Category: American history

Memoirs are a great medium for learning the in-depth details and story that occurred throughout someone’s long and storied life. This is most certainly the case for the two memoirs written by J.D. Vance and Ta-Nehisi Coates. J.D. Vance wrote his memoir titled “Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis” regarding his life events in Jackson, Kentucky and Middletown, Ohio about how they molded him into the person he soon became. Ta-Nehisi Coates wrote his memoir titled “Between the World and Me” as a letter to his son to outline his life as an African American man growing up in the city of Baltimore, Maryland and becoming a man in New York City or as Ta-Nehisi Coates describes it as the ‘Mecca’. These two memoirs written by J.D. Vance and Ta-Nehisi Coates are remarkably similar and completely different in so many ways. “Between the World and Me” is about an African American man who struggles to shed his old ways after growing up in the inner city of Baltimore, Maryland and “Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis” outlines the life of a poor and working class white man who overcame all odds to make a life for himself. Although these two memoirs seem to detail two vastly different backgrounds, they clash in a way that really unifies both marginalized classes in the United States today. According to the Democracy Journal, a writer named “Rob Dreher said that the book ‘Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis’ does for poor white people what Ta-Nehisi Coates’s book did for poor black people: give them a voice and presence in the public square. (Crabbe-Field)” Taking a deep dive into both memoirs written by J.D. Vance and Ta-Nehisi Coates, they show the importance or lack thereof of religion, both of their difficult experiences as children in their respective early childhood communities, and exactly how their concept of the American Dream differs from one another.

To say both J.D. Vance and Ta-Nehisi Coates had a challenging childhood would be a vast understatement to describe the obstacles that both men overcame. Coates’s childhood consisted of growing up in downtown Baltimore, Maryland where he struggled and fought just to stay alive. In Erica Scott’s article A Class Divided she states that “Coates grew up in urban Baltimore in the 1980’s where ‘To be black in the Baltimore of my youth,’ Coates writes, ‘was to be naked before the elements of the world, before all guns fists, knives, crack, rape, and disease.’ (Scott)” This for one is not an ideal situation nor any place for a child to grow up and prosper. This type of place is a breeding ground for unmoral and illicit activity and shows the youth who live there many of the wrong ways to succeed throughout life. Coates’s childhood is comparable to Vance’s in the way that Erica Scott explains in her article that, “Both men were forced to learn the law of the streets at an early age” (Scott). Vance himself describes his childhood life at home as Ta-Nehisi Coates might by saying, “From low social mobility to poverty to divorce and drug addiction, my home is a hub of misery” (Vance). Coates and Vance both struggled to live normal childhoods; however, Vance’s childhood was never plagued with racial injustice like Coates’s most certainly was. As an African American youth in the city of Baltimore, Maryland in the 1980’s, Coates struggles with racial injustice unlike Vance who grew up in the more prominently white cities of Jackson, Kentucky and Middletown, Ohio. Michelle Alexander who wrote an article about Ta-Nehisi Coates’s memoir “Between the World and Me” had this to say about race regarding Coates, “Coates’s letter to his son seems to be written on the opposite side of the same coin. Rather than urging his son to awaken to his own power, Coates emphasizes over and over the apparent permanence of racial injustice in America, the foolishness of believing that one person can make a change” (Alexander). Although race is a large portion of the conversation in Coates’s memoir, Vance’s own memoir does not feature race in the same light as Coates’s, if none at all. This is shown in Erica Scott’s article when she states that, “Vance seems only to mention race to justify its absence: ‘I do hope that readers of this book will be able to take from it an appreciation of how class and family affect the poor without filtering their views through a racial prism’” (Scott). These are some of the many ways Vance’s and Coates’s memoirs are similar and differ when it comes to their childhood and how race played a role in it.

Religious beliefs are common across the United States in all facets of cultural backgrounds and are even more common around the world. Religion is a concept that you must learn to understand and one that you must choose for yourself. These beliefs can impact someone whether they know it or not. In the instances of J.D. Vance and Ta-Nehisi Coates, religion was a large catalyst in both their lives, whether it was present or not. Coates is not a religious man and knows that it sets him apart from others in his own community. On the other hand, Vance and his family embraced the Christian faith in their own way when he was younger, and it showed throughout his memoir. In a blog written by Anton L. Vander Zee she writes that, “From his upbringing until his adult life, Coates has and continues to dismiss religion,” and adds a quote from Coates’s “Between the World and Me” that states, “I could not retreat, as did so many, into the church and its mysteries… And so I had no sense that any just God was on my side… My understanding of the universe was physical, and its moral arc bent towards chaos then concluded in a box” (Vander Zee). Differing from Coates’s stance on religion, Vance had his own unique view about faith that stemmed from his family, mainly his grandmother Mamaw. When discussing Vance’s early adoption of religion Vander Zee explains in her blog that, “Vance grew up with religion central to his and his families beliefs. His mother figure, his biological grandmother Mamaw, read the Bible nightly but rejected any ideas of the institutional church. The outsider hillbilly mentality that Vance describes throughout his memoir pervades even his early faith” (Vander Zee). Both Coates and Vance share an unorthodox view of religion. Coates believes that if there is a God, that he is not on his side nor ever was. While Vance is attracted to the belief instilled in him by his Mamaw that follows an unorganized religious view. Vance and Coates both do not follow the norms of religion in any way, which makes them more alike than most might think.

The idea of the American Dream is the foundation on which the United States of America was built. This idea has many meanings for the people who live in America. In the memoirs written by Ta-Nehisi Coates and J.D. Vance they share their own views on the American Dream that seem to differ from one another. Coates’s thoughts on the American Dream are that there is a danger in the belief of the American Dream, especially for people of color (Alexander). Coates’s cynical view of the American Dream stems from his belief that it is unobtainable for him and people like him because as Coates states in his memoir the American Dream “has never been an option because the Dream rests on our backs, the bedding made from our bodies” (Coates). The Dream to Coates is like a trap for African Americans and other people of color who strive for an unreachable goal. On the contrary, Vance’s view of the American Dream is much more positive and inspirational. He believes that no matter your situation or place in society, the American Dream is an attainable goal that should be pursued. Erica Scott describes his view of the Dream by stating, “J.D. Vance very much believes in the American Dream, even if “his people” do not. To Vance, this Dream is difficult for poor kids to access, but not unattainable” (Scott). Vance’s and Coates’s beliefs of the American Dream do not have much room for agreement. However, they both share a common belief that the only way one will get themselves out of a bad situation is by willing themselves to push through adversity no matter the obstacles.

In conclusion, “Between the World and Me” written by Ta-Nehisi Coates and J.D. Vance’s “Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis” share many similarities in their belief of religion, their views of the American Dream, and their hardships as children in their communities. However, Vance’s and Coates’s memoirs contrast each other just as much as they share similarities. Both Coates and Vance shared difficulties in their childhood and throughout their communities which were stricken with drug addiction and poverty. Although, their own personal childhood experiences differ from one another making their outlook completely different. Coates’s views on religion is that he does not care for it and dismisses the whole notion of religious belief. Vance’s religious background is deeply rooted in his family; however, it is an unconventional way of belief. Their beliefs of religion contrast each other but are oddly similar in the fact that they do not follow the conventional mold. The American Dream is a topic that I believe Vance and Coates disagree the most. Coates believes there is a danger in pursuing the American Dream, while Vance believes whole heartedly that the American Dream is the backbone of America. With these differing and similar views, we see as the reader how one’s beliefs can be morphed by one’s upbringing and surroundings.

