Category: American Colonies

This essay explores the notion of colonialism and will exemplify whether the act and the effects of the phenomenon are considered good or bad. By drawing on relevant academic literature, this essay intends to acknowledge both sides of the argument whilst examining a number of historical examples, these examples will include the city-state of Singapore, and what is now known as the Democratic Republic of Congo. Reviewing these examples will highlight the different influences colonialism has had and will aid in the discovery of whether, overall, it is primarily an advantage or disadvantage to the multitude of countries it has touched. At the end of this essay, a well-rounded conclusion will be formed. This will be done by analyzing each argument made within the main body in order to reach a fully informed decision on whether colonialism was mainly destructive, or if it has paved the way for the success that some states have acquired today.

Colonialism can be a difficult concept to define and the definitions put forward by scholars are frequently contested, and it seems that many academics have ceased to grasp the phenomenon (Horvath, 1972). The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy gives a basic definition of colonialism and states that it is “the practice of domination which involves the subjugation of one people to another” (Stanford Encylopedia of Philosophy, 2006), this definition does nothing but highlights how a number of areas throughout the world (such as Asia, Latin America, and Africa) succumbed to control by external Western powers. However, this definition does lack complexity and fails to indicate the extent to which colonialism has had an impact on states, a more fitting definition of the term would be that colonialism is the conquest and control of another nation’s land and goods (Loomba, 2015), this interpretation of the term enables understanding around the significance of colonialism and explains what it entails.

The history of colonialism spans back to the fifteenth century with explorations led by Portugal and Spain. It was the decision to commence contact with the outside world in order to impart political-religious and economic thought. This time period marked the beginning of interactions between the Global North and the Global South and resulted in many centuries of occupation and competition among European empires (Haslam et al. 2017). Insight into the history of colonialism is vital for the purpose of understanding the dynamics of the political and economic landscape in the world today (Singh, 2001).

As with any historical concept, there are both advantages and disadvantages associated. This section will aim to highlight how colonialism and the act of being brought into a democratic, capitalist system may have been beneficial or detrimental to nations conquered by the Europeans.

As stated before, colonialism is a form of political control over territories (Manning, 1974), and the cost/benefit approach identifies a basic need for human rights, development, security, and governance, and asks whether colonialism improves or worsens this (Gilley, 2018). Singapore is a prime example used in research and literature to prove the legitimacy of colonialism and the positive influence it can have. The outward success of Singapore is equated to the “replication of colonial governance of their pasts” (Gilley, 2018) meaning that the state thrives due to the re-obtainment of political, economic, and social models once enforced by the West.

Singapore was colonized by the British in 1824 as a result of the East India Trading Company seeking a trading port (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019), the British dominated for many years, with much of the state’s capital obtained through the opium trade endorsed by the British colonial government (Trocki, 1990). Their power came to an end in 1942 and post-colonial Singapore was an era of high unemployment, poverty, as well as class-based and ethnic conflicts, all underpinned by the exploitation of the British. It is a common theme throughout colonial history that for Europeans, European economic interests are of paramount importance. In spite of this, postcolonial rulers clutched on to the few advantages left behind by the British and used them to benefit the wider society (Gilley, 2018), the driving factor in this was the People’s Action Party (PAP) which destroyed left-wing leadership and connected the state with international capitalism to create a workers’ paradise (Trocki, 2006). This led to the diminishment of slums and crime and made way for increased employment, housing, free education, infrastructure, transportation, and affordable medical care (Trocki, 2006). This adoption of Western methods means that Singapore is now one of the wealthiest countries in the world, with a GDP per capita of $57,714.30 (USD) (World Bank, 2019). It seems that Singapore is a fine illustration that shows how countries can perhaps build on their colonial past and as a result, push for better services, effective governance, and international order, thus leading to improved living conditions for all.

Singapore is a case that has progressed in many aspects and has transported itself from colonial status to becoming one of Asia’s most flourishing economies, all within the timeframe of 40 years (Trocki, 2006). That being said, it can be problematic to view Singapore’s success in regard to colonization in such a positive light when there are still underlying issues in the state such as soft authoritarianism (Means, 1996). There is a lack of freedom of speech, intrusive government propaganda, and no civil society (Trocki, 2006).

On the contrary, not all countries are so lucky as to experience such exponential growth at the hands of colonialism, and a large number of scholars see it as an extremely destructive process. Colonial power is often seen as an object of struggle and depends on the material, social, and cultural resources of those involved (Cooper, 1947). Furthermore, according to Fanon, colonization isn’t a bad thing due to moral judgment, but as a statement of the fact of material and cultural oppression by the colonial system (Fanon, 1961). These statements both focus on the idea that the exploitation of indigenous culture, goods, and social means are the most detrimental parts of the colonization mechanism. The exploitation of culture and goods has had long-lasting effects on some states and has altered the social, economic, and political structures intensely. This can be identified in the example of King Leopold’s brutal reign over the Democratic Republic of Congo.

There are not many topics within the history of Africa that have gained as much exposure as King Leopold’s Congo and show how a monarch’s greed and ambition to hold a colony in Africa has brought long-lasting destruction to the people of Congo (Almeida, 2019). Prior to Leopold’s rule, the Congo was a land full of history, its governmental structures were intricate and made up of kingdoms, chiefdoms, and trade, additionally, it was well-documented that the country was as civilized as Europe at the time (Johnson, 2014). However, none of these complex kingdoms could stop the scramble for Africa, which occurred during the late 1800s and divided the continent into forty colonies (Haslam et al. 2014), it was during this period that King Leopold’s rule and destruction began. A king on a ‘civilizing mission’ determined to expand his profits from rubber, ivory, and slaves in order to intensify his own power, but in doing so was responsible for the murder of 15 million Congolese people. His actions have caused ethnic conflicts, authoritarian regimes, and an exploitative economy that have lasted over a century (Johnson, 2014).

Today, the Democratic Republic of Congo is still haunted by its colonialist history, and it is apparent that weaker nations, like those in Africa, continue to remain in the grasp of stronger, European nations. The socio-political and ideological systems of the Congo were affected extensively (Ahmad, 2017) as well as the control and diminishment of local culture and customs. The imprint of colonialism can last for a long time, relating to the concept of ‘decolonizing the mind’, an idea put forward by writer Ngugi Wa Thiong’o explaining how the colonizer continues to reap the benefits from the colonialist period, whereas the colonized continue to bear a heavy burden long after these states have gained independence (Ahmad, 2017). Moreover, the colonization of states in Africa, such as the Congo, is described as a “monumental milestone in the development of Africa”, the influence of such atrocities is what many Africans today consider to be of greatest importance when accepting the current state of the continent and the conditions in which African’s live (Mudane, 2017). For this reason, the analysis of colonialism is extremely important so that one may comprehend the influence it has had on economic, social, and political developments today, as well as how Africans perceive themselves (Khapoya, 1994).

