Category: American history

The Underground Railroad was a network which was established and used by the enslaved African-Americans to escape into free states and Canada. The railroad included dozens of secret and safe houses and routes originated in the slave holding states and the way to Canada boarder which could assure their freedom. The Underground Railroad also included the smuggling of slaves onto the different ships that carried them outside the United States. The various routes led the slave to the places where the slavery had abolished and by 1850, about 100,000 enslaved persons had escaped via the network.

Routes

In order to reduce the risk of being caught and the risk of attack, most of the persons associated with the Underground Railroad knew very less or knew only their part of the operation. The ‘Conductors’ used to transport the fugitives from different stations to different depots. There were even times when the conductor had to pretend as the enslaved person in order to complete the plantation. The enslaved persons used to travel about 16-32 km at night and when they wanted to rest, a message was sent to the next station master so that he gets to know that the escapees were on their way.

Utilization of Secret Codes

The major supporters of the Underground Railroad used to create their own codes as a secret language so that the slaves can easily be escaped. The language of the railroad was chosen as by that time the railroad was the emerging form of transportation and its communication language was not widespread. The codes were sung by the slaves in order to communicate in a manner that the masters do not get any idea about it. Some of the most commonly used codes are mentioned below:

• Agent (a coordinator, who plotted the courses for escape and made contacts);
• Canaan (Canada);
• Forwarding (taking slaves from station to station);
• Baggage (transportation of fugitive slaves carried by the workers of the Underground Railroad);
• Heaven (freedom);
• Parcel (fugitives that were expected);
• Conductor (person who directly transported slaves).

Importance of the Underground Railroad

The importance of the Underground Railroad lies primarily in the way in which it consistently exposed the realities of slavery and the evidences that it gave about the African American capabilities. Also, it gave the opportunity for sympathetic white Americans to play the major role in resisting slavery.

Impact of the Underground Railroad

The Underground Railroad was a network organized by the stock holders in order to help men, women and children escape from the slavery to freedom. The engineers were the leaders of the Underground Railroad who helped enslaved persons in running away by providing them shelter, food and sometimes even with job.

Rationale Behind Success

The success of the Underground Railroad was mainly based on the cooperation of the conductors, station masters, agents and the stock holders. The conductors acted as a guide, the agents used to help the slaves to find their way to the different routes of the Underground Railroad, the station masters used to usually hide the slaves at their homes and the stock holders used to donate money in order to keep the Underground Railroad running.

Released in 1970, ‘Tora! Tora! Tora!’ depicts the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941. From its conception, it was intended to be as unbiased and historically accurate as a film adaptation of history can be. Drawing material from two books by respected historians, the film allows us to view the event from the perspective of many key figures, as well as lesser known but important actors.

‘Tora! Tora! Tora!’ was the brainchild of Daryll Zanuck, producer of ‘The Longest Day’. Seeking to follow up the success of that film, Zanuck set out to make an authentic and historically accurate portrayal of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Fortunately, 20th Century Fox had recently acquired the rights to Ladislas Farango’s book ‘The Broken Seal’, which detailed the perspective and failure of US Naval intelligence prior to the attack. The film’s title and most of the screenplay was based on ‘At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor’, a collection of primary historical documents and commentary by University of Maryland Professor of History Gordon Prange. Prange was appointed the Chief Historian on Douglass MacArthur’s staff, and had interviewed and documented many of the key players on both sides and was considered the definitive authority on the Pacific theatre of World War II. Prange was later hired to be an advisor on the film, and meticulously edited the script to ensure historical accuracy. Zanuck also consulted with many other historians, and even hired the actual architect of the Pearl Harbor attack, Minoru Genda, as a consultant.

‘Tora! Tora! Tora!’ again used the technique of having multiple directors tell the story from different perspectives. It took things a step further by having an American direct the American sequences, and a Japanese director direct the Japanese. This was done to ensure the portrayals of both sides were as accurate and unbiased as possible. Fox hired Richard Fleischer, who had previously directed the historical epic ‘The Vikings’ (starring Kirk Douglas and a pre-Psycho Janet Leigh), and had experience with effects heavy films such as ‘20,000 Leagues Under The Sea’, ‘Doctor Doolittle’ and ‘Fantastic Voyage’ (he would go on to direct another sci-fi classic in Soylent Green). For the Japanese sequences, Fox initially wanted Akira Kurosawa, one of the most respected directors in the world. But ultimately due to creative differences and budget constraints, Kinji Fukasaku (who went on to direct 2001’s ‘Battle Royale’) replaced Kurosawa and directed the sequences in the final film.

The film begins with Tojo and the Prime Mister Konoye discussing Japan’s need for raw materials and the deteriorating of relations with the United States. Here, they ultimately conclude that the only way to achieve their ambitions in southeast Asia and the Pacific is to destroy the Pacific fleet, recently moved to Pearl Harbor. From there the film follows key figures on both the American and Japanese sides as events move towards the inevitable climax of the attack. The first half of the film documents dozens of events, from the planning of the attack to the establishment of a radar post. All of these events, large and small are shown to have an impact of how the attack played out. When the attack finally comes, the action is visceral and spectacular. There are many incredible stunts and effects, especially during the sequences depicting the attack on the airfields. There are two real plane crashes captured on film, one of a P40 Tomahawk (controlled by radio) crashing through a row of parked planes, narrowly missing a dozen men (according to the commentary, this was not planned and the stuntmen are actually running for their lives!).

Zanuck thought that Admiral Kimmel and General Short, the local commanders in charge of the Navy and Army respectively, had long been blamed for not preparing enough for the attack or ignoring warnings. The film was made to dispel the myths and unfair bias these men, and ultimately tell a factual account of events. Ultimately, this developed into the concept of showing the attack from both perspectives.

In the wake of the Pearl Harbor attack, much blame and misinformation circulated. The public and higher ups in the War Department blamed Kimmel and Short for not taking the appropriate steps in the face of an imminent attack. This was not the case, and as the film shows, many warning signs were entangled in government bureaucracy, dismissed by subordinate officers, and simply ignored. For example, the Japanese strike force was picked up on radar, but mistaken for a flight of B-17’s coming in from the mainland. The film also depicts the USS Ward incident, where a Japanese midget sub was sunk just off the harbor entrance before the attack. The Capitan of the Ward, William Outerbridge, radioed in a report of the incident, but it was assumed to be a false alarm, as there had been many in the weeks prior to the attack. On the Japanese side, many of the scenes with Admiral Yamamoto show how reluctant he was about engaging in a protracted war with the United States but was ultimately forced by the Army’s policies to commission and execute the attack.