Works Cited

1. Alexander, Michelle. “Ta-Nehisi Coates’s ‘Between the World and Me’.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 17 Aug. 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/08/17/books/review/ta-nehisi-coates-between-the-world-and-me.html.
2. Coates, Ta-Nehisi. Between the World and Me. Spiegel & Grau, 2017.
3. Crabbe-Field, Sophia. “A Hillbilly Left?” Democracy Journal, 3 Jan. 2017, democracyjournal.org/magazine/43/a-hillbilly-left/.
4. Scott, Erica. “A Class Divided.” Stanford Politics, Stanford Politics, 7 Oct. 2017, stanfordpolitics.org/2017/05/31/class-divided/.
5. Vance, J. D. Hillbilly Elegy: a Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis. Large Print Press, a Part of Gale, a Cengage Company, 2018.
6. Vander Zee, Anton L. “Religion and the Shaping of Identity.” The Self as Story, blogs.cofc.edu/autobiography/2019/03/12/religion-and-the-shaping-of-identity/.

Introduction

The decision by America to use two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II was an intense topic of discussion for years after the incident. The Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings are one of history’s best-known historic events, but at the same time provoke ongoing, fervently heated reactions. This research paper aims to examine the Hiroshima and Nagasaki incidents and investigate the causes, implications, and effects of the bombings.

History of Hiroshima

Hiroshima’s early history goes back to the 6th century when some of the first Shinto shrines on Hiroshima Bay were erected (Cÿ, 2005). Modern Hiroshima was founded in 1589, which means ‘big island’ (Cikan, 2005). The city’s many canals and wharves made importing goods from the countryside simple while its bridges linked all parts of the expanding metropolis. Hiroshima had been such a major center for the Japanese military that the Imperial Headquarters was briefly moved there.

Summer 1945

The summer of 1945 was the moment, the U.S. and its allies were at war against Germany and had just ended peace (Mishler 2008). And the US has been in conflict with Imperial Japan since the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 (Mishler, 2008). During the Japanese War America had a very critical decision to make. One choice was to drop a newly tested bomb on the Japanese, aiming to get them to quickly surrender. The latter alternative was to have a mass land invasion of Japan and plan to fight it with full force. It was understood that there would be a significant number of fatalities, no matter what choice was selected.

On 12 April 1945, after the death of President Roosevelt, Vice President Harry S. Truman became President (Foundation for Constitutional Rights). At this time, President Truman was seeking to occupy the position twelve years vacated by President Roosevelt. Truman was pushed into a position that he was not prepared for and into an administration that operated successfully without his input (Kort, 2007). Sadly, Roosevelt never included his vice president in the discussions on atomic bombs. Two weeks after becoming president, he was finally extensively briefed on ‘the tool,’ as General Groves called the Bomb (Civil Rights Foundation). War Secretary Stimson undertook the primary purpose of filling the details of the Manhattan Project President Truman, about which Truman had not known (Kort, 2007).

According to Kort (2007), a variety of scientific discoveries in the 1920s and 1930s led to the Manhattan Project. During this time of scientific innovation, Hitler had steadily risen to power in Germany and the physicist Leo Szilard and fellow Hungarian Eugene Wigner and Edward Teller had long been worried (Kort, 2007). They have agreed the U.S. President would be told of the latest fission technologies that had been developed that could produce bombs, they claimed. The three physicists enlisted the help of the then-leading scientist, Albert Einstein, and together they drew up a letter to President Roosevelt (Kort 2007). Albert Einstein’s famous 1939 letter, drafted by physicist Leo Szilard (who’s been called Humanist of the Year some twenty years later), convinced President Roosevelt to begin the Manhattan Project, explaining their conviction that nuclear power ‘would lead to the development of explosives, and it is plausible that extremely powerful new type bombs might be designed in this way’ (Milam 2010).

The combination of France’s 1940 fall to Germany, the assumption that Germany was leading in the atomic bomb race, and the Pearl Harbor bombing soon convinced Roosevelt that more needed to be achieved with this atomic work (Kort, 2007). Roosevelt instructed his top security advisors to rapidly set up commissions on this initiative and to decide what to do and how to do it. Even by the end of 1942 bomb studies had become a bomb configuration, and the Manhattan Project was now managed by the military (Milam, 2010).

The Bombing

The war secretary from 1940 to 1945, Henry L. Stimson, would influence President Truman’s critical decision on whether to invade or attack Japan (Sherwin, 1995). On the morning of 6 August 1945, the U.S. Army Air Forces B-29 Enola Gay dropped a weapon-style uranium gun code called ‘Little Boy’ on the city of Hiroshima (Military History 2009). Some 350,000 people had been living in Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945. That day, around 140,000 died, and in the next five months (Military History, 2009).In the Kyuohotagawa and Motoyasugawa rivers, masses of blackened, bloodied, skinless bodies drifted in macabre places. Long lines of shuffling figures – clothes burning right off the body; hair hanging on the end or singing off the scalp; skin peeling and dripping off arms, legs, back; hands spread out, zombie-like – were all desperately wandering after the bombing (Military History, 2009). This hellish scenario was performed in utter darkness because the mushroom cloud, the black rain carrier, and everlasting death, had turned day into night and modern technology into mankind’s greatest nemesis (Military History, 2009).

According to Cameron (2005), President Truman released this statement after the Hiroshima Bombing about the use of a new weapon and pledging the following:

‘If they don’t accept our terms now, they should expect a storm of destruction from the clouds that have never been seen on this planet. Behind this airstrike will join sea and land powers with the numbers and strength they haven’t seen yet and with the combat skills that they’re already well aware of and ability that they haven’t seen yet and with the combat skills that they already learned.’

The Emperor did not respond and three days later, the B-29 Bockscar scored most of Nagasaki with a device-type plutonium implosion code-named ‘Fat Man’ (Military History, 2009). The second attack on the Japanese city of Nagasaki on August 9, is believed to have claimed another 80,000 lives (Military History, 2009). The Soviet Union declared war on Japan on the very same day. ‘Continuing the war can only mean ruin for the country,’ Hirohito said. He then announced Japan must accept surrender (Constitutional Rights Foundation).

Interpretations

There are different views regarding the use and rationalization of atomic bombs. The nuclear attacks on Japan were warranted to win the war with the fewest possible casualties. Some claim that since Japanese soldiers were known for their brutal combat styles, Japan’s invasion would have led to hundreds of thousands, or maybe even millions, of American casualties (O’Connor, 2010). Specific reasons include that the US invested almost $2 billion to build the weapons, and the expenses needed to justify them (O’Connor, 2010).

