Category: American Colonies

The people who came to America from Great Britain were hoping for a better life. The Puritans were searching for a life of practicing their religion freely and hoping for economic opportunity. People came from other parts of the world but primarily Great Britain at the beginning of the colonization of North America. The settlers from Britain to North America presented a dual identity in terms of various factors. They came to America expecting to be free to practice their religion and expecting to have more freedom in developing a new culture in this new country, influenced by but not duplicating the way of life of the British. The other colonists were Catholics, Protestants, and later Quakers who wanted to make religious practice more open.

As British pioneer settlers to what later became the United States, they attempted to Anglicize all Native Americans. Their ideas concerning religion, and freedom from persecution were well-founded by famous philosophers such as John Locke. Freedom was the power or right to act, speak, or worship without restraint or hindrance. By the 1750s, the colonies were well established, and they became the thirteen colonies but they still had their separate identity. Philosophies were being embraced and adopted by the settlers primarily from Great Britain. Some British settlers were Anti-Catholic because of a conflict between the Holy See concerning the Catholic belief that in marriage, divorce was unacceptable. Most of the settlers were Christian but not necessarily Catholic Christians. The British supported Christianity which actually originated in Jerusalem by Jesus Christ. John Locke, an English philosopher, and physician believed that humans were naturally tolerant and had a reason. But the British were also enslaving foreign races, especially West Africans who were being captured because of inferior race or color. Settlers to the new country had two distinct identities being rooted in British culture and forming a blended culture in the colonies. The first one was a Christian-oriented British side to spread the core values of freedom. The other one was a distinct American side that believe in freedom of expression and the right to own property. This too was also supported by the philosophies of John Locke.

British colonists were filled with a lot of ideals. The ideals included the attempt of converting Native Americans to Christianity. The first settlers to North America that were Caucasian were the ones that came from Europe to begin the new country. They arrived from many European countries but the most famous were the Puritans who traveled on the English sailing ship known as the Mayflower. The Puritans had a goal of eliminating traces of Catholicism and strengthening the Anglican church. But other settlers wanted to practice freedom of choice of religion. According to the second chapter of the History of the US before 1877, “the Puritan beliefs were originated by a French lawyer, John Calvin” (44). Once they reached this new country, the Puritans were renamed Pilgrims after settling in the area known as Plymouth.

Europeans, especially the British had a real distaste for Native Americans because the British considered their beliefs to be Non-Christian. Native Americans were animistic believers in worshiping nature instead of nature’s creator, God. The British enslaved people of Africa especially West Africans in order to increase their profit. This was done because they thought Africans were an inferior population due to their race and the color of their skin. The Great Awakening had British origin. The movement contained practitioners of Protestantism, Presbyterianism, Congregationalism, and Anglicism. The philosophers believed that Christianity involved more than Bible reading. It involved living like Christ such as abstaining from murder, drunkenness, adultery, and sorcery, and emphasized being kind to others and following The Golden Rule. This is important because there was an increasing amount of questioning of the King of England who is seen as being harsh and rigid. In this new land, there was a promise of a country where reasonable people could influence the direction of the leadership which would represent all the people. There was a growing desire for people to think for themselves without fear of being punished. They wanted the government to serve them rather than serve the government. This was reinforced by many of the philosophers and ministers of that time. One of the first of which was James Davenport who urged everyone to burn books and clothing as a means of “casting away sinful, worldly trappings”. Many of the most famous philosophers in the Awakening and Enlightenment periods were also ministers. They caused people to think not only about their religious beliefs but about how they wanted to live their lives in this age of rapidly progressing scientific advancements. George Whitefield believed new lights were “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God. (111) The Baptists and Methodists disagreed with Whitfield’s revivalist views. For instance, they emphasized adult Baptism as opposed to infant baptism.

British Colonists settling in what became America had a variety of unique British American traits. The British Americans desired freedom of speech and religion which they did not have in Great Britain. They also wanted freedom from the fear of persecution by the British for expressing their ideas. Pennsylvania’s dominant religion at the time consisted of groups of people known as Quakers. These open-minded people believed in inner peace while opposing “formalized religion”. They understood who to believe and whatever way they wanted to worship. The Enlightenment Freemasons believed in religious tolerance. John Locke was among the enlighteners who spread new ideas about openness, and accepting the Christian religion (112). Benjamin Franklin was another Enlightener. He subscribed to deism believing God only created things rather than also continuing involvement in the world or the events within it. (113) These ideals contributed to forming American freedom.