In addition to the military aspect, the film shows the interaction between Secretary of State Cordell Hull and Ambassador Nomura. The Japanese government kept Nomura in the dark about the plan to attack and used him to buy time. At the end of the film, because the Japanese embassy did not have a professional typist on staff, the Declaration of War, which was supposed to be delivered to Hull at 1:00 PM Eastern time, was delayed by and entire hour. By the time Nomura delivered the declaration, the attack was already underway.

The film does not place any unnecessary blame or praise on any individual but instead shows how many small mistakes built up to catastrophe. There is no protagonist, instead showing us events from different perspectives in real time.

However, no historical film is a perfect recreation of the events they depict. Luckily the issues with ‘Tora! Tora! Tora!’ are negligible. For the sake of fitting several months’ worth of events into a two-hour film, some characters are composites of several real people, and many lines were put in to explain a person’s concerns or knowledge that were obviously never spoken aloud. AS an interesting example, this film is likely the origin of Yamamoto’s famous quote “I fear all we have done is to awaken a sleeping giant and filled him with a terrible resolve”. Zanuck claims to have read this in Yamamoto’s diary, but this has never been substantiated. However, this quote encapsulates Yamamoto’s feelings on the matter.

In conclusion, ‘Tora! Tora! Tora!’ holds a unique place in history as a film in which objectivity and historical accuracy play a bigger role than any actor. By consulting with historians, using primary sources, and deliberately prioritizing a truthful retelling, the film comes close to being a documentary, but with cinematic flair. It’s achievements as both a work of film and is dedication to unbiased documentation of real events make it the definitive screen depiction of the events of December 7th, 1941. It is remarkable how a film that has its roots in serious academic study of history manages to be simultaneously engaging, exciting and informative.

Definition of Trade war

The term Trade War is used to describe a scenario where governments behave unilaterally, ignoring the impacts of their actions on political and economic agents in the opposite country (Grossman & Helpman, 1995). While purely non-cooperative outcomes are unlikely to emerge in a world with repeated interactions and many forums for trade discussions, the extreme case of noncooperation known as a trade war sheds light on the political forces that shape trade policies during the frequent departures from harmony and cooperation in the trading realm (Grossman & Helpman, 1995). During a trade war, two or more countries retaliate against one another by raising import tariffs or placing other restrictions on the opposing country’s exports. A tariff is a tax or duty imposed on the goods imported into a nation. In a global economy, a trade war can become very damaging to the consumers and businesses of both nations and can grow to affect many aspects of both economies and even affect other countries. Some known adverse effects of trade wars are that it increases costs and induces inflation. It causes marketplace shortages that reduce choice. It also discourages trade among countries. Furthermore, it slows economic growth and hurts diplomatic relations.

This is not the first time that The United States of America has been involved in a trade war. There are historical examples to vouch for it. Five such examples are briefly discussed below, in chronological order.

Historical examples

The Boston Tea Party

The first example occurred in the 18th century and resulted in The Boston Tea Party. The trade war was waged between American colonists and the British Parliament, and the product subject to the trade war was tea (Kennedy, 2018). Britain repealed everything but the tea tax which led to a colonial boycott of the British East India Company and led to tea smuggling (Kennedy, 2018). On December 16, 1773, at Griffin’s Wharf in Boston, American colonists began a political protest over taxes levied by Great Britain that included the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767, acts which taxed everything from newspapers and playing cards to paint, glass and tea (Kennedy, 2018). During the protest, 116 men tossed 342 chests of tea carrying around 92,000 pounds of tea, valued at around $1 million by 2018’s standards, overboard ships. Consequentially, The British Parliament and King George III enacted the Coercive Acts, which closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for, stopped free elections in Massachusetts, and required colonists to house British troops on demand (Kennedy, 2018). In response, the other American colonists sent supplies to the colonists in Boston and were spurred to declare the right of the colonies to govern themselves independently of the British Parliament. The Tea Party, along with other events led to the beginning of The Revolutionary War, on April 19, 1775 (Kennedy, 2018).

The Smoot-Hawley Act of 1930

The second example of a U.S. trade war involves The Smoot Hawley Act of 1930 which involved the U.S., Canada, and other nations, and covered thousands of imported goods. President Herbert Hoover proposed tariffs on agricultural imports as he set out to deal with a farm crisis during the early years of the Great Depression. Senators Reed Smoot and Willis C. Hawley offered their own legislation and added many industrial tariffs (Kennedy, 2018). These tariffs were added despite a petition signed by 1,000 U.S. economists calling for President Hoover to veto the plan. Canada, along with other nations responded with tariffs on U.S. exports, adding more strain to the already-devastated U.S. economy. The result was a disaster because the retaliation from other countries contributed to U.S. exports falling by 61 percent in 1933 and stalling economic recovery during the Depression. Specifically, in 1929, the U.S. exported $5.24 billion worth of goods but in 1933, exports were a mere $1.68 billion. Factored in inflation, which was less than exports in 1896 (Gordon, 2017). World trade declined by 65% between 1929 and 1934, as country after country increased tariffs. The stock market, which had recovered about a third of what it had lost in the crash of 1929, began to sink again as soon as it became clear that Smoot-Hawley would pass and bank failures began to multiply (Gordon, 2017). Thanks largely to the negative economic effects of Smoot-Hawley, President Hoover lost the next election to Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Trade Agreements Act of 1934 replaced Smoot-Hawley, and the new law allowed the president to negotiate tariff reductions (Kennedy, 2018).

The Chicken Tariff War of the 1960s

The third example is The Chicken Tariff War of the 1960s which involved the United States, France, and West Germany and covered chicken, brandy, trucks, and other items. The increase in mass-produced, factory-farmed chicken in America led to decreased prices and vastly increased chicken exports to Europe, particularly France and West Germany (Kennedy, 2018). European countries like France and West Germany responded by imposing tariffs on chicken, leading to significant losses in the U.S. poultry industry. The United States, led by President Lyndon Johnson, fought back with a 25 percent tax on light trucks, (including Volkswagen buses), French brandy, potato starch, and dextrin (Kennedy, 2018).