Even the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs were extremely inefficient for their swift demolition. In ‘Little Boy’ only one of the fifty kilograms of uranium present exploded the affectionate nickname provided by those responsible for that weapon of mass destruction (Milam, 2010). Hiroshima may have been much more terrifying than one would have expected if one dares. After all, those programs were performed feverishly by the ‘best minds in the world’ (Milam, 2010). Ironically, Einstein later became a peace activist, and days before his death, along with ten other respected scientists and intellectuals, signed the 1955 Russell-Einstein Manifesto by Bertrand Russell (Milam 2010). It starts with words:

‘In the terrible situation facing mankind, we believe that scientists will come together in a conference to discuss the dangers resulting from the creation of nuclear weapons.’ This concludes with the often-repeated phrase: ‘We speak to human beings as human beings: consider your dignity, and forget the rest (Milam, 2010).’

Secretary of War Stimson later revealed that the decision to use the atomic bomb was intended in part to satisfy the doubts of that rather difficult class of community that will be in charge of next-generation education, namely educators and historians (Sherwin, 1995). He also wrote that saving American lives by stopping the war as soon as possible was the main motive (Sherwin, 1995). The Japanese communications captured by U.S. military intelligence revealed that the Japanese had been attempting to surrender ‘conditionally’ since June 1945 (Sherwin, 1945) were what he wanted to mention.

Consequences

The effects of the bombings on all levels were massive. The Japanese’s lives were forever affected. Tsutomu Yamaguchi, then a 29-year-old ship engineer with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, was heading to the Hiroshima shipyard when Little Boy, the world’s first strategic atomic bomb, exploded less than 2 miles away in midair (Military History, 2009). He was knocked unconscious by the explosion, his left eardrum exploded, and his upper torso burned. Three days later, back home in Nagasaki, Yamaguchi told a skeptical boss about his story when Fat Man, the second strategic atomic bomb, exploded over that area, just less than 2 miles away (Military History, 2009). The shock wave knocked both men to the ground and ripped off bandages from Yamaguchi (Military History, 2009). The man spent over a decade recovering from his injuries. His wife and infant son survived with minor wounds from the Nagasaki blast but poor health ravaged the household. His son died at age 59 from cancer in 2005 (Military History, 2009). Yamaguchi is now officially recognized as a double-hibakusha (‘person affected by the explosion’), and has become a strong supporter of nuclear disarmament (Military History, 2009).’The reason I dislike the atomic bomb is because of what it is doing to people’s integrity,’ Yamaguchi explained to The Times. ‘I must pass on the facts, having been given this miracle’ (Military History, 2009).

In Japan today, 226,598 formally registered survivors of the atomic bombings are still alive, according to Cameron (2005). The real number of hibakusha is much higher, as many have not been able to fulfill the stringent and often arbitrary certification standards, whereas others have left Japan. And the average age of these respondents is now 73. Some have struggled with radiation-related diseases for much of their lives, and death will surely have silenced most of them by the 2015 bombing’s seventieth anniversary (Cameron, 2005).

Then Akihiro Takahashi, 14, recalls waiting to reach his classroom and then waking up with burns all over his body. He made his way to the river to extinguish his burning flesh (Cÿ, 2005). His physical pain has just begun; he now has to visit a hospital regularly for hour-long liver cancer treatments and the realization that he worries about his health every day (Cameroon, 2005).

In addition to endured health-related effects, the atomic bombings have also had international effects. World War II ended and the United States, Japan, and forty-eight nations formed a peace treaty (O’Connor, 2010). The bomb designers had not earned the feelings they expected against the bomb and the scientists quickly concluded that this device shouldn’t be used (Cameron, 2005).

Conclusion

One of the more controversial issues of the twentieth century was the decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan. In many years to come the bombings will continue to remain a lively discussion. The precise strength of mind for using the atomic bombs will never be completely understood and the same question will be posted time and time again, ‘Does this have to happen?

Even though the United States has been declining crime rates for more than two decades, it still keeps incarcerating a large amount of the population. The lack of justice from the police department towards African Americans and Latino men grows disproportionately. Mass incarceration is the most recent form in which the criminal justice system infiltrates the lives of families, creating a new form of racial segregation. The series “When They See Us” is an example of this social injustice. Five teenagers of color were arrested and charged with raping and beating a white female jogger in Central Park, even though they did not commit the crime. Another film, “13th”, shows the mass incarceration in the United States and the history of racial inequality.

Viewing the example of mass incarceration on When They See Us makes the spectator feel disgusted by how the NYPD damaged this five kids lives without a care in the world. The kids were sentenced from the beginning; the cops (whose pushed them into false confessions), the prosecutor, police unit, all confabulated to create a story and offer justice at any cost. The system allowed no doubts regarding his guilt, and the trial was unfair and fraudulent, as evidence and confessions were manipulated.

Throughout this story, the director displays the trauma related with incarceration in the families of color and also, pretend to lead the public to evaluate and become aware of equality. This is a true story, that more than 30 years later continue to occur with impunity, because the system still exists. This terrible story offers, through its plot, a new form of racial discrimination in addressing mass incarceration, describing its importance to African-American family life. This is a new stage in the history of American racial inequality that is demonstrated by the concentration of imprisonment among young African-American men, which could be generator of social inequality. As the data show, in the US there was an explosion in prison populations from 1980 to 2000, at which time the event takes place. This phenomenon of mass incarceration has had devastating effects on families and communities, and our protagonists are victims of this new form of social inequality, their lives were destroyed for something they didn’t do. The film addresses racism and highlights the need for a dialogue on systemic racism in this country.

In addition, “13th” (named for the constitutional amendment that abolished slavery), shows the story of incarceration as a new form of racial discrimination. This critically addresses the racist and slave origin of the United States prison system, which is the basis of the prison massification that the country has experienced since the 1970s to the present day. The documentary shows the cracks and contradictions of American criminal policy, to reveal how disadvantaged racial sectors, especially the African-American community, have suffered from legal slavery to low-paid work in prisons.

The documentary is an important contribution to understand the current prison system and to whom it is really directed, young minority men with very low levels of education.. The director achieved a film that draws a straight and strong line from the abolition of slavery to today’s mass incarceration epidemic, showing its root cause: money.

To conclude, both films focus attention on the idea of mass incarceration as a new form of social segregation that show the prison boom in a long historical perspective, express how the inequality is cumulative because deepens the disadvantages for the most marginal in society, express why these inequalities are inter generational, affecting not just those who go to prison but their families and children, too. Both films reinforce the idea that mass incarceration increases social inequality, fundamentally affecting black communities, who strips their rights, undermining the promise of a democracy that works for everyone.

On March 8, 1965, the United States Marines traveled to Da Nang Bay. They were the first military combat troops to arrive in South Vietnam. The United States’ intervention in the Vietnam War progressed in small stages over a long period of time. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was the one who first introduced the “domino theory.” This theory would lay down the foundation for America’s involvement in Vietnam. The main idea of the domino theory was, “…if one new country went communist in Asia then it would begin a chain reaction that would cause several more Southeast Asian countries to become communist” (Pike). As of right now, the Vietnam War is the second-longest war in United States history. Of course, over such a long span of time, many things have happened and changed drastically. For example, we have experienced skepticism towards the government, a different view of soldiers, recognition of PTSD, changes in entertainment, a counterculture, a liberation movement, and the end of the draft.