After researching extensively and honing in on a number of different opinions and examples, the overall theme of colonialism is a bad one. The case of the rapid development of Singapore gives the impression of being an anomaly, this is just one state that has managed to utilize Westernised methods and grow from its colonial past, and perhaps its successes may provide examples for other developing and developed countries (Trocki, 2006).

Colonialism has generated global inequality in a diverse number of ways (Acmemoglu et al. 2005) and although states have gained independence from their colonial rulers, colonialism still underpins the high levels of poverty and income inequality experienced throughout the world today (Frankema, 2006). Examples like the Democratic Republic of Congo which, even after almost 60 years of independence, is still home to millions of people that suffer due to dictatorships, uncontrolled use of resources, and low GDP per capita – all of which can be linked back to its colonial history.

“When the Missionaries arrived, the Africans had the land and the Missionaries had the Bible. They taught us how to pray with our eyes closed. When we opened them, they had the land and we had the Bible.” – Jomo Kenyatta, African Activist and the first President of Kenya.

During the American Revolution both the British and the Americans used spy tactics to help boost their side. America had overall more people working on their side than the British and the success of the American spied was a major reason that the colonies won the revolution.. The British also had many tactics and ways to get information from the colonies but they were also good at confusing the Americian army with the wrong information. Overall, American spy tactics were better during the revolution than British spy tactics.

During the revolution, there were many ways that Americans got information. “Spycraft during the American Revolution consisted of a complicated system of hidden networks, interpersonal relationships, scientific knowledge, personal cunning, guile and risk taking” (“Spy Techniques of the Revolutionary War”). Many different techniques were used in order to make if more complicated and harder for the British to figure out. The Culper spy ring was the most successful of the spy tactics. The code that they would use would be all numbers, every word would be given a number, names, places and very ordinary words would have a number. When the letter got to its destination it was decoded using a code sheet. If this fell into the British they would not be able to crack the code because they did not know what the numbers meant.

Having the Culper spy ring helped Washington send information to his other troops and members of the army, but when it came to getting information it was a hit or miss. British troops would make fake letters and hope that they would get intercepted by the Americans to throw them off and make them believe something else would be happening. British would also hide letters in hidden pockets or little silver balls but that did not work very well and those letters were mostly found and taken to washington. The British had tactics that helped them during the revolution but overall, the American army made better use of their resources and it helped fuel them in the revolution.

America also used women as spies which made a big impact considering that women were thought as useless during the revolution. When men in the army were around women they would openly talk about stop secrete things knowing that the women can not doing anything, little did they know that some of the woman who housed British soldiers were spies for the American army and would report back to the Contential Army and report what they heard. There were many women who were very successful in getting information and actually “women spies were more successful and better at hiding than their male counterparts” (Howat). One women Anna Smith Strong would hang clothes on a clothesline in her backyard and the order and colors of the items would mean different things. Nobody would suspect that clothes drying would mean anything. Lydia Barrington Darragh also helped by spying on the British that were being quartered in her house. She would bring them drinks or put wood on the fire and overhear what the British were talking about, she then would report to a patriot soldier and he would report to higher authority. The women who were American spies were rarely caught and made tremendous contributions to the American army.

In conclusion, the Americans were more successful as spies than the British. They used their recourses and were able to successfully get British information to help them prepare for the future. The British tactics had some success but the American army overall had more success.

In 1630 the Puritans and John Winthrop got ready to travel to New England. John Winthrop made sure to emphasize the importance of God. John also emphasized that God chose certain people to be rich and powerful while others were not and essentially the complete opposite meaning poor and helpless. That way the “better” and “stronger” people could show mercy to the lesser privileged only if they offered them their obedience. Whether you were rich or poor John made sure to remind the Puritans that all of them were summoned by god. They were summoned by god to work hard and to make sure that materialistic items never got in the way of their priority of spiritual devotion. Since spiritual devotion was so important to him and played a big part in their lives. The Puritans kept their work ethic and strong priority of religion foundation of American Values. The Puritans embraced the American newness. They took the idea of newness and made it their primary focus. Since John came, they no longer lived in the past, but they now lived with the constant idea that something new and better was always coming their way. For example, one of the big things they were waiting for was Christ’s second coming and his region on the world the Millennium. All this newness would bring a new chapter not only for New England but for world history.

Farmers in early New England faced hard times as did their families but as time went on things got easier. In the beginning Farmers and their families would be clearing rocks that sometimes would take sixty days of tough and excruciating labor for barely an acre to be cleared which is practically nothing. Their growing season was not much easier on them. For instance, their growing season was short especially compared to other colonies and areas and any crops that grew in the harsh climate was not at all stable and tended not to survive meaning they struggled a lot. Their cattle and crops were very similar to the English countryside. For example, they had wheat, oats, barley, pigs, sheep, and some cattle. Most of the New Englanders used the sea and everything it had to offer to make a living since that was the most stable thing they had. Codfish had been in their diet for centuries. Especially since their coast had the heaviest concentration of in the world for Codfish. There were also whales which helped them supply things like lighting and lubrication. The flourishing fishing industries helped the evolution of shipbuilding and transatlantic commerce. Fishing was one of their more successful sources of income. The rising incomes and trading with Britain and Europe soon brought trouble to the Puritans because it brought a taste for the finer things in life. The Puritans did not like this because their ideal living situation was simple and high thinking which was the opposite direction of where they were heading. Another one of their biggest successes was the forests and the ships. A big profit of money was the forests because you were able to use all different types of trees for different items, they had multiple uses. For example, the old-growth trees were prized because they were able to be used for ship masts and spars. In the beginning, the British government declared that the tallest trees, the straightest trees, the white pines, and oak were to be used for the Royal Navy, and at the same time the British officials persuaded the colonists to make their own shipbuilding industries. During this time American-made ships rapidly became known for the affordability and quality of their ships. Towards the end of the seventeen century, New England became a part of a complicated North Atlantic commercial network. They did not only trade with the North Atlantic but also with Spain, France, Portugal, the Netherlands, and their colonies which were often illegally done since they were not allowed to do that. Trading in the middle colonies, New England, and the South was all different. A big disadvantage was the lack of stable crops to exchange for English goods. Since their soil was so poor. One thing that did work in their favor however was the shipping and commercial enterprise. After 1660 the English government placed a prohibitive duty which is basically taxes to protect their agriculture and fisheries. For example, they placed taxes on fish, wheat, meat, flour, furs, whale oils, and timber which were more of their desired items. Between 1698-1717 New York bought more from England than they were delivering to them which made an unfair trade balance. New York was not happy about not having an equal export and import so with this came the triangular trade. The triangular trade is a system of trading that basically pays for its imports from one country by exporting items to another country. The middle colonies are between New England and the South which worked in the middle colonies’ favor. The middle colonies manufactured an abundance of food and other items for export to the slave-based areas in the South and West Indies. The Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna also known as the three great lakes and their tributaries gave access to the backcountry of New York, Pennsylvania, and a massive fur trade with the Native Americans.