Music has been a well-considered genre of humanity. Specifically, country music which has been regarded as a patriotic form of music; no other genre of music has been so popular in the conscience of Americans as country music (Fay, Molly, 2014). In 2008, Country Music was regarded as the second most profitable genre of music by the Recording Industry of America (RIAA). Garth Brooks and Shania Twain country music artists became two of the best-selling records of all time and Garth, on the other hand, has a third position as the best-selling artist of all time, taking after the Beatles and Elvis Presley (Carville, Claire S. 2011).

In 2009, country music had the most profitable tour which was hosted by Kenny Chesney who performed for over 2 million fans. Country music has also received the most remarkable audience in 2005 over the radio, with 70 million listeners. In digital enhancement also, country music has not been left out, as the all-time top downloaded digital sales and the female artist who topped the highest digital downloaded sales for one week in 2010 was Taylor Swift.

After the horrible events of September 11, 2001, there was no other way the Americans could express their anger, sadness, grief, and patriotism than to let it out through patriotic music, it was a perfect sound for the mood of the Americans (Fay, Molly. 2014). In 2002, Ed Benson the Executive Director of the Country Music Association mentioned the importance of country music to Americans in a July 2002 USAToday article, when he stated that the music has become a source of solace and encouragement to Americans in the impending shocking events and stories that occur each day. This he stated as country music brings ultimate values of authenticity and believability (Brian Mansfield, “Christian, Country Music on Upswing” USA Today 2002). This was demonstrated in Alan Jackson’s 2002 hit titled Where Were You(When the World Stopped Turning) The lyrics of this song were asking the listeners where they were when they saw the Twin Towers falling at the 9/11 terrorist attack (Fay, Molly. 2014). The song employed many concepts from the Bible and made references to God, the pride of America, and their cultures (Carville, Claire S. 2011). Country Music was used immensely to depict the situation of the Americans after the 9/11 America experience, this was also mentioned in an article in USA Today That buttressed the rise of country music after the experience (Brian Mansfield, “Country Music, in 9/11 Time,” USA Today 2002). The success of Jackson’s hit and Toby Keith’s song titled Courtesy of the Red, White, and Blue (the angry American) was a result of its patriotic lyrics. With such lyrics as this;

Justice will be served

And the battle will rage

This big dog will fight

When you rattle his cage

You’ll be sorry that you messed with the US of A

‘cause we’ll put a boot in your ass

It’s the American way

This period recorded major song writings from country music artists’ depicting the state of America and they were written for the American cities, as well as their fans in the rural areas. (Fay, Molly. 2014)

In 2002, also, an album was released called Home that included two successful singles titled Longtime Gone and Landslide and a third one that steadily climbed the chart titled Travelin’ Soldier by Dixie Chicks; a success that got lowered after March 2003. (Fay, Molly, 2014) The song tells a love story of a young girl that fell in love with a soldier before his deployment; to Vietnam. Another hit was released two years after the 9/11 attack by Daryl Worley called Have You forgotten; This song was a reminder of the attack after the news of the attack had gone down, this was to remind the Americans of the horrible incident.

Other top hits in country music include It’s America by Rodney Atkins which was released in 2009. This song depicts the things that are America; the American’s Child was also released in 2002 by Phil Vassar, this song was a story of the singer about his childhood.

References

1. Carville, Claire S. ‘From’ courtesy of the red, white, and blue’ to’ if you’re reading this’: patriotic themes in country music between 2000-2010.’ (2011).
2. Fay, Molly. ‘City Country: The Paradox of Country Music in Urban America.’ New Errands: The Undergraduate Journal of American Studies 2.1 (2014).

Origins of The Dust Bowl

“Welcome to the great plow up, where crops grow good and money flows endlessly.” That’s what they said about the Oklahoma regions during the initial discovery of the plains. During the great plow-up, people would take their furrow plows and plow up the dirt to plant cash crops like wheat and corn. The government was handing out land to people who would plow and plant on it. People rushed to plant their crops and make money. People were getting rich off of this free land. Due to the government providing all of this free land. The population in Oklahoma and surrounding territories began to proliferate.

On July 28, 1914, WWI started. The government was trying to get more food for the men in the military, so, they increased the price of cash crops. They raised the wheat prices from $.78 per bushel (1913) to $2.12 per bushel (1917). That made farmers plant more crops to make more money. This change in price also caused more people to buy more land. This caused people to have to work a lot harder to keep up with all the land they had.

Due to the harder work that came with all the land, Charles John Angell, Sr. invented the one-way disc plow. This work by flipping the soil over to loosen it up. This allowed more land to be plowed up faster and more effectively (for planting in bulk) but caused the soil to get caught in the wind easier. Flipped soil also couldn’t hold water that well.

After WWI ended, wheat prices began to drop. This caused farmers to make less money. So to combat this, farmers planted more wheat to make up for the drop in price. This made the price drop even lower which started a cycle of more and more plowed land and lower and lower wheat prices. This also had an effect on the land due to the turning of soil all across the plains.

After all these years of land getting plowed all across the plains, the dirt started to get really dry due to the lack of water-holding ability. Since the dirt was loose and dry, it started getting picked up by the wind. The wind would pick up the dirt and gather it into a giant cloud of dust that would cover the plains. This would happen all across the plains of the central United States. This marked the beginning of the Dust Bowl.

The purpose of this research paper is to analyze the growth and development of the newly formed United States of America. It will briefly discuss any events leading up to the production and authorization of the Articles of Confederation and the United States of America Constitution. Various components of the Constitution that apply directly to the executive leadership and Congress will also be addressed and applied to events that took place during the presidency of philosopher, diplomat, and Founding Father, Mr. James Madison before the Spanish American War. James Madison was America’s fourth president from the year of 1809 to 1817. Of his vital role in writing and endorsing the United States Bill of Rights and the Constitution of the United States, he is the president of choice for this paper.

Introduction

At the start of the newly formed country of the United States of America, many advisers surfaced, and the nation’s government began to develop. Leaders such as President James Madison set the precedent by declaring war and advocating for the freedom of the colonists which soon, upcoming leaders and activists would adhere to and continue for centuries. It took decades for the construction of structure within our government. This paper will briefly address the foundation of the United States of America’s government, through the years before the Spanish American War. It will ultimately cover the overall impact of the historical relations within the country by discussing ways in which international relations were pursued, the force was projected, and the congressional restrictions on presidential actions.