One major change during the Vietnam War was the justified skepticism toward the United States government. In March of 1971, the Pentagon Papers have leaked to New York Times: “The Pentagon Papers was the name given to a top-secret Department of Defense study of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967” (“Pentagon Papers”). The first story was published on June 13, 1971, by The New York Times. In a BBC interview, Ellsberg said, “In the end, we had some seven thousand pages of top-secret material, staff recommendations, studies, intelligence estimates, and a lot of graphs and actual decision papers from within the office of Secretary of Defense. There were forty-seven volumes.” Daniel Ellsberg leaked these top-secret documents in hopes to encourage public opposition to the Vietnam War. Neil Sheehan was the Vietnam reporter for The New York Times who first obtained the documents from Ellsberg. These two men believed that the American people deserved to know the truth behind the Vietnam War. After the third publication, there was a temporary restraining order against publishing this material: “In the now-famous case of New York Times Co. v. United States, the Times and the Washington Post joined forces to fight for the right to publish” (“Pentagon Papers”). They won the case because their actions were justified under the First Amendment. In the United States Constitution, the freedom of the press is guaranteed. Ellsberg’s trial began in 1973 but was dismissed after the discovery of illegal actions. Ellsberg’s psychiatrist’s office was burglarized while the White House was attempting to find “dirt” on him. These Pentagon Papers released information that opened American eyes. All of this time they did not know how the presidents made their decisions about troops and strategic moves. The government escalated the Vietnam War but stated the opposite. The papers proved that the reasoning behind the war had to do with the containment of China, not just preventing the spread of communism. Many Americans were hurt by the government’s lies and began to oppose the war. Even today, the Vietnam War is known as the war that killed trust.

After the Pentagon Papers were published, most Americans believed that the war in Vietnam was a mistake. This led to a different view of soldiers. United States soldiers were not welcomed home; in fact, it was the complete opposite as they were flipped off and spit on. There were no “Welcome Home” parades because “You don’t have parades for soldiers coming home from a war they lost” (Ciampaglia). GI benefits were not a big deal. Peter Langenus was a Vietnam veteran who was treated unfairly after his homecoming. He developed symptoms of malaria but was denied VA health care. After graduating from Notre Dame, he did not get the educational benefits he deserved. Langenus experienced discrimination in the workplace when it came time to find a job. He was, “met with thinly veiled disgust and discrimination from law firms upon learning he was a Vietnam infantry veteran” (Ciampaglia). In the book Kill Anything That Moves there are graphic descriptions of the American soldiers’ actions. The book has sensitive content that may not be for everyone, but it draws attention to the awful things that Americans did in Vietnam. It explained how some soldiers would hack the heads off the Vietnamese, nonchalantly: “Some of these trophies were presented to superiors as gifts or as proof to confirm a body count: others were retained by the ‘grunts’ and worn on necklaces or otherwise displayed” (Turse). It also shows other ways soldiers disrespected Vietnamese bodies by stating, “Many soldiers mistreated corpses in other ways- dressing them up, clowning around with them, or mutilating them, often taking photos of their handiwork and filling scrapbooks with the results” (Turse). Now that American citizens knew about the government’s lies, most did not feel the need to respect anyone to do with the war. Instead, they were treated shamefully as the “bad guys.”

Another thing that changed during the war was the recognition of PTSD. The Vietnam War affected American soldiers in more ways than people originally realized. Coming home from this war was different for them because there was not a successful victory. According to an article by Josh Hochgesang and others, “… the Vietnam War became a metaphor for American society that connoted distrust in the government, and the sacrifice of American lives for poorly understood and deeply divided values and principles.” When these veterans returned home, most experienced psychiatric symptoms. These symptoms are now recognized as PTSD, which “… is a development of characteristic symptoms following a psychologically distressing event” (Josh Hochgesang, et al.) Most cases of PTSD are linked to combat experiences, especially in the case of Vietnam veterans. In previous wars, very few veterans reported symptoms of PTSD, so it was not taken seriously then. After Vietnam, PTSD became more recognized because many veterans were now complaining of symptoms. As these veterans re-emerged into civilization, they had a hard time fitting in. In the article by Hochgesang, “You are portrayed to the public as a crazed psychopathic killer with no morals or control over your aggression.” They experienced discrimination, anger, guilt, depression, insomnia, and many other symptoms, but nobody understood their struggles unless they had been to war themselves.

Looking back, it is very obvious that music changes over time. Even today we can agree that today’s music is different than music from the early 2000s. Before the Vietnam War, there were songs to encourage people to join the military. For example, “Songs with titles like ‘We Shall Never Surrender Old Glory’ and ‘Uncle Sam Will Help You Win the War’ used this imagery as a means to encourage participation in the military and industrial ventures for the war effort” (Tomlinson). Radios were readily available, and everyone listened to them, so it was a great way to reach out to the American people. When peoples’ opinions about war changed during Vietnam, so did the war music. Music was now a great way to protest against the Vietnam War. Musicians mirrored American opinions and began to publish popular anti-war songs. One of the first protest songs, “Eve of Destruction,” by P.F. Sloan and Barry, was released in the summer of 1965. Being an anti-war protest song, many American radio stations banned it. Another example of an anti-Vietnam War song is “I-Feel-Like-I’m-Fixin’-to-Die-Rag” by Country Joe and the Fish. The upbeat song used profanity as an exercise of free speech. Despite all of the songs against the war, there were still pro-war songs considering that there were still Americans who believed in the “domino theory.”

As if there were not enough changes during this era already, America experienced a counterculture. The Vietnam War led people to freely express their opinions and become who they wanted to be. Americans decided to rebel against the “social norm” and change their way of living. The hippie counterculture was established in the late 1960s and reached its highest when our involvement in the Vietnam War was at its highest. They hated the idea of fitting in with society and pleasing the government. Hippies were known for growing long hair, taking drugs, and striving for a more meaningful life. They believed in having a good time and making their souls happy. Rock ’n’ roll music became very popular during this time of youth rebellion. The Rolling Stones and the Beatles altered their music style and started producing songs that would help spread counterculture messages. Movies started to contain more nudity and sexual content than before, earning “R’ and “X” ratings. When the war came to a close, so did the counterculture movement.

In the liberation movement of the Vietnam War, feminists and other Americans spoke out. Feminists argued against their traditional roles and expressed their desire to gain rights during the sexual revolution. Also, homosexuals fought against the discrimination they had experienced. Hippie women wanted birth control and abortions to become more available to them. In 1973, the Supreme Court gave women their right to control reproduction through the Roe v. Wade case. Women could now have an abortion during the first three months of their pregnancy. In the same revolution, women wanted to become free from oppression. On September 7th, 1968, feminists protested at the Miss America Pageant because they believed that the pageant gave the wrong idea of feminism. During this protest, they threw away undergarments and makeup into the “Freedom Trash Can.” In the book, Insider Histories of the Vietnam Era Underground Press, Part 1, there are many different stories that give an inside view of the war. The book contains the words of Sally Gabb from October 1976 in the final issue of the Great Speckled Bird. Gabb states, “In an early issue of 1969, we had declared our existence as a women’s support group within the staff in an article to our readership” (Wachsberger 102). The Great Speckled Bird was a high-quality underground newspaper that covered topics such as gay rights, women’s liberation, and issues such as racism. For eight and a half years, this newspaper played a key role in the social movement during the Vietnam War.