All these effects played a big part in the growth of New England. The economy plays a big part in every colony. Knowing the difficulties that New England went through really opens your eyes to see how far not only they have come but also all the other colonies. It’s hard to imagine living in those times when things weren’t as simple as they are now. Since farming was not quite successful in New England most of the settlers ran businesses. Some aspects that made New England unique were all the trading opportunities, their fishing, manufacturing, and their harbors. New England took advantage of what they knew they could offer. They figured out what was able to work for them and what didn’t. They adapted to their situations since their soil was poor. They knew they could not plant much but they were able to learn that they could grow things such as pumpkins, squash, beans, and rye. All these things that New England went through brought them to where they are now. All the newness that New England learned brought many opportunities and a new beginning.

The diversity of the United States traces back to its beginning when the northern and southern colonies were established. Northern states were established by travelers who needed religious opportunity, while southern settlements were established to grant homesteaders open doors for land possession established northern states. Their differences in political, social, and financial issues have shaped our nation into what we are today. In any case, such contrasts caused struggle and an absence of understanding that in the long run prompted the Revolutionary War.

One significant contrast between the North and the South, and one most in charge of the Civil War, was the organization of servitude. In the North, slavery was generally prohibited by the 1800s, while the institution was a foundation of Southern society. In the North, numerous blacks were free, and in states such as Massachusetts, New York, and Ohio, one hundred percent of the black population was free. Under the conditions of the Confederacy, on the other hand, few blacks were free. Virginia was the most notably proportionate in its ratio of free black to slaves, with only nine percent of the state’s black population freed. The Emancipation Proclamation would eventually kill subjugation, yet for the main portion of the century, the issue partitioned the North and the South(Wandrei).

The Northern soil and atmosphere favored littler farmsteads as opposed to huge manors. Industry prospered, energized by more abundant natural assets than in the South, and numerous large urban communities were set up. Between 1800 and 1860, the percentage of laborers working in horticultural interests dropped from 70% to only 40% (North and South). Servitude had ceased to longer exist, supplanted in the urban areas and production lines by immigrant labor from Europe. Immigration to the United States increased dramatically between 1840 and 1860. American manufacturers welcomed the immigrants, many of whom could and would work for long hours and receive low pay increasing production rates.

The rich soil and warm atmosphere of the South made it perfect for huge-scale ranches and yields like tobacco and cotton. Since agriculture was so profitable few Southerners saw the requirement for modern advancement. One-tenth of Southerners lived in urban areas and transportation between cities was difficult, except by water. Only 35% of the nation’s train tracks were located in the South. A slightly smaller percentage of white Southerners were literate than their Northern counterparts, and Southern children tended to spend less time in school (North and South).

The quick extension of American culture in the main portion of the nineteenth century put new requests on the political framework. For the first time, interest group politics came to the fore, denoting the coming of current legislative issues in America. A few gatherings were not yet part of the political framework: endeavors to verify women’s suffrage fizzled, and free African Americans stayed oppressed in numerous places in the North. Be that as it may, this period likewise observed probably the best burst of reformism in American history. This change was both an endeavor to finish the incomplete plans of the progressive time frame and a push to take care of the issues presented by the ascent of industrial facility work and fast urbanization. It laid the basis for social developments, such as social equality and women’s activist developments, that have still great power over American culture today.

1. Wandrei, K. (2018, June 24). Differences in the Northern & Southern States in the 1800s. Retrieved October 4, 2019, from https://classroom.synonym.com/differences-northern-southern-states-1800s-20845.html.
2. North and South. (2018, October 18). Retrieved October 4, 2019, from https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/north-and-south.

Virginia was the first colony. It all started in 1607 with the founding of Jamestown. Its capital was Jamestown until 1699 when it was renamed Williamsburg. For the time being, James I got their charter revoked and declared it a crown colony. Due to its allegiance to the crown during the Commonwealth of England, it was later dubbed ‘The Old Dominion.’ Massachusetts was the next settlement, and it merged with the Plymouth colony to form the Province of Massachusetts. While many of the governors and officials were Puritans, all faiths were accepted. William Penn established the colony of Pennsylvania in 1681. It had a well-organized government, with a governor, proprietor, big legislature, and Assembly. Charles II reissued the charter in 1663, awarding the Province to his eight Lord Proprietors who aided in his restoration. Since the two regions of the colony had entirely independent governments and cultures, the province was gradually divided into two colonies. Finally, Georgia was the last and farthest south colony, established in 1732. General James Oglethorpe founded the colony as a haven for debtors.

In 1628, John Winthrop founded Massachusetts as a New England Colony. Virginia was created in 1607 by King James I. Jamestown was the state’s first settlement. Boston and Salem, Massachusetts’ first two towns, were established around the same time. Massachusetts and Virginia were also royal colonies. While the economies of Massachusetts and Virginia were based on separate commodities, each colony thrived in its own unique way. The state of Virginia was built on the fact that land was abundant, but labor was scarce. One factor that aided Massachusetts’ economy was the ability to cut out the ‘middleman’ of a trade by using their own boats and traders.

Tobacco was their most valuable resource due to Virginia’s fertile ground. Thanks to the mild atmosphere and abundant rainfall, Virginia’s land was extremely fertile. There were plenty of staples in Virginia to sell for English products. While the Massachusetts colony lacked staples for exchange, it had great rivers for trade with other nations. Virginia was an Anglican colony at the time. William Berkeley, the Governor of Virginia, decreed in 1642 that the colony’s whole population be Anglican. The inhabitants of the Massachusetts colonies were mostly Puritans, but they practiced a ‘purified’ kind of the Anglican Church. Believers in Massachusetts challenged the government, which was suppressed in the 1630s and again in the 1650s. Since their land was less fertile, Massachusetts had fewer slaves. In contrast to slaves in the South, slaves in Massachusetts had a more peaceful way of life.