International relations

In the early 1800s, the United States of America was suffering from a vulnerable federal government, which left the country at risk for several issues including international conflict. The United States of America’s first written constitution was the Articles of Confederation. Under this constitution, Congress granted the authority to create alliances, form militias to assist with armed forces, conduct trades with neighboring countries, and hold deals with other foreign governments. The U.S. was made up of various state governments that worked separately without organization. As a result, several international threats were formed against the nation. Many other nations such as but not limited to, Spain and France threatened the U.S. on several occasions by simply imposing taxes, disregarding treaties, and avoiding the opportunity for expansion.

In addition, The Articles of Confederation granted Congress the ability to orchestrate rules and demand funds from states without the power of enforcement. The states became freeloaders, simply enjoying funds and other benefits of the Confederation without paying for them. According to an article entitled, “We have not a government”, the author states the following, “Because the Confederation lacked either an independent source of revenue or enforcement power over the states, it proved unable to resolve several challenges that faced the United States in the aftermath of the Revolutionary War” (Leibiger, 2019, p. 350).

In the year 1783, Congress began to face several domestic and foreign issues regarding war debts needing to be paid to establish national credit. All attempts to raise revenue began to fail. These alarming failures began to convince many Americans, that the Confederation was declining and that they needed to move towards political reform through a new constitutional convention. Cooter and Siegel (2010) stated “The problems of collective action confronting America in 1787 necessitated a government with many more powers than were possessed by Congress under the Articles-including the great powers to tax, to raise and support armies, and to regulate commerce.

As a result of various economic sanctions enacted against the United States by Great Britain and France, including the practice of impressment, where the British Royal Navy captured and forced Americans into naval service, the War of 1812 began. After a little over two years of warfare, the Treaty of Ghent was signed and ended the war, resulting in a draw as the U.S. gave up on their demand for the British to stop impressment, and Great Britain’s ability to reclaim land lost in the Revolutionary War was no longer. Also, the Canadian border would be left alone, and British attempts to create a Native American barrier state in the Northwest were halted. But the war’s domestic effects on America were even more extensive, as it stimulated nationalism, discredited the Federalist Party, and led to economic growth. As Federalists began to lose more and more influence and power, especially after the Hartford Convention, a new era began and a shift within American politics ensued. Within this new era, the “Era of Good Feelings”, a lack of political opposition to the Democratic-Republicans caused infighting and factions within the party to occur, which would lead to the formation of a second party system, expansion of suffrage that emphasized the rights of the “common man”, and the development of the spoils system, all of which dramatically changed participation in and tone of political campaigns and elections in the United States between 1815 and 1840.

During the “Era of Good Feelings”, while Democratic-Republicans dominated the political field, pushing policies of republicanism, political equality, and expansionism, opposition against and within the party was not lost, affecting the tone of and participation in political campaigns and elections. Before the Federalist Party’s official cease of operations in 1824, a New York jurist, legal scholar, and Federalist James Kent felt the opposing party’s push for greater democracy, especially in the sense of universal suffrage, was dangerous and undermined the fundamental rights of wealthy private property owners, as it could be said that if more poor people could vote, they would vote in favor of the confiscation of said property (Doc. 1). This threatened and frightened people like Kent, not only because he was a Federalist, but also a law professor at Columbia and chief judge of the New York supreme court. This meant he was a part of the wealthy and elite class, and the expanded rights of middle and lower-class people would lead to a decrease in his political power. Nevertheless, the New York government enacted democratic provisions such as the removal of property qualifications for white men over the age of 21 so long as they paid taxes at the state’s 1821 state Constitutional Convention, providing evidence of the country’s push, even at the state level, to Democratic-Republican policies rather than the beliefs of Federalists. Just six years after the state’s convention, another New York politician and Jacksonian named Martin Van Buren wrote that the country would be better off if old party distinctions resurfaced within American politics (Doc. 2). What Van Buren meant by this was that it would be simpler to revive a two-party system rather than build one from scratch, and he would help do so with the Albany Regency. Made up of various politicians, the Regency controlled New York’s state government from 1822 to 1838 as one of America’s first political machines. It was an influential body amongst Democratic-Republicans, developing factions within the party, such as the Bucktails and the Hunkers, which would contribute to the party’s eventual split into two factions after the 1824 presidential election. Because America was essentially a one-party country of mainly Democratic-Republicans, the election pitted fellow Democratic-Republicans John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson against each other. But it was the results of the election that Van Buren and other Jacksonians took issue with, as Jackson won a plurality of votes, both popular and electoral, but Adams ended up winning through the House of Representatives and became president. Jacksonians attributed Adams’ win to a “corrupt bargain” between Adams and Henry Clay that ensured Adams won the presidency if Clay was appointed Secretary of State. As a reaction against this bargain, Jackson and his supporters would split from the Democratic-Republican to establish the Democratic Party, Adams, and his supporters then became the National Republican, or Anti-Jacksonian, Party, and the Second Party System began and would continue for years to come, leading to an even greater change to the tone of and participation in political campaigns and elections via expanded suffrage that emphasized the rights of the “common man” and the spoils system.