Despite all of the cons and negative thoughts that come along with the Vietnam War, there were good things as well. In Richard Nixon’s presidential campaign of 1968, he promised to put an end to the draft. This made many Americans regain the hope that they had lost, and President Nixon won the election. Nixon saw that the country was in flames during the war and that the draft made matters worse. The United States draft during the Vietnam War was when young men were forced to join the military and fight, without volunteering to do so. There were many American men who did volunteer to serve their country though. College students during this time could get a deferment keeping them out of the war if they qualified full-time. Families who could not afford college did not believe these deferments were fair. Despite President Nixon’s promise, he was not in any kind of hurry to end the draft. Instead, Nixon passed the issue onto Thomas Gates Jr. to handle. At first, Gates did not think that an all-volunteer military would work out, but he later changed his mind. Nixon also changed his mind and thought that the draft did need to continue so he asked Congress for a two-year extension. The existing draft law was set to expire in June of 1971, but the Nixon administration asked Congress to extend the draft to June of 1973.

As we can see, because of the Vietnam War, things have happened and changed drastically. These changes leave a lasting impact on America. Skepticism towards the government, a different view of soldiers, recognition of PTSD, changes in entertainment, a counterculture, a liberation movement, and the end of the draft, are all experiences that contributed to the way America is today. If it were not for these events, Americans would still believe that the government is always honest and that soldiers are always perfect. Also, PTSD may not be taken seriously like it is now. Americans probably would be afraid to voice their opinions to a certain extent and fight for their rights. It is easy for people to forget about the important ways that the Vietnam War and American History, in general, have impacted the country. Thus, it is essential to always remember the Vietnam War and to be grateful for its changes. Despite the awful things, everything happens for a reason.

Works Cited

1. Pike, John. “Military.” Vietnam War – The Domino Theory, “Witness History – The Pentagon Papers – BBC Sounds.” BBC News, BBC
2. Ciampaglia, Dante A. “Why Were Vietnam War Vets Treated Poorly When They Returned?” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 8 Nov. 2018
3. Hochgesang, Josh, et al. “The Psychological Effects of the Vietnam War.” EDGE
4. Tomlinson, Christina. America’s Changing Mirror: How Popular Music Reflects Public Opinion During Wartime. Campbell University
5. History.com Editors. “Pentagon Papers.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2 Aug. 2011
6. Gabb, Sally. “Great Speckled Bird.” Insider Histories of the Vietnam Era Underground Press, edited by Ken Wachsberger, 1st ed., Michigan State Univ. Press, 2012, pp. 101-02.
7. Turse, Nick. Kill Anything That Moves: The Real American War in Vietnam. Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt and Co., 2014.

In the United States there are more than 700 indigenous tribes. With there being so many various tribes in the United States alone there must be a large diversity when it comes to religious traditions, practices and teachings. When it comes to the Native American Religion myths seem to play a very important role. Myths can give life lessons as well as explain origin stories of how things came to be. While not all tribes are the same and not all tribes have similar myths, they still serve a significant purpose.

A myth is “a traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a people or explaining some natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events” (“myth” def.). Native American mythologies were used to teach the Natives about how one should live suitably in this word, how to live considerately with one another, how to live off the land as well as understanding the meaning of life.

In the Native American religion animals seem to play a crucial role in many myths. For example, the Cherokee believe that a water beetle or a turtle was responsible for forming the lands because they brought back mud from the depths of a flooded world, which other animals, such as the “Great Buzzard” and serpents, used to shape the mountains, valleys, and rivers of the Cherokee country (Aftandilian 191). Mythologies like these are an illustration of the position of animals’ relativity to the Native Americans. The Creek tribe believe that animals are much more powerful than humans because they “lived in the world before we did and therefore have more practical and spiritual knowledge than humans do… and humans are weaker because [they] appeared last on the cosmological scene” (Aftandilian 191). The Creek tribe also believe that animals are capable of crossing between the different cosmological realms making animals superior. Because of this difference in power it is why the Native Americans believe it is important to treat Animals with kindness and respect and it is why many Native Americans use animals in myths.

Many mythologies often contain a character known as the “trickster”. The trickster often experiences and engages in all types of mischief which in result the trickster must face their consequences and ultimately learn a lesson about proper social behavior. A common example of this would be the myth from the Pima tribe about the Coyote and the Bluebird. According to the myth long ago the bluebird was an unattractive color but one day the bird decided to take a bath in a “special” blue lake every morning for four days. The bird soon grew these beautiful blue feathers. The coyote spotted the blue bird and mesmerized by his colors asked the bird how he obtained such a color. The bird then explained to the coyote his method which he then followed. After obtaining the color the coyote was so pleased with himself he began strutting and acting arrogantly making sure that all the other animals saw his color. Not paying attention the coyote tripped and fell into the dirt and when he arose he was no longer blue but instead the color of the dirt (Brodd 38). Not only does this myth explain how the bluebird and the coyote obtained their colors it is also an example of the dangers of arrogance. While there is no shame in being proud of oneself, pride is not arrogance. Like the coyote when one lets arrogance take control it can lead to severe consequences. Rather than “engaging in behaviors intended to exaggerate a person’s sense of superiority by disparaging others” (“arrogant” def.) it is best to remain humble like the bluebird.

While in many stories and myths the coyote is a character who is often viewed as deceitful, cunning, and cruel there are some in which the coyote is viewed as the hero. According to the Handbook of Native American Mythology the mythologies of several tribes reveal that the “coyote brought the first fire, arranged the seasons, introduced salmon and taught how to catch and cook it, introduced work and suffering, taught how to make bows and arrows and introduced death to prevent overpopulation” (Bastian and Mitchell 77).

The coyote is a very common character depicted in many myths across many different tribes. At times he is described as an animal where in others he is often portrayed as a man. Like the coyote there are several different animals who appear in many myths across many tribes such as the buffalo, the wolf, the horse, the owl, the salmon, and the bear. While animals are a very important aspect of the Native American Religion there are also myths which contain humans, gods and goddesses as opposed to animals. A popular myth which portrays a goddess would be The Corn Woman. According to the myth the corn woman would rub her body to produce food. One day her son and his friend witnessed this and assumed she was practicing witchcraft and decided to murder her. She was subjected to betrayal by her own son and his companion and after the attack she instructed the two boys to drag her body over the ground and where she bled corn grew (Brodd 38). This myth teaches about the relationship between life and death. It teaches that from the death of the corn woman she was able to bring a newfound life for others with supplying a bountiful harvest of corn in which provides sustenance for the living.

In the Native American religion myths seem to serve a very important role in the many teachings and traditions of the many tribes. While not all the tribes have similar myths it seems as is if they are able to utilize the myths as an important tool to teach the Natives about how one should live suitably in this word, how to live considerately with one another, how to live off the land as well as understanding the meaning of life.

What is Religion? it is explained as one’s belief in supernatural power. This power comes from creators and rulers of the universe. It is a personal or institutionalized system based on a set of beliefs, values, and practices that is based on teachings of a specific spiritual leader. This definition of religion is presented in major religions in the world. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are also known as the Abrahamic religions because they can be traced to their history of the covenant God made with Abraham from the Hebrew Bible. Religion is one of the most driving forces behind many significant events that have molded our world. Throughout the centuries, laws have been enacted; cities, countries, and states have been created and destroyed for religious purposes. Wars have been fought, all to spread and to protect the belief of one’s religion. Spaniards used religion against the native Californians as way to justify genocide to spread their religious belief across the new world through establishing missions, bring diseases, and cultural changes.