Finally, in Virginia, English manors were converted into southern plantations, and in Massachusetts, the New England village was transformed into the New England region. The «colonial» model originated in Virginia in the seventeenth century. People in Massachusetts used to dwell in teepees or caves. Because of the snowy winters in Massachusetts, they had very steep roofs that were coated in grasses. New England homes, like the Virginia Mansions, were built around a fireplace by the end of the seventeenth century and had glass windows.

The arrival of Europeans changed the map of people’s settlements in America. Now it is difficult to find an area where the ethnic regions at least coincide with the former borders of initial settlements. Ethnic processes were different in various parts of America. They were influenced not only by changes in population but also by the socioeconomic development of various regions of America. Often the nature of the formation of ethnic relations also depended on it. Nevertheless, in many ways, the arrival of Europeans contributed to the structure of the nation, its changes, or death. The success of a country in the process of colonization of the New World can only be determined by one factor: how well the colonized territory is functioning now, how progressive the processes of development of the colonized territory are, and how products in the modern world are a colonized country.

Of course, the Spanish and Portuguese colonization can be considered one of the most extensive socio-political and economic processes of the 15-16 centuries. The entire territory of Latin America was burned, colonized, and the Spanish Empire itself was lit up at the expense of the enslaved peoples. But it is not relevant to consider colonization to be successful if it led to the extermination of the ethnic group in a particular territory in order to temporarily enrich the metropolis. If, in retrospect, we look at the development of Latin and Central American countries, they do not impress with their economic success but rather have the reputation of weak agrarian countries that have not been able to overcome the crisis that occurred in the Middle Ages.

The processes of the initial colonization were determined by two factors: the natural resources of conquering areas as a value to the invaders, and the level of social development of the local population. “Conquest in the first sense gave primacy to the occupation and exploitation of the land.” (Bethell, 152) It was necessary to define whether people could be used in the mines and sugar plantations as labor. It was an extensive global campaign of Spanish colonization, which did not produce any positive results in the future.

Until the 1580s, colonization did not occupy the minds of the British. Philosophers and publicists focused on the problems of the Reformation and royal power, as well as on the intense social processes within Britain itself. The stabilization of the political situation under Elizabeth I, the expedition of Francis Drake and other corsairs, the confrontation with the Spaniards, and the commercial successes of English merchants changed this situation. Elizabethan intellectuals finally drew attention to the New World. Publicists sought to spread interest in colonization at court and among influential merchants. They felt that their interests in capturing power over America were late, so they inevitably lost to the Catholics (Spain and Portugal). They also suggested that most of England’s internal problems are rooted in this lateness.

At first glance, the idea of ​​enslaving new lands was no different from the Spanish. Consequently, in the future, it also could prove to be unsuccessful and destructive for England. But the bottom line is that ardent supporters of English rule drew their knowledge from the colonial experience of other countries. They learned from them what to do in the New World, what can be achieved there, and in what ways. It was the negative experience of Spanish colonization that helped the British avoid mistakes. That is, being the second number in this game turned out to be strategically more successful. The system developed by English settlers was far different from the Spanish/Portuguese. (Faro, 7) The term “conquest” borrowed from the arsenal of Catholic kings was far from the attribute of colonization. Hence, for the Dutch, the main principle of colonial ownership was trade, while the Portuguese insisted that they own the New World by the right of discoverers. In the case of Spain, conquest was the primary tool for both the implementation and justification of colonization.

It was not just an act of war. It presupposed a developmental protocol, which included the mandatory reading of the special text “Requirements”, in which the indigenous people were invited to voluntarily recognize the power of the Spanish monarchy, the pope, and the Catholic Church. In this case, the natives retained freedom and even could not convert to Catholicism for long. In case of failure, the conquerors promised to enslave and destroy all who stand in their way. In most of the cases, “the demographic catastrophe that had overtaken the indigenous inhabitants of Hispaniola had another and more immediately potent effect”, as natives didn’t have much desire to cope with new rulers. (Bethell, 168)

English, colonizers relied on social groups which had existed before their arrival. (Farrow, 300) Commerce was indeed a matter of concern to the English merchants and many nobles, an indicator of the success of the colonial enterprise. But the idea of ​​trading did not belong to the Spaniards. They subjugated the local population and forced them to pay taxes while seizing wealth in the form of costly metals and vast lands for plantations. Trade was the cornerstone of two other powers of that time – Portugal and Holland.

Trade in the colonies was not only to bring net profit, but also to help strengthen the position of England, and reduce its dependence on Spanish tobacco, Portuguese sugar, hemp, and other goods from the Moscow kingdom. This mercantilist approach ignored the rhetoric of the conquest or citizenship of the indigenous people but was directly related to the patriotic upsurge that engulfed England when people turned their attention to the colonies.

English colonization can be called successful due to the relations of the colonists with the local population. In fact, the relationships between the English colonists and the indigenous population developed exceptionally unfavorably. Although, from the first years of colonization, the idea of ​​Indians as the real owners of North America, whose lands can be acquired by white settlers only by agreement, was quite popular. The inhabitants of Jamestown and New Plymouth managed to survive the first winters after moving to the New World, thanks to the help of the Indians. But, unfortunately, this did not become the key to their good relations in the following years. Despite extremely unstable relations, the British did not behave like the Spaniards, and their goal was not the total destroy indigenous peoples by fire and sword in case of disobedience. The British were more diplomatic and peaceful. The English colonization can be considered successful due to the attempt to maintain relations with the indigenous people as well as the idea of ​​living together profitably.

The colonial conquest of Latin America by Spain remains a painful wound in the minds of the Native people to this day. Mexico, as the central follower of the Spanish colonization, is not a successful country and has many negative stereotypes, including ones related to crime. In many respects, this spread to all the countries where the leg of the Spanish colonists stepped. After all, the imposed structure and way of life led to the death of the rich indigenous nations of South America. The situation is different in the United States right now. The USA is the world’s leading country and the central supplier of globalization in the world. North America was strategically a successful project for colonists. That is why the English colonization can be considered successful.

Works Cited

1. Bethell, Leslie. The Cambridge History of Latin America. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1984.
2. Ferro, Mark. Colonization: A Global History. Routledge, 1997.