An emphasis on the rights of the “common man” was an election tactic that Andrew Jackson relied on leading up to the 1828 presidential election and during his presidency that signified a change in who was involved and included in politics, giving way to the development of an American spoils system. Considered a spokesperson for the “common man”, Jackson had come from humble beginnings, and supported decentralization, and an agrarian-based democracy. Jackson’s focus on the “common man” appealed to the working class, as the goal of Jackson and his supporters aimed to decrease hardships faced by farmers, shopkeepers, artisans, and other working-class members that inhibited them from garnering a larger percentage of the nation’s wealth. Involving all white men regardless of wealth or property ownership in politics was a relatively new concept in many states in America, as Working Man’s Party founder George H. Evans contended politicians had deceived working and laboring class men, especially in New York (Doc. 3). Evans’s Working Man’s Party had a platform opposed to labor injustices, such as unfair wages, excessive hours, child labor, and more, but parties like these dissolved because their leaders were inexperienced and vulnerable to manipulation by other more experienced professionals. As a result, constituents of working-class parties became a part of Jacksonian Democrats, strengthening Andrew Jackson’s “common man” campaign and helping him win the presidential election in 1828, especially with most states having universal white male suffrage. Additionally, the newspaper market saw an exponential increase from only 31 different newspapers produced in 1775, to 1,200 in 1835, providing ordinary and working-class Americans with information about the political world via a reasonably priced outlet, allowing them to become more aware and knowledgeable of the political world (Doc. 4). Another factor that contributed to Jackson’s popularity, as well as a shift in American politics, was Van Buren’s Albany Regency’s increased influence within the Democratic-Republican and then Democratic party, as it was with the help of their newspaper Albany Argus, that the political machine was able to control nomination conventions and use a spoils system that gave incentives to its supporters (Doc. 1). When elected, Jackson also put to use a spoils system in which he gave benefits, jobs, and incentives to his supporters as a reward for them being loyal and contributing to his electoral victory. This practice was seen as corrupt, despite both Argus and Jackson standing against corruption within politics. An Anti-Jacksonian politician named David Crockett was critical of many of Jackson’s policies, including the Indian Removal Act, but understood the nature of politics and how Jackson was electorally successful. He noted that to be engaged and successful in politics during the mid-1800s, candidates must make empty promises and speeches, connect with families, kiss babies, and be seemingly patriotic (Doc. 5). These were the winning tactics with the new Second Party System, as it was by appealing to ordinary or working-class people and their interests and hardships that would garner votes, just as Jackson did to win the presidency in 1828 and 1832. It was through Jackson’s emphasis on the rights of the “common man” and use of a spoils system that the tone of and participation in politics from 1815 to 1840 changed, as it laid the foundation for universal white male suffrage that was achieved in 1856, but also allowed for government corruption to persist as the appointment of jobs were based on loyalty to an administration or machine and not merit or experience until after the Civil War.

Between 1815 and 1840, the participation in and tone of political campaigns and elections drastically changed as it was within the “Era of Good Feelings” that a lack of political opposition to the Democratic-Republicans caused infighting and factions within the party to occur, leading to the formation of a second party system, expansion of suffrage that emphasized the rights of the “common man”, and the use of a spoils system. While it was through Jackson’s administration that all white men got the right to vote, the extent of his corruption cannot be overlooked, as he not only used the spoils system, but owned hundreds of slaves, and through the policies he set in place, thousands of Native Americans were forcibly removed from their land and subjected to starvation, disease, and death via the Trail of Tears from 1831 to 1877.

The Great Awakening shaped the thoughts of people and religion laying down the foundations and development of today’s religious establishments and beliefs in America. Unlike the First Great Awakening in 1740, which was a reaction to the Enlightenment that meant increasing church membership, the second one in 1790 was more of a religious revival affecting the religions in the colonies. People were encouraged to rely personally on God rather than ministers. It introduced religious ideas that significantly impacted Christianity. Many people did not attend religious services in the late 1700 since they weren’t aware of God and His deeds, this decreased religious convictions leading to the establishment of religious revivals which would advocate dependence on God by human beings condemning their unrighteous lives of pride and inhumanity, in some way it addressed the rich who were slave owners. They would encourage people to return to God and have faith in God instead of creating their doctrine. This would aim at increasing church attendance, with the women being involved in the revival.

In Hollitz’s book, Thinking Through the Past, Peter Cartwright who was a Methodist Preacher carried with him the ‘Methodist Discipline,’ which was a code of behavior for members of the church while describing the rules for personal conduct, this promoted the moral order in the church mainly in rural and western areas where he evangelized in 1798. According to Hollitz’s book, there was only one condition required for those who desired admission to societies which was ‘A desire to flee from the wrath to come, and to be saved from their sins.” [footnoteRef:2]This meant that everyone who lived by this had to show the desire for salvation. They were taught how to avoid doing harm and evil. This is like today’s Ten Commandments of the church that helps people seek holiness and guide their lives meaning that while you break any of the commandments a punishment is bestowed on you unless you repent. The Methodist Discipline condemned various practices such as buying and selling people to enslave them which saw some of the slaveowners free their slaves. This helped in the respect of human rights and created awareness of what God wanted His people to do and they will He had on them. Any kind of violence that was prohibited would lead to the deaths of people and the destruction of property which was against God’s will. This would enhance peaceful relations among themselves thus more engagement. These codes were more limiting on how to live which saw some people stick with the church, others joined the church, and of course, some leave after they found that the church was so strict over them. They also insisted on rules concerning dress and that those who left off superfluous ornaments should be ticketed, and they should all read thoughts]upon dress at least once a year. They were also given directions on the sale and use of spiritual drinks in which anyone who was convicted of transacting under his roof would be suspended, censured, and even excluded in case of immoralities. All this was aimed at decreasing evil acts in society and living a purposeful life with God and what was expected of the church members. [2: John Hollitz, Thinking Through the Past: The Second Great Awakening. Cengage Learning, 2015, 156. Hollitz, Thinking Through the Past,159.]

Prophet Nephi in his, Book of Mormon, predicts how modern churches will be and the path to salvation in 1830. It comes with different themes about the church. He writes that ‘Men are free according to the flesh and all things are given them are expedient unto man.”2

This meant that everyone had to choose between liberty and eternal life or captivity and death by the life they lead and by all means they should know good from evil knowing the Messiah will redeem them from fall and punishment. This was also an attack on the slave owners to free their slaves. Many churches had fallen through because of pride and false teachers with false doctrine making them corrupt, this reflects how today’s churches are. The rich and the teachers were among the people who were addressed, and this drew them to the movement to change their ways of life in a more religious way.

Lorenzo Dow, Revivalist Preacher, condemns the attacks on the Orthodox preachers and how they were treated in 1814. He condemned the pride among the rich who were fed by their instincts arguing that all men are equal. He says ‘The Lord hath declared his intention and purpose to exalt the humble whilst he will pull down high looks.”[footnoteRef:3]This was after the rich people couldn’t worship the poor and the despised. The main theme here is pride which was among the rich and that sooner they would be left with nothing, he tries to defend the preachers by telling them that they believe by following their advice would lead to salvation. [3: Hollitz, Thinking Through the Past, 159.]