When the Spaniards arrived in the Americas, they did not consider the people that inhabited the land as equal. Spaniards thought that indigenous people were different in many ways such as: that their skin was darker than theirs, their languages were foreign, and they couldn’t understand it. That their concept of spiritual beliefs was beyond most white men’s understanding. All this stoked racial hatred and fear towards native Americans made it easy to paint them as savages. Religion was the focus that drove the Spanish conquest in America to convert native Indians to their true religion. Spaniard saw native Indians as less than humans and more as savages. In order to make them like one of them they believed that baptizing could save their souls from pain. Spaniards thought this was an act of peace and love towards the native Indians. From the settler’s view, they thought that if the native resisted it was a sign of the devil and that killing them was a way to save them.

Settlers brought unknown disease with them to the new land, causing the native American to have any immunity to them. The most common disease that was killing native Americans was smallpox. Smallpox was highly contagious because of the blisters that broke out on an infected person. “Because each of those blisters is packed with smallpox particles, then if you burst a blister, fluid will come out and large numbers of viruses will be spilt onto whatever it touches. Ten to twelve days later, his friends would be taken ill, and then ten to twelve days after that, their friends. That kind of rate means the disease spreads exponentially (Dr. Tim Brooks). Indigenous people died of disease, and were killed by Spaniards through slavery, rape, and war. Native Californian must have to been converted into Christians before they were to be consider as normal humans in the new world. Conversion to the new religion brought social barrier and disrupted lifestyles for indigenous people. That did not stop there, Spaniard also made the newly converted indigenous American work for them by building new modernize cities, they also worked in the fields of agriculture. With the help of Junipero Serra the Spaniards were able to establish the missions. Junipero Serra was the father of the mission because he was the founder of all twenty-one mission throughout the new land.

Junipero Serra was a priest for the Spaniard and he founded most of the missions in California. Junipero Serra established his first mission in San Fernando in May 1769. Moving further south, he founded another mission in San Diego, he then went on creating the first of nine missions in California. Junipero Serra went on to spend the rest of his life by devoting all his work in the churches and to his evangelical work in the missions. Junipero Serra’s ideal mission was to spread the teachings of Christianity by forcefully converting native Indians to noble people. While sierras religious methods to convert Native Americans sometimes caused a clash with his own government. Junipero would clash with the Spanish military over the way soldiers treated the native peoples. Junipero Serra would also advocate for the native Americans so that way they could trust him. In his sermons he would use Psalm 33, ‘Taste and see that the Lord is good. ‘To say that God is like a culinary sweet, a piece of candy. That if you’ve never tasted it, you don’t know what you’re missing. But once you taste it, you acquire an increasing desire for it (Reese, Thomas). That’s how Junipero thought the conversion process was going to work.

Serra abused his power and used his own religious method to justify his behavior by supporting the use of corporal punishment for offenses against natives American that would refuse his teachings. Although Junipero was father of the mission, Junipero did not mean any harm to the native Indians. All he wanted to do was help new natives from the Spanish control over them, but his actions show differently from the perspective of the new native American. Today Junipero is being award for his work as the father of the missions by pope Francis even though Junipero brought violence and cultural destruction to natives Indians to spread and cleanse them for not being as equal.

Native Americans came to mission for variety of reasons, such as that Spanish diseases. “Many came because of the rapid environmental degradation, caused by invasive species brought by the Spanish, dramatically changed the environment and traditional societal structures (Milliken, Randall). As Native food sources became more unavailable and as diseases ravaged native communities, the missions presented an option in a time of great upheaval. There were many other Indians that arrived at the missions seeking a reliable food supply. Once Indians converted to the religions by baptizing, Spanish soldiers sought out to forcefully keep the native Indians in residence of the missions. In these missionary native Americans would work for the settlers under the watch of the military and the priest. The missionaries influence is ambiguous: On one hand, they were the suppressors of Indian identity; on the other hand, they destroyed Native Californian cultural reevaluation. This ongoing conflict brought tension to native Californian leading some to run away.

A typical day in a mission consists of general labor up to seven hours and three hours of praying with the priest. The missionaries did not respect the aspect of native religion and were not allowed to practice their old spiritually belief. Native Americans who had entered into the mission communities through baptism were not allowed to leave without permission The priest in the missionaries forbade that and if the native Indian where caught they would be flogged, be hobbled, or be placed in stocks as punishment. One form of resistance that worked for the native Indians that lived in the missions, was that some learned how to camouflage their paintings. These painting are symbols of spiritual god and native Indians drew their own gods of worship so that they can still remember parts of their lives before the colonizers arrived. They would eventually paint over their drawings with paint so that the Spaniard would not find out. It is only sacred to other native American that had worked at that mission. Since there were different groups of native Indians in the mission it would be difficult to translate theses meaning if you didn’t belong to one’s tribe.

Spanish colonizer forever changed the Native Californian cultures through genocide by introduction them to their religion, making them convert to Christianity and bringing disease to the new world. Although the Spanish missions and Junipero Serra impacted native Californian forcing them to give up their lifestyle it still could not erase them. Native people are central to contemporary life. They own businesses, hold political offices in many states. Work as public servant. With everything that happened to their ancestor, many continue to follow pre-colonization cultural traditions. Elders teach the younger generations how to grow plants to make traditional foods and basket weaving materials. Till this day generations of families continue to dance and sing in ways that long predate Spanish colonization. Where the thread of memory has broken, native Indians are reviving traditions through research and practice.

Introduction

The Oregon Trail stands as an iconic symbol of the westward expansion in 19th-century America. Spanning over 2,000 miles from Missouri to the fertile lands of Oregon, this historic route served as the primary pathway for pioneers seeking new opportunities and a better life. The arduous journey required immense determination, endurance, and a spirit of adventure. This essay aims to provide an informative overview of the Oregon Trail, highlighting its historical significance, challenges faced by the pioneers, and the lasting impact it had on the settlement of the American West.

Historical Background 

The Oregon Trail gained prominence during the mid-1800s when a wave of pioneers, driven by economic, political, and social motivations, embarked on a perilous trek westward. Following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the United States expanded its territory, and with the discovery of gold in California in 1848, a surge of settlers sought new opportunities and fertile lands.

Trail Route and Landmarks

The Oregon Trail stretched from Independence, Missouri, to the Willamette Valley in Oregon, covering approximately 2,000 miles. Pioneers crossed vast prairies, navigated treacherous rivers, and traversed towering mountain ranges. Along the way, they encountered several significant landmarks, such as Chimney Rock, Scotts Bluff, Independence Rock, and the South Pass. These landmarks served as both waypoints and sources of inspiration for the pioneers, marking their progress and providing a glimpse of the challenges that lay ahead.

Challenges and Hardships 

The Oregon Trail posed numerous challenges and hardships to those who embarked upon it. Pioneers faced harsh weather conditions, including scorching heat, bitter cold, and violent storms. They encountered hostile Native American tribes and had to be prepared for possible attacks. The scarcity of food and water, coupled with the threat of diseases such as cholera and dysentery, added to their struggles. Moreover, the difficult terrain, including steep slopes, river crossings, and thick forests, tested their physical endurance and mental fortitude.