Christianity is the religion of empires central to how they function, which leads to many situations like global conflict and the rise of multiple different religious movements. The British Empire is a primarily protestant nation that would become the largest Empire in Europe with its influence spreading far out past Europe. The British Empire’s influence in their multiple colonies leads to North America primarily being a Protestant colony. The Spanish Empire was the most powerful empire at the time and they had spread their religion and beliefs throughout the colonies like New Spain. At the time, the main way religion is spread through the colonies is through different settlers from the Empires that aspire to expand Christianity in the New World. So the difference is how the Empires differ in their set of beliefs, which the British Empire is Protestant and the Spanish Empire is Catholic. Once the Empires move on to these different lands, they would either get pushback from the Natives of that land or they would push back against the Natives for not assimilating to the culture the Empires would provide. Both Empires differ in the way they treat these Natives with the English settlers being more violent and the Spanish settlers being more peaceful. Puritans are members of a group of English Protestants of the late 16th and 17th centuries who had regarded the Reformation of the Church of England under Elizabeth as not complete and had sought to simplify forms of worship that would also be regulated. Satanic is a phrase where some Natives are called for being evil or “unholy.” In New Spain, there’s a bond between the Spanish Empire and the Natives with the “Virgin of Guadalupe” which is the patron saint of what is known today as Mexico. There is a clear division between how the Catholic settlers and how the Protestant settlers view the Natives in ways like how the different settlers handle the language situation, how they were viewed by the different settlers which are seen through actions like marriage or violence, and the effect of the entire integration of its religion into Native society.

Language is a form of communication different throughout many areas because of a group of people’s culture. The Protestant Puritans, refused to respect the Native language so they attempt to forcefully integrate English into the Native culture as they viewed the Native language as savagery. There are some English settlers that attempt to spread Christianity in a peace that allows the Native’s culture to flourish while Christianity could still be a major force in the region in which there were a few early colonists that thought of attempting to spread Christianity among the Native American population in which they would take their time to learn and analyze their languages. This shows the minority of the English settlers that want to integrate their beliefs peacefully disturbing none of the Native American cultures, but most of these English settlers want the Natives to speak English. While the Spanish settlers want the Natives to keep their language and their culture but to apply Christianity along with it, which leads to a decree of synthesis between Christianity and what it allowed to survive in Native culture. Unlike the Protestants who had insisted that Native Americans use English for cult and predication, Spanish Catholic missionaries privileged native languages. This shows how the Spanish settlers want to integrate Christianity in the most peaceful way possible into the Native population but would allow the Natives to keep their identity and culture which is the opposite of how the English settlers had handled the language situation in Native American society.

The different settlers also view the Natives in a different light with the English settlers viewing them as being “Satanic” while the Spanish settlers also view them as “Satanic” people but they would marry and would want to integrate Catholicism into the Native’s society as peacefully as possible. The Natives would be able to “keep” their culture with no potential violent repercussions. “Satanic” is defined as “extremely evil or wicked which is also tied to Satan.” The English settlers had thought the Satanic part of the Natives was too ingrained into the Natives to convert them. Spanish settlers had viewed the Natives as “redeemable from the influence of the devil.” The Patronato shows this through how the Spanish had promised the Pope that they would convert the Natives to Catholicism in exchange for the Pope forgoing all claims of jurisdiction over New Spain. The Spanish would also attempt to combine the cultures in ways like how “they would be very willing to strike marriage alliances with members of the local elites in contrast with the attitudes of the Protestant English colonists in North America that would resort to violence and forceful integration. This shows how the Spanish handle the Natives while also showing how the English are doing the opposite of what the Protestant English settlers are doing. The English settlers treat the Natives as lower than life and that they were sent from Satan to corrupt the world the English would state “The Indian religion was witchcraft and satanic inversion.” (Pg. 2) This is proof of why the English settlers want to massacre all the Native Americans as they are viewed as being evil. Marriage and violence are the main differences between how both of the settlers handle Natives that would not assimilate into the culture and religion of the settlers.

While both of the Native societies deal with the disease spread by the settlers which kill a lot of Natives, they differ in how the settlers would help to fix the broken societies. The English settlers do nothing to help the Native Americans that are affected by the settlers while the Catholic Spanish realized that because of the traumas of the conquest and epidemics caused by them, they must show that there were good things in the new religion that was handed to them. “Frequently, they turned their catechisms into song.” (Pg. 4) The Spanish wanted to paint Catholicism as a peaceful religion to the Natives so they would more be incentivized to adopt Catholicism. While both different settlers would handle the “Native situation” in different ways, they would both cause immense harm to the environment and the Native population overall

The original colonists of America believed in the right of revolution. They believed that the people had an obligation to revolt and become independent from their rulers, their rulers had become tyrants. They also believed that in these circumstances, the people must declare the causes which impelled them to the separation of Great Britain. When the colonists declared independence from Britain they listed several cases of abuse in the Declaration of Independence to prove to the world their reason to fight for independence was justified. Specifically, the colonists argued that Britain had prevented self-governance in the colonies, their rights, freedoms, and had begun to attempt to suppress the colonists by using physical force. However, King George was actually a just ruler, and oftentimes, it was the colonists who failed to see the rationale behind his decisions; therefore, the colonists fought against a non-existent tyranny, and the American Revolution was unjustifiable.

The Colonist Called these the Intolerable Acts, Up until the time of the Seven Years War (French-Indian War), the colonies were fairly independent and self-governing. The Proclamation Act of 1763 was one of the first mandates that the British Parliament forced upon the American colonists. The act created an invisible border along the Appalachian Mountains that the American colonists could not cross without having the permission of the British government. The goal was to limit immigration to the west until new agreements could be made with the Native Americans, who Britain wanted to prevent another war with and to protect business ventures such as the fur trade. This restriction came as a surprise to the American colonists, who felt that they deserved to settle this land after winning the war. To add insult to injury, the British Parliament, which was suffering from a huge amount of debt as a result of fighting the French, decided to tax the colonists to recoup their expense.

The Sugar Act of 1764, also known as the Revenue Act, was the first attempt by the British Parliament to raise revenue from the colonists. This act was basically a tax on trade–items that were brought into the colonies including sugar, tea, coffee, wine, etc. The Act also allowed British officials, without court approval, to take goods they believed to be smuggled. Merchants who were believed to have been smuggling were considered guilty until evidence proved they were innocent, and they could not take legal action when their goods were unethically taken. Later in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act as another way of lowering their debt. This Act banned paper money in the colonies since paper money did not have the same lasting value as non-paper money did. Both these Acts angered the American colonists, but it was the colonial leaders who were most upset because these Acts lowered the amount of money circulating in the colonies and limited some of their self-governing power. This started a propaganda war calling for “No taxation with representation” that helped fuel the fire that eventually became a revolution.