An appeal of Methodism discussed by a former slave, in 1856, talks about how far the nearest church was from their plantations, living alone in their homes. Since they were Episcopalians, they attended the Episcopal church, but the preaching was far from being understood with the little that was said. This made it harder to follow up on their religion and the teachings it rode with but soon when the Methodist church was brought, they got a better understanding of its doctrine and preaching. It mainly consternated the slaveholders, who didn’t pay close attention to understanding it.

The doctrine was spread all over the colonies creating awareness amongst themselves and bringing hope to the oppressed, slaves, and the poor making them more considered and free, he said that “As soon as it got among the slaves, it spread from plantation to plantation, until it reached ours, where they were but few who did not experience religion.” [footnoteRef:4]This shows that in a way, some slaves were attracted to the religions even though they didn’t know anything meaning that it helped bring some people to the church relieving them from their burdens. It gave them a new beginning in their lives and much hope in God. [4: Hollitz, Thinking Through the Past, 164. Hollitz, Thinking Through the Past, 165.]

Were women involved in the revival movement? And if yes, what were they doing while their husbands were on the move? In 1837 Harriet Martineau reveals how revivalism appealed to women and what part they played. She argues that women were supposed to be far from households for some time and her brain be turned by religiosity. Considering all other obligations such as Philosophy, science, and art, marriage was all that was left for women, religion. The rest was a pastime and are open at any time. She gives an example of how women live in New England saying that, “….a vast deal of time is spent in attending preaching and other religious meetings……” 5 The women were more willing to volunteer and spend time in churches, they had faith in what they were doing either by doing or harm according to the enlightenment of the mind. They observed religion and this needed to be implemented in all the colonies. They would engage in charities, proving religious education to their children and more religious roles.

Did the ministers require any background in education or was it a matter of inspiration and educating others? Peter Cartwright whom we discussed before the Methodist Discipline and an elder, of course, discusses whether ministers needed to be educated in theology. Much time would be wasted by waiting for the educated ministers to come, instead, they had to yield superior wisdom from God. Some protestant churches contended for an educated ministry accompanied by instrumental music and congregational. Instead, the Methodist church opposed these ideas with the help of their illiterate preachers. This saw religious indifferences between the two churches to an extent that the illiterate preachers were abused and were called ignorant babblers. They spoke to them in a language they wouldn’t understand, this wasn’t meant to undervalue education but for them, it was a weak point. For him having an educated ministry didn’t guarantee any success of the denomination, he said, “ Other denominations have tried them, and they have proved a perfect failure……”[footnoteRef:5]Though the [5: Hollitz, Thinking Through the Past, 162.]

Methodist ministers felt inferior, they were better off than the educated ones. The intensity of the preaching in the Methodist church drew many people, this concluded that the education of ministers wasn’t a necessity. We later see the same church establishing institutions now and have helped many communities. People nowadays need more biblical instructions and teachings unlike in the early days and they should abide by education.

At this time most of the other denominations desired to have a civilization that would begin with the misters and then be passed over to them. They even had different religious ideas and the religion’s role in society. Slavery was highly emphasized in the look of freedom of a man, pride among the rich was also addressed, and some codes of behavior guided them in their lives telling them what to do and what not to do. There were thousands of converts after the Great Awakening and the spread of revivalism in the colonies.

All forms of evil were condemned and were punishable by law. We see an emotional approach as religion grew rapidly. The Methodist church faces so much opposition from other dominations but it established strong leadership and stood strong in what it had to fight for. We see that more religious groups are formed that help in forming a base on various church denominations.

What were the actions of the press directly after the atomic bomb and to what extent did the censorship regarding the consequences of these bombs affect the reporting?

The importance of studying the actions of the press directly after the dropping of the atomic bombs derives from the influence that it had on the cultural history of America in the 1940s. Immediately after the atomic bombs were dropped, the American population relied heavily on the press, as it was their most accessible source of information. Consequently, the study of the press is essential, as the changing attitudes of the population are mirrored within the tone of the newspapers. Similarly, the initial reporting of the atomic bombs conducted by these newspapers likely played a large role in the thoughts of the American population towards the decision and outcomes of the dropping of these bombs on Japan. The symbiotic relationship between the press and the population makes it impossible to understand the culture of America directly after the bomb without studying the press, its reaction, and its coverage of the dropping of the bombs.

Much of the historiography surrounding the American media and its reaction to the dropping of the atomic bombs is largely focused on the American government’s censorship. This censorship was mostly focused on the articles and coverage of the bomb that referenced, or rather focused on, the large levels of radiation that were amassed because of the decision to drop the bomb. Uday Mohan views the press coverage of the atomic bomb dropping on Hiroshima as a narrative that was derived from the censorship of the government[footnoteRef:1]. Furthermore, he states that the control the government had over the release of this information, resulted in a lack of information within the media about the impact of radiation upon Japanese society[footnoteRef:2]. A social historian, Janet Farrell, also focused on media censorship by the American government. She believed that censorship eventually led to a legacy within American society as deception and that it played a large role in the blindness of the American public immediately after the dropping of the atomic bombs[footnoteRef:3]. Whilst not specifically historiography, secondary sources used will also include the release of ‘censored’ videos and Truman’s radio broadcast covering the bombs in the media today (such as on CBS News, BBC News, and the Asia-Pacific Journal) [footnoteRef:4]. These secondary sources, though not academic, require studying as they provide important primary sources for this essay whilst at the same time providing detail of the importance of studying this topic, as even today the press still has a strong influence over the opinion of the American public. [1: Uday Mohan, “Nuclearism and the Legacy of U.S. Media Coverage of Hiroshima” (speech, Washington, DC, 21 April 2007), Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, https://www.wagingpeace.org/nuclearism-and-the-legacy-of-u-s-media-coverage-of-hiroshima/] [2: ibid. ] [3: Janet Farrell Brodie, “The little-known history of secrecy and censorship in wake of atomic bombings,” The Conversation, 7 August 2015, http://theconversation.com/the-little-known-history-of-secrecy-and-censorship-in-wake-of-atomic-bombings-45213 ] [4: Greg Mitchell, “Hiroshima Film Cover-up Exposed Censored 1945 Footage to Air,” The Asia Pacific Journal 3, no. 8 (August 2005): https://apjjf.org/-Greg-Mitchell/1554/article.html ; “Nagasaki bomb account published,” BBC News, 20 June 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4110598.stm ; “Rare video shows Hiroshima right after the atomic bomb,” CBS News, 26 May 2016, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rare-video-shows-hiroshima-right-after-atomic-bomb/. ]

Perhaps the historian who most closely focuses on the press directly is Paul Boyer, a cultural and intellectual historian. In his book By the Bomb’s Early Light, he uses the press to explain how the atomic bomb immediately played quite a large role in the development of American culture post-WW2[footnoteRef:5]. In Boyer’s book, he closely analyses many different types of sources. However, his study reflecting American culture post-WW2 allows a study of the press’ influence directly after the war to be new yet complementary to other historiographical sources on this topic. [5: Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (North Carolina: the University of North Carolina Press, 2005).]