The settlers to North America during that time had a dual identity of British and unique American. They provided the new country with new colonies and cities made of villages and towns plus new agriculture. The citizens were of European descent yet enslaved many people, especially West Africans since they believed they were an inferior group of people of race and color. The lesson to be learned is that the American culture should not disrespect other cultures because of their different ideas.

The origin of Jamestown began with the support Of Virginia company of London, who were investors that hoped to profit from the journey. On December 6th, 1606 104 English men climbed aboard three ships named Susan Constant, the Godspeed, and the Discovery and head towards North American. A year later on May 13th, they picked Jamestown Virginia for their settlement which is named after their King James the first, this settlement became known as the very first permanent English settlement in North America. This town was elected to settle on because of its deep water, good defensive position and it was not taken over by the native population. Captain John Smith became the leader of the town and introduced trading with the Powhatan Indians. Smith ended up going back to London to get more supplies and to promote Jamestown, but he never made it back because he died in an incident that contained gunpowder. The relationship between the Indian tribe and the English was not the best because they settled on the hunting ground. Even though the relationship was not the best, they were able to establish trading opportunities. Soon thereafter, the men started to lack supplies and captain Newport had to go back to London to see if he could bring back more supplies and more people. As settlers were getting adjusted and beginning their new life in this new town, they started to get sick with diseases that led to many deaths. Food started to run extremely low to the point of the town not succeeding, but thanks to the Powhatan Indians they were able to survive because they sent food to help them out. In 1609 through 1610 as winter approached the town became known as the ‘starving time’; by this time the English had ruined relationships with the Indians due to the high demand for food during a drought. In the spring of 1610 England settlers finally arrived with this implies Smith had asked for and these new settlers ended up providing a strong leadership under a governor with the help of mentors.

The origin of Plymouth began when 100 English men and women separated from the church who became known as the pilgrims and set sail to the new world in the Mayflower ship. This colony became the second permanent English settlement in North America that was founded in 1620. Before they settled in the town of Plymouth, they had been station in Leyden, they enjoyed the freedom that was offered to them, but they found Holland unfit preservation. They feared their children growing up declining principles of right and wrong behavior and fearing that Catholic Spain conquered the country. Virginia company had a contract with the pilgrims to settle near the Hudson River but due to rough seas and storms, it prevented the ship from reaching its initial destination. On November 21st after 66 days being out at sea, they finally reach Cape Cod and they dropped their anchor at the site of Provincetown. Although they were known to be the second permanent English settlers in North America they were also known as being the very first settlers in the New World. Many of the settlers decided to stay under ship while they went back and forth to shore to build new homes in the new land. Soon after they were settled into shore, they met a Native American man known as Tisquantum and became a member of the colony. By March they began to move to shore permanently, the first winter more than half of the settlers died from diseases that swept the new colony. Squanto ended up being an interpreter and mediator between Plymouth’s leader and Native Americans and he was able to secure peace. Knowing that they would not get attacked by Indian tribes they were able to safely build settlements for themselves and learned how to plant corn which becomes an important crop.

With the production of cash crops of tobacco, sugar, and cotton, it helped America became the economic engine of the nation. America’s wealth had been successful due to the slave economy. Before the war began, the South was producing 75% of the world’s cotton and it was creating more millionaires heard capital in the Mississippi River. By this time slaves represented the most significant investment in the southern plantation. The majority of the 1600s, agriculture was operated by American colonies, that were managed by indentured servitude. Workers from Europe who had traveled to North America for a new life we’re poor and in exchange for their work they received food and shelter. During the 1680s British economy had improved and jobs or opening up and slavery became more acceptable. When property owners in the southern colonies began to plant cash crops, business increased and so did the amount of work that needed to be done. To get the labor done rich planters turned to slave traders to see if they could buy slaves or human chattel as they were known. The slave auction industry was born after more slaves were imported and the rates expanded. Slaves were being auctioned off and sold to the highest bidder at a price between $1200 and $1500. The beginning of the 19th-century slavery in cotton became essential to the continuous growth of America’s economy.