In 1765, as a way to further raise money, the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act. Calling for stamps to be placed on almost all printed materials, including those produced in the American colonies, this tax “was the first direct tax Britain had ever placed on the colonists”. It was the Stamp Act that spurned a group that became known as the Sons of Liberty. Protests and riots broke out against the Stamp Act and a boycott of the stamps, and products imported from Britain, helped to force Parliament to repeal the Act in 1766. In order to help enforce their Acts and have a stronger presence in the colonies, the Quartering Act was passed. This act not only made colonists pay more money for the protection Britain was giving them at the time, but it also allowed British soldiers to stay in the colonist’s houses, or in public buildings, with the colonists paying for their room and board.

Though they gave in a repealed the Stamp Act, Parliament asserted it’s power in the colonies by passing the Declaratory Act, reinforcing Britain’s right to enact laws governing the colonists; which they did almost immediately. In 1767, failing to understand the forces at work in the colonies, Britain enacted the Townshend Acts and found their exports to the colonies reduced yet again due to another boycott. The Townshend Acts included the Revenue Act of 1767, which again placed a tax on imported goods, such as paper, paint, tea. Much like the Sugar Act, the Townshend Acts “allowed officials to seize private property under certain circumstances without following due process”.

The resistance in the colonies grew even louder and stronger, and Britain’s response was to send additional forces to Boston, which further increased tension. Eventually, the tension boiled over, leading to a confrontation that killed five people. Colonial figures, such as Sam Adams and Paul Revere, used this event they called the Boston Massacre, to stir up anger against Britain. Other events such as the Gaspee Affair and the Boston Tea Party followed pushing King George to his limit. He decided that “The colonies must either submit or triumph!”.

After the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed Coercive and Quebec Acts that essentially took power away from the colonists, especially in Massachusetts, by shutting down their ports, limiting their right to self-governance, and reestablishing the Quartering Act. These acts, “violated several traditional English rights, including the right to trial by a jury of one’s peers”. The Quebec Act centralized government in Canada. After more than a decade of actions deemed unbearable by the American colonists, these “Intolerable” Acts made them decide that enough was enough. The First Continental Congress, with delegates from all the colonies, except Georgia, met in Philadelphia in September of 1774. They adopted a resolution that opposed the “Intolerable” Acts and asserted their Declaration of Rights and Grievances; an exercise that ultimately laid the foundation for the Declaration of Independence.

What started with a number of Acts that may have initially seem reasonable by the British lead to an idea; an idea that America deserved to be a nation independent of outside rule. A small rebellion against taxation and loss of power turned into a full-blown revolution known today as the American Revolution; changing the course of history forever.

The title of the novel comes from W.B. Yeat’s coming descriptor for the chaos that was made in the modern period through the collision between tradition and modern culture cause to a kind of cultural trauma because Nigerian people demand the recognition of their traditional culture. Achebe compared the poem to the situation of Igbo culture that transformed from their violent male tradition to the colonial powers in the 20th century. In Things Fall Apart, people criticized colonial powers who governed their state. They show their inner anxiety about losing their dignity during the colonial period.

The novel shows the Igbo values before the European colonial powers. entered the village: they have their own culture, values, and dignity. and their consolidation with other cultures. They were resisting the Western government and Christianity. Things Fall Apart described the Igbo land which was located in the Eastern region of Nigeria between (1850- 1900). the period that is just prior to the colonial time and after coming white men to Nigeria. Umuofia and Mbanta are the settings of the novel, the two main villages in a combination of the ‘nine villages’. The fiction consists of three parts: the first and most important part is the description of Umuofia before the white men came. The second part displays Okonkwo’s exile to Mbanta where his mother’s village as a result of his sin does it against the earth goddess. It also describes the coming of the white man to the nine villages and how they initially established the Church, government, and trading system and gradually, exploited the traditional ways of tribal life. The third part portrays the struggle between change and tradition that has influenced the villagers than the death of the tribal system also the death of Okonkwo. (Killam 514) Immediately Achebe introduced the complex laws and customs of the Umuofian tribe and their tolerance of each other. The novel focus on Okonkwo who’s the protagonist of the novel his character is revealed through fiction. He is the greatest warrior in the Umuofian clan and the villagers respected him for his braveness and brought honor to his village by achieving victory in a wrestling competition. While he resists the new political and religious system of the White men so, he didn’t want to become a betrayed man and lose his social status. He was controlled under the laws and norms of traditional society.

Some complex laws and customs of Umuofian caused to create a number of outcasts and a number of villagers who convert to Christianity during the colonial period. As kill of Ikemefuna and the twin newborns have a great impact on Nwyoe who is Okonkwo’s son which destroyed his inner side and causes him to convert to Christianity. The people of the village have been captured between two religions so, they tried to know which of them is better in order to adapt. Moreover, Achebe points out the appearance of European colonists and the unfaithfulness practicing of colonialism throughout the novel in three phases. The initial phase, is articulated when Okonkwo in his second year of exile his friend Obierika visits him and tells him about the white man’s arrival to their clan. ‘The elders consulted their Oracle and it told them that the strange man would break their clan and spread destruction among them And so they killed the white man and tied his iron horse to their sacred tree’ (P.138). Obierika also said ‘I forgot to tell you another thing which the Oracle said. It said that other white men were on their way. They were locusts.'(P.138 39). The second phase of imperialism was during the second visit of Obierika to Mbanta ‘When nearly two years later Obierika paid another visit to his friend in exile the circumstances were less happy. The missionaries had come to Umuofia.: They had built their church there; won a handful of converts and were already sending evangelists to the surrounding towns and village’ (P.143). The third phase is the occurrence of white government; they imposed their power in the villages and established their government but their judicial system in the villages lead to destruction rather than progress. The narrator comments fearfulness ‘But stories were already gaining ground that the white man had not only brought a religion but also a government. It was said that they had built a place of judgment in Umuofia to protect the followers’ religion’ (P.155)

