Whig resistance against the Franco-American forces who were bombarding the town. He explains how the ‘conflicts’ between peacetime roles and revolutionary circumstances ‘temporarily altered perceptions of women’s status within society’. Inevitably, giving women a fracture in gender roles that would drive women’s suffrage through the 19th and 20th centuries.

One other feature is the struggle of the continental soldiers’ wives who were made widows in the war. These women, as outlined by Elizabeth Cometti in Women in the American revolution, would take ‘their problem straight to authorities’. Once again evidence of women breaking the gendered ‘sphere’ and speaking up to political officials demanding what was rightfully theirs. Cometti also alludes to the true female patriots of the revolutionary war, for example Deborah Sampson who served in the continental army under the name Robert Shurtleff. Although being the only women to join the army, many women would act as camp followers and support the armies in supply and logistics.

An African American Revolution?

Continuing in our thematic weeks, this week encompassed the question: An African American Revolution? One interesting point is that the slave population actually increased by the end of the revolutionary period from 325,906 in 1760 to 694,207 in 1790. We also understood what the justifications of the era were on slavery, for example: property rights, laws of wars and nations, racism, and religion and the curse of Canaan. Whilst also exploring anti-slavery in the colonies before and after the revolution which was heavily influenced by Quakers and other religious group in the 1740s-50s. Due to the birth of the enlightenment in western Europe an international anti-slavery movement emerged influencing the founding fathers and playing a significant part in the war of independence. Parts of the slave trade and slavery were slowly abolished in the North by 1804, however abolition in the whole country would not be achieved until after the American Civil war in 1865.

This week’s reading, Black Women of the American Revolution covers the rarely reported lives of black women living within American revolution and focuses upon the pro-abolitionist Pennsylvania. Debra L. Newman acknowledges that the Gradual Abolition law of 1780 passed in Pennsylvania ‘made a significant difference in the lives of Afro-Americans even if the material aspects of freedom were worse for some’. The law required that ‘no child born after the passage’ would be a slave’ and also enforced more administration of slaves, a limitation on children to the age of 28 before they achieved freedom. Also providing equal rights to a jury like white people showed a change in liberties caused by the American Revolution and the constitution that accompanied it.

The third part of the Declaration of Independence is the indictment of King George III. In this section, the writers created a list of ‘repeated injuries’ as a basis for independence. These grievances focused on areas of legislation, judicial rule, military concerns, and failure to protect. The legislative concerns focused on the fact that King George III would not allow them representation in the Parliament.

In addition, he refused to let the colonies have their own meetings or government. Although they lacked any representation, they were still forced to accept the laws given to them. He even refused certain territories’ protection unless they agreed to no representation. Finally, they accused the King of holding secret meetings off the record where he bullied others to agree with him. The judicial concerns addressed the concerns the colonies had with their lack of a judicial system.

They believed that King George III made the judges dependent upon him and controlled their decision. In addition, he would not allow the colonists to have a trial by jury in the colonies but forced them to go back to England. The writers were also fearful of the military action in the colonies. They did not agree with King George III’s decision to keep armed soldiers stationed in the colonies during times of peace. In addition, the colonies were denied any military action of their own, forcing them to rely on Great Britain for any military protection or concern. Finally, the Declaration of Independence addressed the lack of protection by Great Britain.

King George III had cut off their trade to other parts of the world. The colonists had continually asked for help to protect their people on sea or from the Native Americans, and he had refused. He had imposed taxes on them without their consent. Worst of all, he had declared war on them by burning their towns and destroying their people. At the very moment they were writing the Declaration of Independence, the King was sending more troops to the colonies. The DenunciationThe final part of the Declaration of Independence contains the denunciation and the conclusion. The denunciation states their final reasons for this call to independence.

The colonists have asked for help repeatedly and have continued to be ignored. They have been ignored not just by the government, but by the citizens of England. Because of this, it is necessary for the colonies to declare independence. The Declaration of Independence ends with a formal conclusion and statement of independence, saying:’These united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiances to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved.’The document was signed by 56 delegates that represented all 13 colonies.

Freedom is often associated with having rights and civil liberties with which to exercise them without undue interference by the state. There are different forms of freedom: freedom of speech, freedom of association, freedom of choice, freedom of religion, and freedom of economy. Furthermore, Freedom means having the opportunity to vote for a particular idea or for people who best represent our views. Freedom can refer to the concept of freedom of speech; the ability to freely voice personal opinion or perspective. Freedom in a financial context where people seek to free themselves from doing any job. Freedom is the power or right to act, speak or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint and the absence of a despotic government.

Freedom in Meriam Webster:

As the quality or state of being free such as

The absence of necessity constraint in choice or action.

Liberation from slavery or from the power of another.

The boldness of conception or execution of a political right.