The Civil War was a result of many causes, but expansion and slavery were the main reasons for the war to happen. In the 17th century mercantilism was an economic policy designed to increase nationals wealth through the exportation of goods. Great Britain had an upper hand since they could supply raw material and resources to the mother country, although Great Britain was the first to succeed it was not the only one with the idea of exportation. Great Britain competed with the French, Spanish, and Portuguese for colonies. Since Great Britain relied heavily on other colonies the fear of failing and being in the bottom Great Britain imposed restrictions and how colonies could spend their money or distribute resources. Mercantilism guided the adoption of enormous trade restrictions that caused a stop on the growth and freedom of colonial business. England then passed the navigational acts in 1660, which contained numerous laws designed to make American colonies more independent on manufactured goods from Great Britain. With the trade restrictions being put in place this effectively prevented the colonies from trading with other European countries which caused the colonies to form relationships with the Dutch and French to encourage the flow of manufactured goods to North America. Merchants were active in colonial politics and responded to the acts with hostility this act contributed to the creation of anti-British sentiment and the resulting of the American Revolution. Trading became triangulated between the British Empire, its colonies, and foreign markets. Colonies provided products that were heavily demanded by Africa and in return, they were paid with slaves in America and the West Indies. Even though slavery was already a part of the 13 colonies this act caused slaves to be owned by Americans and due to crash crops, it created a high demand for slaves.

African slavery became the central development of British and North America since slaves were making merchants richer by being sold or exporting the products of their labor. Also due to the mistreatment of slave’s people started to question whether it was the right to own slaves or not. In 1775 several Americans already disagreed with the Declaration of Independence ringing claim of human equality, causing North to abolish slavery. When the constitution was written the interest of slaveholders and the people who owned slaves cannot be ignored because Southerners believed that slave labor contributed greatly to the nation’s wealth. Therefore, creating 3/5 compromise, which was to count 3 out of every five slaves as people and its effect was to give the southern states third more seats in Congress and electoral votes.

Imagine being hated by a whole culture.

In 1607 English ships sailed into the Chesapeake Bay located in Virginia and Maryland, bringing more than 100 passengers. King of England said, “Faire meadows and goodly tall trees ahead lay possible riches”. The passengers were confident they were going to find riches. At the beginning of Jamestown, a lot of settlers died for these reasons: sickness, natives, and poor leadership. The Powhatans (Indians that lived around James River) did not like the colonist this caused many problems.

Natives always had an issue with the colonist this is one of the many reasons colonists died so quickly. On May, 26th 1607 Indians attacked for the first time. As time passed natives began to kill more and more as the colonist population just kept growing (Doc E). In 1609 Francis West chopped two of the native’s heads off (Doc D). After the natives were aggravated by Francis West, the colonists brought over 250 more people and the natives were at their last strike. The Indians kill nearly half of the new colonists. Not only did natives kill them but sickness struck the colonist too.

Sickness went around the colony. In 1607 we started with 104 colonists. By the end of 1607, we were left with 40. August to October was the first kill from sickness it killed nearly half the colony, leaving us with 49 left. As the winter of 1609 came along the colonist kept strong. We lost only 8 settlers. Diseases return in the summer of 1609 sickened 50 and killed 50. As the number of colonists decreased, we bring more colonies than we have before 250. November- May hits and 110 colonists die from famine and diseases, another 33 from the slain. Lots of the settlers died from sickness but the reason they got sick is another reason.

The settlers had very poor leadership. For example, they didn’t bring women. The woman could have helped in so many ways they would have been able to help make the food last longer or make medicine and help the people in need. As only bringing men they should have thought of the men to bring they didn’t think through who they were bringing. The colony needed more medics and more people that do labor. And most of all Francis West had food for the colonists but he went back to England with it. The colony didn’t think through how to split the food and make sure there was enough.

In conclusion, as you can see the settlers could have survived if they used more common sense.

The American Revolution, which officially began in 1776, was not simply the result of one event. Though it has direct causes, there were several underlying causes of the Revolution as well. Some indirect causes originated a long time before the idea of a revolution even existed. The combination of both direct and indirect causes sparked a drive in colonists to successfully carry out the American Revolution.