In Things Fall Apart, the main themes focus on the clash between two different cultures as a result of colonialism which causing to achieve the concept of multiculturalism. Achebe doesn’t merely portray the Western culture but also the customs and laws of subcultures. Each village has its own laws and customs. As Umuofian clan takes Ikemfuna and a virgin girl instead of a murdered Umufian woman. Ikemefuna’s culture disliked them. through bringing different folk tales which were exciting to villagers. Colonialism caused the reshaping of the African continent in terms of religion, ideology, economy, politics, and society, as Achebe, highlighted in his fiction. The writer portrays the locusts as a symbol of colonizers that descended upon the village that locust was a metaphor for the arrival of the European colonizers who will exploit the Igbo values and cut off the villagers from their own roots and culture. In fact, the villagers rejoice about the arrival of locusts because they are used as a resource for their food. In contrast, in Christianity locusts are the symbol of destruction and ruin so, Achebe choose it as a symbol of the coming imperialism that changed everything and convert the people to Christianity. Throughout the novel the phrase ‘they settled’ repeats as it is an allegorical phrase that the colonizer appeared suddenly though they became a harmful settler for changing the Igbo culture and took the benevolent interests of Africa.

The writer explicitly uses the locusts again as it was attention for coming to the white man when Obieka’s talked to Okonkwo that ‘ the Oracle. said that the other white man was on their way. They were locusts’. Achebe describes locusts that they are so heavy they break the branches of trees as a symbol that the Igbo culture and tradition break down by colonialism and white settlement. In his fictional world, he introduces the first European missionary who came to Abame village and presented a tragic event where the villagers killed the white man because their oracle told them that they would bring destruction to Abame. However, the villagers didn’t understand anything about the white man and his religion. Here, Achebe highlights the customs and religion of his traditional culture who obeyed the orders of their oracle and they couldn’t correlate with the Western culture because they are zealous to their culture and values. Thus, Achebe through the end of the novel displays the events that would happen as a result of colonialism that create a collision such as the Igbo culture couldn’t endure the Western culture. Moreover, as the missionary first arrives in Mbanta, they look for a king (P.138).

But the villagers said that they don’t have a king thus the colonizer didn’t find anyone in the village to work with them so, imperialists established their own system by taking assistance from the government to set up their district commission and native court messengers. Moreover, those who are foreigners and live in Nigeria but they did not belong to Africa witnessed the bad treatment of imperialism thus they traveled and leave Nigeria. The novel indicates that the foreigners recognize the unfaithfulness of the district commission with the villagers. government imposes its power in Nigeria exploiting the opportunity of not having a governmental system, the villagers depend on the elders and worthy men of their clan. So, Igbo was unhappy with their new system, therefore, they have a democratic tribal system in which the elders in the village gathered together for making decisions about the problems that would happen in their village thus the clan elders ruled the village. Each man has been evaluated by his own value ‘according to his worth’ rather than ‘to the worth of his father’. Although Achebe wants to describe their own people and system how they are tolerant of each other that merely Europeans saw them as a savage or uncivilized society. He thinks that his own culture and religion were much better than the Europeans who came to convert them. Such as, Uchendo talked to Oknokwo about the arrival of white men and he said ‘What is good among one people is an abomination with others’ (P.104). Here, Achebe exposure to imperialist power and displays their conversations when they confronted the colonized people. When the white man arrived, he criticizes the Igbo’s customs and religion and said that their gods are not true at all, they worship false gods the gods of wood and stone and their customs are bad (P.135). But Igbo tradition was unlike Europeans, they believe that ‘It is good that a man should worship the gods and spirits of his fathers’ (P.139) therefore, they have to worship the gods of their ancestral even if they are not Igbo god. The writer described both religions of colonizers and colonized people as a result of colliding two diverse cultures. In European tradition, men fight against their brothers over religious issues however, Igbo tradition doesn’t allow their people to kill each other, it is a crime against the earth goddess and they have to be punished. Further, the European holy wars proved that men struggle with each other over religion but in Igbo, it’s an abomination to kill a member of the clan rather it’s a problem between the man and the god means that their personal Gods decided for them (P.148). In Mbanta, the Christian missionary’

The central issues of Achebe’s fiction were political and religious violence. He portrays through depending on characters that they are enthusiastic about their religion. In all of Achebe’s novels, spiritual issues are obvious even, if he indirectly presented but he had connected to social conflict or political power. Incompatibility between the two cultures begins with the arrival of European imperialism and religion was the first issue to focus on in order to convert Igbo to Christianity. When the white man first arrived at Mbanta, he told the villagers that all of them have one god and belong to one god and all of them died and ‘went before him for judgment. Also that he has been sent by god to tell them that your gods are false so it’s better to leave your religion. He explains Christianity but he couldn’t convince all of them, the villagers make a mockery and Okonkwo thought that he was a madman. Nevertheless, the young Nwoye had been attracted by the poetry of the new religion which is taughtThe central issues of Achebe’s fiction were political and religious violence. He portrays through depending on characters that they are enthusiastic about their religion. In all of Achebe’s novels, spiritual issues are obvious even, if he indirectly presented but he had connected to social conflict or political power. Incompatibility between the two cultures begins with the arrival of European imperialism and religion was the first issue to focus on in order to convert Igbo to Christianity. When the white man first arrived at Mbanta, he told the villagers that all of them have one god and belong to one god and all of them died and ‘went before him for judgment. Also that he has been sent by god to tell them that your gods are false so it’s better to leave your religion. He explains Christianity but he couldn’t convince all of them, the villagers make a mockery and Okonkwo thought that he was a madman. Nevertheless, the young Nwoye had been attracted by the poetry of the new religion which is taught.