Though these secondary sources do provide quite a lot of detail on the censorship of the media during this time, the basis of this essay will largely derive from newspapers located all around America during 1945 and the media in the years 1947-48. One of the newspapers this essay will be addressing is the New York Times edition on the 7th of August 1945[footnoteRef:6]. This newspaper has a transcript of Truman’s and Stimson’s speeches regarding the bomb, allowing for an understanding of the importance of politics versus media opinions. This essay will also benefit from the analysis of articles from the Arizona Daily (8 August 1945), Evening Star (9 August 1945), and the Sunday Star-News as well as numerous others (12 August 1945)[footnoteRef:7]. However, whilst newspapers were arguably the largest source of media that the American public had access to, another large source was the radio. This essay will specifically use the radio broadcasts that were interrupted for Truman’s speech that could reach all Americans with access to radios[footnoteRef:8]. However, whilst the media (newspapers and radio) are likely to be the main source of documents used within this essay, I will also look at government sources to explain the importance of censorship during this period and how that affected the accuracy and depiction of the bombs within such newspapers. These sources include correspondence regarding the guidelines for censorship and disclosure found in the American National Archives and a document from the Education Resources Information Centre’s archives regarding the Office of Censorship’s attempt to have an influence in the press coverage of both atomic bombs[footnoteRef:9]. [6: Sidney Shalett, “Hiroshima is Target: ‘Impenetrable’ Cloud of Dust Hides City After Single Bomb Strikes,” The New York Times, 7 August 1945, https://searchproquestcom.virtual.anu.edu.au/docview/107268246/pageviewPDF/E8714D6C5PQ/] [7: “Japanese Report Sharp Fighting: Nagasaki Is Hit in New U.S. Blow,” The Evening Star, 9 August 1945, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1945-08-09/ed-1/seq-1; “Hour of Victory Near as Japan Given Terms,” The Sunday Star News, 12 August 1945, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn78002169/1945-08-12/ed-1/seq-2; Douglas Cornell, “Atomic Bomb Threat Might End War Soon,” The Arizona Daily, 8 August 1945,https://www.newspapers.com/article/arizona-daily-star-60-of-hiroshima-is-w/20897375/. ] [8: Harry S. Truman, “First Atomic Bomb Dropped on Hiroshima,” NBC Inc., New York, 09 August, 1945, https://archive.org/details/19450809RadioReportAtomicBomb. ] [9: Patrick Washburn, “The Office of Censorship’s Attempt to Control Press Coverage of the Atomic Bomb during World War II,” July 1988, ERIC Archive, https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED295201/page/n3; “Public Relations and Censorship; Information Concerning,” 11 August 1945, The Conversation, https://images.theconversation.com/files/91066/original/image-20150806-5263-eiwtl9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip ]

The primary sources for this essay will be mostly derived from numerous archives including that of the many newspapers, archive.org (an internet website), and the Library of Rutgers University in America which has collected newspapers to find what was reported in times of history. The nature of this topic of study presents obvious geographical limitations to the initial research for this essay. Both time and monetary constraints have resulted in me being unable to access many of the physical sources that I need to complete this essay as I am unable to travel to the American archives. Thus, many of the primary sources will be located using digital archives. Though these digital archives provide ease towards the location of sources, the negatives of these archives mean the sources may be manipulated and therefore, taken out of context corrupting the integrity of the source itself. The largest physical archive that these primary sources will be identified from is the National Library of Australia, which has vast amounts of information including historical newspapers from America. This essay will be written from a cultural and social history viewpoint that requires an interpretive analysis of these many primary sources. The secondary sources, largely found because of footnotes of other secondary sources or through the online database Jstor, will be used to provide context and further analysis of both the primary sources and this question.

Bibliography

1. Boyer, Paul. By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age. North Carolina: the University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
2. Cornell, Douglas. “Atomic Bomb Threat Might End War Soon.” The Arizona Daily. 8 August 1945. https://www.newspapers.com/article/arizona-daily-star-60-of-hiroshima-is-w/20897375/.
3. Farrell Brodie, Janet. “The little-known history of secrecy and censorship in wake of atomic bombings. ” The Conversation. 7 August 2015. http://theconversation.com/the-little-known-history-of-secrecy-and-censorship-in-wake-of-atomic-bombings-45213
4. “Hour of Victory Near as Japan Given Terms.” The Sunday Star News. 12 August 1945. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn78002169/1945-08-12/ed-1/seq-2.
5. “Japanese Report Sharp Fighting: Nagasaki Is Hit in New U.S. Blow.” The Evening Star. 9 August 1945. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1945-08-09/ed-1/seq-1.
6. Mitchell, Greg. “Hiroshima Film Cover-up Exposed Censored 1945 Footage to Air.” The Asia Pacific Journal 3, no. 8 (August 2005). https://apjjf.org/-Greg-Mitchell/1554/article.html
7. Mohan, Uday. “Nuclearism and the Legacy of U.S. Media Coverage of Hiroshima.” Speech, Washington, DC, 21 April 2007. Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. https://www.wagingpeace.org/nuclearism-and-the-legacy-of-u-s-media-coverage-of-hiroshima/
8. “Nagasaki bomb account published.” BBC News. 20 June 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4110598.stm
9. “Public Relations and Censorship; Information Concerning.” 11 August 1945. The Conversation. https://images.theconversation.com/files/91066/original/image-20150806-5263-eiwtl9.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip
10. “Rare video shows Hiroshima right after the atomic bomb.” CBS News. 26 May 2016. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rare-video-shows-hiroshima-right-after-atomic-bomb/.
11. Shalett, Sidney. “Hiroshima is Target: ‘Impenetrable’ Cloud of Dust Hides City After Single Bomb Strikes.” The New York Times. 7 August 1945. https://searchproquestcom.virtual.anu.edu.au/docview/107268246/pageviewPDF/E8714D6C5PQ/
12. Truman, Harry S. “First Atomic Bomb Dropped on Hiroshima.” NBC Inc. New York. 09 August 1945. https://archive.org/details/19450809RadioReportAtomicBomb.
13. Washburn, Patrick. “The Office of Censorship’s Attempt to Control Press Coverage of the Atomic Bomb during World War II.” July 1988. ERIC Archive. https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED295201/page/n3

By the late 1760s, Washington had experienced firsthand the effects of rising taxes imposed on American colonists by the British and came to believe that it was in the best interests of the colonists to declare independence from England. Washington served as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in 1774 in Philadelphia. By the time the Second Continental Congress convened a year later, the American Revolution had begun in earnest, and Washington was named commander in chief of the Continental Army.