Pioneer Life on the Trail

Life on the Oregon Trail was characterized by constant change and adaptation. Pioneers traveled in covered wagons, known as Conestoga wagons, or used pack animals to transport their belongings. They formed wagon trains for safety, fostering a sense of community among the travelers. Daily routines involved setting up and breaking down camps, hunting for food, and tending to livestock. Pioneers also maintained journals, leaving behind invaluable accounts of their experiences and providing future generations with a vivid understanding of life on the trail.

Impact and Legacy

The Oregon Trail played a vital role in the westward expansion of the United States, enabling thousands of settlers to reach the fertile lands of Oregon and other western territories. It facilitated the growth of new communities, the establishment of trading posts, and the development of infrastructure along its route. The trail also paved the way for future transportation networks, such as railroads, which further accelerated the settlement of the American West. Moreover, the stories and experiences of the pioneers on the Oregon Trail continue to captivate the imagination and serve as a reminder of the indomitable human spirit.

Conclusion

The Oregon Trail remains an enduring symbol of American history, embodying the spirit of exploration, resilience, and adventure. It stands as a testament to the determination and sacrifices made by the pioneers who sought a new life on the western frontier. The legacy of the Oregon Trail continues to shape the cultural and historical fabric of the United States.

Introduction

The Oregon Trail holds a significant place in American history as the iconic route traveled by pioneers seeking new opportunities and a better life in the 19th century. This informative essay explores the historical context, challenges faced, and the lasting impact of the Oregon Trail. From its origins to the experiences of the pioneers and the trail’s role in westward expansion, the Oregon Trail remains a symbol of hope, determination, and the spirit of exploration.

Origins and Significance of the Oregon Trail

The Oregon Trail emerged in the early 1800s as a result of increasing interest in the fertile lands and abundant resources of the Oregon Country. The trail played a pivotal role in westward expansion, providing a route for thousands of pioneers who sought to settle in the vast western territories. The discovery of gold in California further fueled the migration, as pioneers sought to strike it rich or establish prosperous farms and businesses. The Oregon Trail became synonymous with the dreams and aspirations of those who embarked on the arduous journey westward.

Challenges Along the Trail

Traveling the Oregon Trail presented numerous challenges for the pioneers. The journey spanned over 2,000 miles of rugged terrain, including deserts, mountains, and river crossings. Pioneers faced treacherous weather conditions, limited food and water supplies, and the constant threat of diseases such as cholera. Hostile encounters with Native American tribes also posed a significant risk. The harsh conditions and physical demands of the trail tested the resilience and determination of the pioneers, requiring them to rely on their resourcefulness, teamwork, and adaptability.

Life on the Oregon Trail

Life on the Oregon Trail was a transformative experience for the pioneers. Families and individuals left behind their established lives and embraced the unknown. Covered wagons became their homes, carrying essential supplies and personal belongings. The journey required careful planning, including the selection of supplies and provisions to sustain them throughout the months-long trek. Pioneers formed tight-knit communities along the trail, providing support and camaraderie during challenging times. They established campsites, hunted for food, and relied on their skills to repair wagons and overcome obstacles. The daily routine on the Oregon Trail consisted of tending to chores, managing livestock, and navigating the ever-changing landscape.

Impact and Legacy of the Oregon Trail

The Oregon Trail played a significant role in shaping the United States. The influx of settlers who journeyed along the trail contributed to the westward expansion and the development of new territories. Towns and communities emerged along the trail, creating a network of pioneers who brought their skills, ideas, and cultural diversity to the American West. The Oregon Trail left a lasting legacy, symbolizing the pioneer spirit and the pursuit of dreams. Today, it stands as a testament to the resilience and determination of those who risked everything for a chance at a better future.

Conclusion

The Oregon Trail remains an indelible part of American history, representing the arduous journey undertaken by pioneers seeking a new life in the West. The trail’s origins, challenges faced, and lasting impact highlight the resilience, determination, and spirit of exploration that characterized the pioneers of the 19th century. The legacy of the Oregon Trail serves as a reminder of the pioneering spirit that shaped the United States, inspiring future generations to embrace challenges, seek new opportunities, and forge their own paths. The Oregon Trail continues to capture our imagination as a symbol of hope, adventure, and the enduring pursuit of the American Dream.

Authors often use literary devices to subtly reveal the theme of the work. There are different types of literary devices that can be used in different types of stories including symbolism, conflict, diction, connotation, or foreshadowing. However, through the use of irony and internal conflict, Cynthia Rylant and Judith Ortiz Cofer teach important lessons to the reader.

In the short story, “Checkouts,” by Cynthia Rylant , irony is the most obvious literary device being used. This story is about a red-headed girl and a boy who meet once at the checkout line of a supermarket in Cincinnati, Ohio. The boy was nervous being that it was the first day on the job and because of the fact that this fascinating girl with red, thick hair was waiting for her groceries to be packed by him. When finally it was her groceries he was packing he responded by dropping her jar of mayonnaise on the floor. The narrator states, “She loved him at exactly that moment, and if he’d known this perhaps he wouldn’t have fallen into the brown depression he fell into which lasted the rest of his shift.” (Rylant 75.) He was embarrassed and believed he looked like a fool but to her, his clumsiness was very attractive. She left the supermarket loving everything about him including the way his hair kept falling into his eyes, the way his nervous fingers moved, and even the clothing he wore. Unfortunately, it took them another four weeks to see each other and during this time of waiting, there was a reason to be alive. The anticipation of meeting the bag boy ached her body. These hours had become a mystery and a sense of romance for them as they watched for each other every day. However, when they finally did see each other again, they avoided each other and strictly focused on what they had to do. The narrator states, “The girl hated herself for not checking out at the boy’s line, and the boy hated himself for not catching her eye and saying hello.”(Rylant 77.) This is where readers see how ironic this story is. The boy and the girl had been using each other as a person of obsessive thought for weeks but neither decided to introduce themselves or say hello. Overall, Cynthia Rylant used irony to teach the reader that realities overrule fantasies and people can be complicated or irrational.

In the short story, “American History,” by Judith Ortiz Cofer, internal conflict is the literary device being used. Skinny Bones or Elena is a teenage girl struggling to adapt to life while living in a Puerto Rican tenement known as El Building. She lives in a former Jewish neighborhood that now consists of predominantly African Americans and Puerto Ricans. As a person who is a victim of bullying, she attracts to people somewhat like herself. She finds her soulmate, Eugene, a shy teenager who moved into a house on her block in August with his family. Despite their cultural differences , Eugene begins to tutor Elena in different subjects because English is not her first language. Although, Elena is a very good student. Subsequently, Euguene invites Elena to his home for a tutorial session. She states, “But after meeting Eugene I began to think more of the present more than the future. What I wanted now was to enter that house I had watched for so many years.” (Elena 207.) She accepted his invitation gladly but was unfortunately interrupted by the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. It had been a very gray day from here on out for a lot of people but she never quite understood why everyone was making such a big deal over the death of the president. She was only focused on the fact that she had been invited to Eugene’s house. When she had reached Eugene’s house she had encountered another problem. Eugene’s mother had answered the door and realized she lived in El Building and was Puerto Rican so she dismissed her from her home. This resulted in her being forbidden to tutor with Eugene. Angry at this incident and the fact that she can’t see him, Elena returns home and decides to try and mourn her dead president. However, when she starts crying she realizes those tears are not from the president dying, they’re from the feelings she had received after being rejected by Eugene’s mom. The internal conflict of this story is that Elena does not know her identity, does not feel welcome in her community, and over the fact that she cries for herself and not the president. Because, she is Puerto Rican and lives in a place that is looked down upon , she is judged and mistreated by the people around her. This literary device allows readers to grasp the theme which is, the world is cruel.