Igbo community identity is a result of the influence and the changes that they have brought them. The cultural and religious collision had a fond impact on the Igbo who suddenly had to find their way to assimilate into the new system and also according to the rules of imposed power they have to reshape their identity. They were caught between two worlds the English and the Africans who couldn’t find their way to be absorbed into the Western system and culture. However, the colonial system throws out the old traditions and imposes their culture and religion over them thus the Igbo couldn’t cut off their relations with their roots and old traditions. Moreover, it is difficult for Igbo to block their culture and religion suddenly. This is the whole issue that Okonkwo and Obi couldn’t institute a way to deal with Western system which was replaced by the old Nigerian system. They confronted the colonizer’s rules and they aren’t able to keep work on within. The pressures that come from the cultural collision and the identity cause Okonkwo to commit suicide because whatever he believed in before was destroyed by a European power. However, Obi didn’t kill himself but society stopped trusting him anymore. Besides that, he has lost his status in society and became a betrayer man. In his second novel, Achebe describes the reaction of the second generation against the Western target in Nigeria. In fact, many Africans flourish at that time by preserving some values of their old traditions. Gikandi has discussed that ‘One of the key themes in this novel is Nigeria’s search for a national idiom that might express its collective will’ (Reading 81). It is difficult to obtain the idea of collective will throughout this dilemma however, it depends on the second colonized generation to determine how much of their values be maintained in the colonial and postcolonial environments. The second generation after colonization seems different from the first generation, they wanted to get things easily and have little religion although, they were not so zealous in their own culture. Even though Obi’s generation returned back to their old traditions, they eat foods on their fingers as they claimed that it tastes better. However, they are not afraid as the first generation to call them uncivilized people. They adopted the traditions of Christianity so, the first chapter ends with Christianity’s motion ‘Praise God from whom all blessings flow’ Then Obi’s family and friends pressed their presents and money to him. According to Christianity’s interpretation that these gifts have spiritual relations and bring goodness and blessing to him. However, These gifts foreshadow Obi’s downfall. Western ideas could be easily accommodated into the African culture such as the ideas of ‘gift giving’, ‘tipping’, and money exchange so, the narrator discusses that it is difficult to make a distinction between gifts and bribery in the modern period.

The United States holds one of the most diverse societies in the world. For thousands of years, people have traveled to America for new opportunities. Settlers in the British colonies had the same aspirations, yet they accomplished their goals unethically by capturing slaves. The barrier between social classes was a result of racial prejudice. Race was a fundamental division of humanity in the British Colonies.

Indentured servants were some of the first laborers in the colonies. The concept of indentured servitude was created due to a requirement for intensive labor (Ballagh 2001). The first colonists did not want to perform the labor necessary to keep their plantations running (Abramitzky 2006). The Virginia Company romanticized the idea of indentured servitude to draw in laborers (Ballagh 2001). The Virginia Company was two joint stock companies contracted under King James I (Abramitzky 2006). They had the objective of building settlements on the shore of North America (Morgan 1975). Within the colonies, the Virginia Company had the ability to designate a Council of Leaders, a Governor, and different authorities (Brown 1996). It also equipped colonists with supplies and ships for their voyages (Brown 1996). Indentured servants wound up being crucial to the economy of the colonies (Brown 1996). The Thirty Years’ War had left Europe’s economy in ruins, and numerous people were left unemployed (Abramitzky 2006). The Thirty Years’ War was a seventeenth-century war that began in central Europe (Nagl 2017). The war lasted from 1618 to 1648 (Morgan 1975). The war commenced due to the fight between the Catholic and Protestant states that shaped the Holy Roman Empire (Tomlins 2008). The Thirty Years’ War allowed greater economic opportunities in the New World which explains why 55% of immigrants who went to the British colonies arrived as indentured servants (Nagl 2017). In return for a passage to America, indentured servants normally worked for four to seven years (Brown 1996). An indentured servant’s contract could be extended as a result of breaking a law, like fleeing (Nagl 2017). The relationship between indentured servants and their masters was different from that of slaves (Tomlins 2008). There were laws that ensured some of the servants’ fundamental rights to protect their well-being (Nagl 2017). Indentured servants were treated more humanely due to the color of their skin.

For the first generation of colonists, indentured servitude was successful. It created a workforce free of cost which assisted many business owners in the colonies (Nagl 2017). It helped reduce their costs which allowed them to maximize their profit in their business venture (Nagl 2017). However, over time indentured servants became weak (O’Reilly 2015) Their level of production lowered due to illnesses and fatigue. (O’Reilly 2015) This decline of indentured servitude led the way for the rise of slavery. Slavery began gradually as the English colonies developed. African slaves’ role in the slave trade advanced and slaves became accessible throughout the British colonies.

Historically, slavery has transpired over the whole world. Its roots can be traced back to the sub-Saharan African Iron Age kingdoms. These African kingdoms were situated in a period in African history between the second century AD and 1000 AD, where iron refining was practiced (Evans 2019). Iron refining was an integral source of money in these kingdoms. Slaves were needed to bolster the production of iron and without them, the benefit of trading iron would not be the same (Evans 2019). Chattel slavery, traditional slavery where one human is another human’s property, was used under the African kingdoms, the Muslim imperial empire, and Christian Europeans (Foner 2012). Powerful empires use slaves to expand their territory. Throughout the 1400s to 1900s, nearly 20 million people were taken from the mainland of Africa during four sizable and similar slave trading operations: the Red Sea, Trans-Saharan, Trans-Atlantic, and Indian Ocean (Herschthal 2019). While some slave trading expeditions did utilize white slaves or indentured servants, the overlying similarity between these various slave trading expeditions highlights the division of race between people of European descent and Africans in society.

When the Atlantic slave trade began, a significant number of local slave frameworks started providing prisoner slaves for slave markets outside Africa. The Middle Passage was part of the Atlantic slave trade where nearly 12.5 million enslaved Africans were forcibly moved to the New World (Wolfe 2017). The need for menial labor increased as businesses in the colonies needed human labor, yet lacked the workforce necessary (Wolfe 2017). This forced the Europeans to look for other options and thus chose slaves as their workforce in the colonies (Klein 1999). The Europeans often traded guns for slaves (Klein 1999). Trading between the African people and the Europeans granted African slave owners bargaining power with the Europeans (Eltis 2002). The coastal slave market leaders had access to advanced methods of protection compared to neighboring inland tribes, who still possessed primitive weaponry (Thorton 1998). The coastal slave owners acted as middlemen between the Europeans and inland African nations (Wolfe 2017). Europeans were not able to enter Africa and capture slaves due to their lack of immunity against African diseases (Wolfe 2017). European ships carrying goods ventured to Africa once the Africans were captured (Thorton 1998). The goods were exchanged, such as sugar, rice, tobacco, indigo, rum, and many other materials, for the African people (Wolfe 2017). The Middle Passage served an important role in the roots of British-American slavery. Without the Middle Passage, the economical growth of the British colonies would have been significantly lower (Anne 2005). The Middle Passage created a medium that allowed Europeans to easily transfer slaves from Africa to the British-American colonies. The Middle Passage led to a division of race and social class in the British-American colonies that did not exist prior to the introduction of slaves.

Between all the colonies, race was a major factor that caused a serious division of humanity and culture. It provided the foundation for the colonization of the New World, the enslavement of Africans, and a common identity among ethnically and religiously diverse Europeans. The idea of race merged with aims to control land and labor, which created a unified prejudice towards Africans.