Washington proved to be a better general than a military strategist. His strength lay not in his genius on the battlefield but in his ability to keep the struggling colonial army together. His troops were poorly trained and lacked food, ammunition, and other supplies (soldiers sometimes even went without shoes in winter). However, Washington was able to give them direction and motivation. His leadership during the winter of 1777-1778 at Valley Forge was a testament to his power to inspire his men to keep going.

Over the course of the grueling eight-year war, the colonial forces won few battles but consistently held their own against the British. In October 1781, with the aid of the French (who allied themselves with the colonists over their rivals the British), the Continental forces were able to capture British troops under General Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805) in the Battle of Yorktown. This action effectively ended the Revolutionary War and Washington was declared a national hero.

America’s First President

In 1783, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris between Great Britain and the U.S., Washington, believing he had done his duty, gave up his command of the army and returned to Mount Vernon, intent on resuming his life as a gentleman farmer and family man. However, in 1787, he was asked to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and head the committee to draft the new constitution. His impressive leadership there convinced the delegates that he was by far the most qualified man to become the nation’s first president.

At first, Washington balked. He wanted to, at last, return to a quiet life at home and leave governing the new nation to others. But public opinion was so strong that eventually, he gave in. The first presidential election was held on January 7, 1789, and Washington won handily. John Adams (1735-1826), who received the second-largest number of votes, became the nation’s first vice president. The 57-year-old Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789, in New York City. Because Washington, D.C., America’s future capital city wasn’t yet built, he lived in New York and Philadelphia. While in office, he signed a bill establishing a future, permanent U.S. capital along the Potomac River—the city later named Washington, D.C., in his honor.

George Washington’s Accomplishments

The United States was a small nation when Washington took office, consisting of 11 states and approximately 4 million people, and there was no precedent for how the new president should conduct domestic or foreign business. Mindful that his actions would likely determine how future presidents were expected to govern, Washington worked hard to set an example of fairness, prudence, and integrity. In foreign matters, he supported cordial relations with other countries but also favored a position of neutrality in foreign conflicts. Domestically, he nominated the first chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, John Jay (1745-1829), signed a bill establishing the first national bank, the Bank of the United States, and set up his own presidential cabinet.

His two most prominent cabinet appointees were Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804), two men who disagreed strongly on the role of the federal government. Hamilton favored a strong central government and was part of the Federalist Party, while Jefferson favored stronger states’ rights as part of the Democratic-Republican Party, the forerunner to the Democratic Party. Washington believed that divergent views were critical for the health of the new government, but he was distressed at what he saw as an emerging partisanship.

George Washington’s presidency was marked by a series of firsts. He signed the first United States copyright law, protecting the copyrights of authors. He also signed the first Thanksgiving proclamation, making November 26 a national day of Thanksgiving for the end of the war for American independence and the successful ratification of the Constitution.

During Washington’s presidency, Congress passed the first federal revenue law, a tax on distilled spirits. In July 1794, farmers in Western Pennsylvania rebelled over the so-called “whiskey tax.” Washington called in over 12,000 militiamen to Pennsylvania to dissolve the Whiskey Rebellion in one of the first major tests of the authority of the national government.

Under Washington’s leadership, the states ratified the Bill of Rights, and five new states entered the union: North Carolina (1789), Rhode Island (1790), Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792), and Tennessee (1796).

In his second term, Washington issued the Proclamation of Neutrality to avoid entering the 1793 war between Great Britain and France. But when French minister to the United States Edmond Charles Genet—known to history as “Citizen Genet”—toured the United States, he boldly flaunted the proclamation, attempting to set up American ports as French military bases and gain support for his cause in the Western United States. His meddling caused a stir between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, widening the rift between parties and making consensus-building more difficult.

In 1795, Washington signed the “Treaty of Amity Commerce and Navigation, between His Britannic Majesty; and The United States of America,” or Jay’s Treaty, so-named for John Jay, who had negotiated it with the government of King George III. It helped the U.S. avoid war with Great Britain, but also rankled certain members of Congress back home and was fiercely opposed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Internationally, it caused a stir among the French, who believed it violated previous treaties between the United States and France.

Washington’s administration signed two other influential international treaties. Pinckney’s Treaty of 1795, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, established friendly relations between the United States and Spain, firming up borders between the U.S. and Spanish territories in North America and opening up the Mississippi to American traders. The Treaty of Tripoli signed the following year, gave American ships access to Mediterranean shipping lanes in exchange for a yearly tribute to the Pasha of Tripoli.

George Washington’s Retirement to Mount Vernon and Death

In 1796, after two terms as president and declining to serve a third term, Washington finally retired. In Washington’s farewell address, he urged the new nation to maintain the highest standards domestically and to keep involvement with foreign powers to a minimum. The address is still read each February in the U.S. Senate to commemorate Washington’s birthday.

Washington returned to Mount Vernon and devoted his attention to making the plantation as productive as it had been before he became president. More than four decades of public service had aged him, but he was still a commanding figure. In December 1799, he caught a cold after inspecting his properties in the rain. The cold developed into a throat infection and Washington died on the night of December 14, 1799, at the age of 67. He was entombed at Mount Vernon, which in 1960 was designated a national historic landmark.

Washington left one of the most enduring legacies of any American in history. Known as the “Father of His Country,” his face appears on the U.S. dollar bill and quarter, and dozens of U.S. schools, towns, and counties, as well as the state of Washington and the nation’s capital city, are named for him.