Through the use of these two different literary devices, Cynthia Rylant and Judith Ortiz Cofer teach important lessons to the reader. “American History” teaches readers that the world is cruel while “Checkouts” teaches readers that realities overrule fantasies. These devices serve a broad range of purposes in literature.They highlight important concepts in a text and help readers receive the intended meaning of the characters and themes. Overall, without literary devices we wouldn’t be able to understand the true meaning of stories and their intended message.

Never Let Me Go by Kazuo Ishiguro is a book based on the 1970s-1990s on a young woman’s life and the complexities within the dystopian world. Between the World and Me by Ta-Nehisi Coates is a book written as a letter from the narrator to his son about his life and their navigation of being an African American man in America, the former a science fiction novel, the latter a novel. Within both books the function of love and social connection make a penetrating role and plot point and explain key functions within the storyline thus showing the importance of family and friends, as well as the importance of education and symbolic references.

Symbolic symbols and functions of these within the two books: the uses of these is to create ideas and meaning throughout the book in a hinting sense, the use of symbols within both books shows a sense of love and social connection within the intent of these such as fatherhood and the power of memories. symbolics uses within Between the World and Me the symbolic reference and has condensed and complicated meaning. Fatherhood within the book is one of the strongest themes as this book is written as a father’s open letter to his son about his life and the history behind their African American history. Fatherhood is such a strong symbol as the narrator constantly says “I want you to know”, “I taught you” as well as “I wish I could have protected you from…” all of these sentence starters and a parentally driven and protective sense of wanting to educate his child and show him how much they cared for him and all of his “backwards teaching” is for a very important reason.

The “American Dream” is used a lot like a lens of a white figure and the actions within this book, the narrator references the self-privilege and embedded racism and self-segregation still embedded in the society. The narrator identifies and makes mention of so many iconic African American figures as well as many personal stories of African American families affected by the white culture and endemic racism and police brutality and the importance of knowing this history. The strong history behind integration and the intense danger of being an African American man in a white society and the significance of Howard University in his life as it was a small location where being himself an African American was indifferent as everyone on the campus had their history and their African American heritage and culture known to him.

The symbols uses inside Never Let Me Go are a constant reference of repetition within the plot lines such as the power of memory, as the whole book is a recall of memory for the narrator Kathy H; the book in a sense is an ode to her life and tales of the donors she has helped until completion, the symbolism of completion is a creative sense of saying their duty has been fulfilled and their duty is dismissed, instead of the reality of being humans harvesting plants they use this sense of duty to give a sense of importance and self-worth.

Within Kathy and Ruth’s time at the cottages they frequently mention the “open office plan”, the use of the “open office plan” is a sense of alternative life and escape from the harsh reality ahead, and the uses of referencing it and the end of the book as Ruth, Tommy and Kathy drive past it is an effect of a conclusion for Ruth and the possibility of future/ hope for Tommy and Kathy’s blossoming relationship.

“The loophole” within Never Let Me Go is a key turning point in Tommy’s and Kathy H’s relationship, this “loophole” was a means for students at Hailsham to defer there job expectations as a career or donor for a few years if they prove that there relation is pure and they love each other, this key concept is vital on showing us the complexities and drive of love and connections within the book.

Within both books, the plot lines equally surround the education of the narrator and the complexities. Within the two books they reflect on the time of their educational life as a key movement of their life, In both narratives, we can explore the themes of education and friendships as a key role within the books, as education gives a sense of privilege and camaraderie towards the school such as the referral to “Mecca” in Coates’s book and in Ishiguro’s the constant references to Hailsham from donors Kathy worked with as a fascination.

Between the World and Me is considerably written around the importance of Howard University and education. Growing up different and the connections one has in life from this, that growing up different shows a sense of resilience and overcoming a sense of a block within society. “The Mecca” also known as Howard University is referenced as the holy grail and sense of sanctuary for an African American child. the uses of the word create the importance of it to the narrator as the cultural reference of Mecca, is a location that is people are drawn to and creates a sense of harmony, community and love within the space, a space of welcoming and uniform society, such as similar to Hailsham.

“They made us into a race, and we made ourselves into a people” (Coates) This quotation is a prime example of the complexities of the narrator’s life: within his life he grew up as a member of a minority constantly under attack due to the mention and pigment of their skin. The narrator looks upon the social inequality within the wider society but also the strong bond of community within the African American culture within Howard University. Similar another extract from the text “Be twice as good which is to say accepted half as much” and “Twice as good” (Coates 91) is an important explanation of address within the book, the narrator is addressing this novel to his son and many other young black men in society, within the open address letter he writes as if he is addressing his son and yet a wider community as well, this is an important lens as the writer has used this as a tool to connect all lenses of interpretation. Within the whole book the narrator addresses life as a black man and how his life and his friends have been different compared to white society, he talks in depth about his friend who was killed due to police brutality, young Prince Jones.

In Never Let Me Go Hailsham is a focal point within the book in which friendships and bonds surrounding the plotline of platonic love of friendships and the deep social connection grow. This is due to the people raised in the same environments such as Hailsham. Hailsham is a school from early childhood into adulthood with the transitional place of the cottages. Within the Hailsham education and boarding school friendships and social connections are divulged such as the friendships of Kathy H and Ruth, a complex yet prime example of platonic love for each other and a deep bond of friendship.

Within the strength of friendships such as Ruth and Kathy H, we see the complexities and differences of personal growth, such as their time spent at the cottages. We see a difference of maturity and behaviour between the two and the strength of the friendship bonds contesting this and still maintaining till Ruth’s completion (death). Within the Hailsham crew, the romantic evolvement of Kathy H and Tommy begins and blossoms, showing the lines between friendship and love as well as the complexities within. Towards the end of Tommy’s life, we see key values of romantic bonds and complexities.

Both are memoirs in a sense as both narrators look back upon their lives and give a sense of regret and reflect upon the what-ifs and “should haves”. Between the World and Me is written as a letter from the narrator to his son about his life and their navigation of being an African American man in America and the functions and importance of his love and the societal connections and bonds of Howard university, a souly black university as a place of acceptance and safety. Never Let Me Go plays into the complexities of Kathy H’s life and the dystopian world she lives in and the bonds of relationships and love from Tommy and her friends and the importance of Hailsham as a social bond and grounding within their life. Within the books the sense of love, family, romantic bonds as well as friendship and social bonds play such a vital function in both and contextual human life. Without these connections one would struggle and the importance of these is so vital, and it is highlighted within the texts as key and vital themes.

WORKS CITED

1. Coates, Ta-Nehisi, And Klaus Amann. Between the World and Me. Reclaim, 2017.
2. Ishiguro, Kazuo. Never Let Me Go. Faber And Faber, 2020.