President Franklin Roosevelt in his State of the Union address on January 6, 1941

‘ we look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedom.’

The first is freedom of speech and expression -everywhere in the world.

The second is the freedom of every person to worship God in his own way everywhere in the world.

The third is freedom from want which means economic understanding which will secure every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants everywhere in the world.

The fourth is freedom from fear which means a worldwide reduction of armaments to such paint and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor – everywhere in the world.

The concept of freedom is old, not new. Human is born free and he wants to live freely so whenever they are oppressed they show resistance and fight for their freedom.

America has been colonized by various European countries. European nations came to America to increase their wealth and broaden their influence over world affairs. The Spanish were among the first Europeans to explore the new world and the first to settle in what is now the United States. In 1565, at St . Augustine Florida. Spain colonized America because they were searching for gold and silver.

By 1650, however, has established a dominant presence on the Atlantic Coast. The first colony was founded in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607.

Many of the people who settled in America came to escape from religious persecution. Because at that in Europe Church was considered a supreme authority and every state affair comes under its supremacy. In 1500, broke away from the Roman Catholic Church and created a new Church called the Church of.

The Pilgrims founder of Plymouth, Massachusetts arrived in 1620 in America in both Virginia and Massachusetts for religious freedom, the colonists flourished with some assistance from Native Americans. New world grains such as corn kept the colonist from starving while in Virginia tobacco provided a valuable cash crop.

From there, the French founded Quebec in 1608 then Dutch started a colony in 1609 in present-day New York.

Europeans came to America with five motives behind it: the satisfaction of curiosity, the pursuit of trade, the spread of religion, and the desire for security and political power at different times and in different places.

Throughout the Europeans American freedom used to be viewed as a moral and nonsecular situation instead than a political or social one. What it meant to be free was to provide up a lifestyle of sin to follow Christ’s teaching, ‘Where the spirit of the Lord resides, there is liberty.’ The New Testament says that those who commonplace Christ’s teaching grew to become free from sin and servants of God at equal times. Christian Liberty had no connection to the new concept of religious tolerance. The king claimed to rule below the authority of God. There was a hierarchical system ranging from king and hereditary blue blood to the city and rural peasants. It was present in Europe and became the cause of social injustice among the masses. Within their household men had power over other halves and children. When a girl marries she surrenders her legal identity which is covered by means of her husband .she could not own property. She could not manage her profit if she works and she could not get a divorce until the extremely severe circumstances reach her. She could not write a separate will. Most of the people lacked economic freedom. As man is the head of woman, so is Christ the head of the Church. What were the key ideas of freedom for European Americans who came to America from Europe?

The Government at the early time had a history of suppressing the media and criticizing it can lead to incarceration.

By the early 1700, slaves, and Africans made up a growing percentage of the colonial population. More than 2 million lived and worked in Great Britain’s 13 North American colonies. European settlers in America behaved very badly with those slaves. They put a heavy workload on them and did not pay their salaries. They were not given any right to speak and work properly because of their dark skin. White people considered them inferior. They were living in a miserable state.

The European American idea of freedom changed because of American Revolution and the Civil war in against the parliament. Colonies in America directly started the revolution as a protest against the taxation of goods in America by the English Patriarchy and Monarchy especially on the taxation of everyday goods such as tea, to cover their war expenses and trade purposes. In 1776, the revolution was started and was eventually won. Americans defeated Britain. Americans in the 13 colonies formed independent states that were defeated in the American revolutionary war gaining independence from the Crown and establishing the constitution that created the United States of America. The first modern constitutional democracy.

The black slave activists also participated in American Revolution against Britain, because Britain was treating them poorly, which helped them in ending the practice of slavery. US Constitution declared the rights of humans. The first amendment to the US Constitution prevents the government from making laws that regulate an establishment of religion or that prohibit the free exercise of religion or abridge the freedom of speech., the freedom of the press, the freedom of assembly, or the right to petition of government for redress of grievances. It was adopted on December 15, 1791, that constitutes the Bill of Rights. Political rights are given to men and women. The state runs on the will of the people. Democracy was established in the true sense. Rights were given to slaves but not to a large extent. Women were allowed to vote. People were given the right to own their property. Education became possible for everyone.

The French Revolution was a watershed event in modern European history that began in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s. Its purpose is to fight for social and political rights. During this period, French citizens raised and redesigned their country’s political landscape, uprooting old institutions such as absolute monarchy and feudal system. The French Revolution is affected by American Revolution that spread all across Europe. It also played an important role in changing the European’s idea of freedom.

The American dream is a national ethos of the United States, the set of ideals (democracy, rights, liberty, opportunity, and equality) in which freedom includes the opportunity for prosperity and success, as well as upward social mobility for the family and children achieved through hard work in the society with few barriers. James Truslow Adam in 1931 said that’ life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with the opportunity for each according to ability or achievement ‘ regardless of social claim or circumstances of birth. Declaration of Independence proclaimed that ‘ all men are created equal ‘ with the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. US constitution also promotes similar freedom, in the preamble: to ‘ secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our prosperity.’

Conclusion:

Americans got freedom from the European mindset and old customs and established their own perspectives. The idea of freedom evolved in America from religious to liberal democracy. Now USA’s idea of freedom is considered ideal and other nations are following it.

American Enlightenment or American Revolution

The American Enlightenment was as soon as a period of mental ferment in the thirteen American colonies in the 18th to nineteenth century, which led to the American Revolution, and the creation of the United States of America. The American Enlightenment used to be influenced by way of the 17th-century European Enlightenment and its very very own Native American philosophy. According to James MacGregor Burns, the spirit of the American Enlightenment was once as soon to supply Enlightenment beliefs a practical, useful shape in the existence of the country and its people.

The American Enlightenment utilized scientific reasoning in politics, science, and religion. It promoted religious tolerance and restored literature, arts, and music as imperative disciplines integral to study in colleges. A non-denominational moral philosophy replaced theology in many college curricula. Some colleges reformed their curricula to encompass natural philosophy (science), contemporary astronomy, and mathematics, and ‘new-model’ American-style faculties had been founded. Politically, the age is distinct via way of an emphasis on financial liberty, republicanism, and spiritual tolerance, as sincerely expressed in the United States Declaration of Independence. Attempts to reconcile science and faith resulted in a rejection of prophecy, miracles, and published religion, ensuing in an inclination towards deism amongst some crucial political leaders of the age. Among the predominant representatives of the American Enlightenment have been presidents of colleges, such as Puritan religious leaders Jonathan Edwards, Thomas Clap, and Ezra Stiles, and Anglican ethical philosophers Samuel Johnson and William Smith. The main political thinkers had been John Adams, James Madison, Thomas Paine, George Mason, James Wilson, Ethan Allen, and Alexander Hamilton, and polymaths Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. The time period ‘American Enlightenment’ used to be coined in the post-World War II era, and was now not used in the eighteenth century when English speakers frequently referred to a manner of becoming ‘enlightened.’

Various dates for the American Enlightenment have been proposed, which include 1750-1820, 1765-1815, and 1688-1815. One extra precise beginning date proposed is 1714 when a sequence of Enlightenment books via the use of Jeremiah Dummer had been donated to the library of the College of Yale in Connecticut. They have been got by way of the skill of a post-graduate student Samuel Johnson, who studied them. He decided that they contradicted his Puritan learning. He wrote that, ‘All this used to be once like a flood of day to his low nation of mind’, and that he observed himself as if ’emerging out of the glimmer of twilight into the full sunshine of open day’. Two years later in 1716 as a Yale Tutor, Johnson delivered a new curriculum to Yale the utilization of Dummer’s donated Enlightenment books. Johnson introduced what he recognized as ‘The New Learning’, which blanketed the works and ideas of Francis Bacon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, Copernicus, and literary works through means of Shakespeare, Milton, and Addison. Enlightenment ideas have been brought to the colonists and subtle via Puritan educational and nonsecular networks particularly via Yale College in 1718.

Enlightened Founding Fathers, in particular Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington, fought for and eventually attained spiritual freedom for minority denominations. According to the founding fathers, the United States has to be a united states of the united states the location of peoples of all faiths should stay in peace and mutual benefit. James Madison summed up this ideal in 1792 saying, ‘Conscience is the most sacred of all property.’ A trade away from mounted religion to nonsecular tolerance used to be one of the distinguishing points of the generation from 1775 to 1818. The passage of the new Connecticut Constitution in 1818 has been proposed as a date for the triumph if now not the provide of the American Enlightenment. That new charter overturned the 180-year-old ‘Standing Order’ and The Connecticut Charter of 1662, whose provisions dated again to the founding of the kingdom in 1638 and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. The new charter guaranteed freedom of faith and disestablished the Congregational church.

The American Enlightenment on the one hand grew from works of European political thinkers such as Montaigne, John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau, who themselves derived thoughts about democracy from admiring bills of American Indian governmental constructions delivered decrease again from European travelers to the ‘new world’ after 1500. Concepts of freedom and present-day democratic beliefs were born in ‘Native American wigwams’ and positioned permanence in Voltaire’s Huron. While between 1714 and 1818, an intellectual trade took neighborhood that regarded change Colonies of America from a far-off backwater into a chief in a variety of fields of moral philosophy, educational reform, religious revival, industrial technology, science, and, most notably, political philosophy, the roots of this alternate have been domestically grown. America observed a consensus on a ‘pursuit of happiness’ primarily based definitely political structure based in big phase on Native sources, then again misunderstood.