The direct causes of the Revolution are those which affected the colonists directly, either changing aspects of their daily lives or changing their feelings in general. One direct cause was Great Britain’s arbitrary authority. After multiple occasions, the British became arbitrary, ruling over the colonists unfairly. After the French and Indian War, Parliament began taxing the colonists to pay for war costs, but the colonists had no representation in any decisions. Acts, like the Quartering Act, invaded the homes, as well as the rights of colonists. Another direct cause of the Revolution was the book Common Sense by Thomas Paine. This book is said to have actually “sparked” the Revolution because it embodied Enlightenment ideas, like natural rights, urging people to think about breaking free from Great Britain.

The underlying factors of the American Revolution indirectly affected both the colonists and the British, making them think differently. The Glorious Revolution, in 1688, established a constitutional monarchy, therefore limiting the power of the king. The Glorious Revolution inspired John Locke’s idea that if a social contract is broken, and the king fails to meet his obligations, then people have the right to revolt and take power. The British practiced a policy of salutary neglect toward the colonies from 1607 to 1763. This left the colonists with no choice but to govern themselves. This self-government caused by salutary neglect also indirectly caused the Revolution because the feeling of independence that the colonists developed could not be taken away from them.

Before 1775, no one in the 13 colonies had any intentions of seeking independence. Colonies viewed themselves as totally separate, with Great Britain as the mother country. After the American Revolution, the colonies were subject to their own rule. Eventually, an entirely new government was established as a result of many efforts. The Revolution broke initial ties between Great Britain and the colonies and created a form of democracy.

The American Revolution was influenced by a variety of factors, direct and indirect. It is now conceivably one of the most important events in history.

Decolonization defined as the end of formal European Empires, resulting in the independence of these regions, occurred during the post-colonial phase of globalization initiated in the 1950s and remains operative today. This form of global expansion has simultaneously resolved minor “incompatibilities”[footnoteRef:1] and initiated change resulting in the establishment of new conflicts beyond the formal end of the Empire. This essay will discuss the significant globalizing changes that the process of decolonization prompted during the post-colonial period. Decolonization facilitated an atmosphere of improved migrational and communicative patterns, as well as hastened global trade and the acquisition of capital. The establishment of transnational relations led to the globalizing effect of improved interconnections due to the development of independent nation-states. The increased dedication to the protection of human rights and the promotion of self-determination, significantly exemplify the globalizing factors resulting from the process of decolonization. Decolonization was often characterized by violent exchanges to gain independence, resulting in tumultuous social, political, economic, and cultural changes which continued exceeding the official end of the Empire. Ultimately, the expansion and demise of the pre-eminent British and French Empires through processes of decolonization actively possessed several globalizing factors in the creation of independent nation-states in the post-colonial era. [1: Hopkins, “Globalisation and Decolonisation,” 730.]

Globalizing refers to the mechanisms that initiated the “movement of people and transmissions of practices…thereby accelerating their interdependence,”[footnoteRef:2] as decolonization led to the formation of hastened migration and communication, as well as the improved movement of goods and capital. New shifts in the way capital and goods were transported reflected a move away from colonial relationships to interdependent markets, as the industry became more dominant than governments in “diversify[ing] colonial economies.”[footnoteRef:3] While the British treasury did not allow major spending on colonial infrastructure for industry, they were able to invest strategically to provide relationships which included tax breaks and other financial incentives, with key multinationals to protect its own markets as decolonization occurred. Marketing boards, for instance in British colonies, were encouraged to purchase items made in the UK from cars to domestic items.[footnoteRef:4] This, therefore, led to an inter-reliance on “government, finance, and commerce.”[footnoteRef:5] The French also embraced a similar form of the economic relationship, as exemplified through their exploitation of opportunities when portions of their African territories were included in the European Economic Community providing them with “exclusive trade partnerships.”[footnoteRef:6] From this, emerged an era often referred to as neo-colonialism, where securing strong post-colonial relationships would allow for favorable investment, aid, and advice, to ensure a smooth global transition from colonial empires to decolonized states from 1940-1960.[footnoteRef:7] Similarly, migration during this period enabled thousands of Europeans to travel to countries that “retained connections to the homeland,”[footnoteRef:8] creating significant global connections. In many of its dominions, a dependency on these migrants was necessary to assist in the development of their economies. Migration also occurred from the areas previously administered back to the European heartland, which consequently reshaped European societies demographically, culturally, and politically.[footnoteRef:9] Thus, decolonization led to significant global changes, resulting in the increase of migration, as well as the improvement of communication allowing for accelerated trade and capital production. [2: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 144. ] [3: ibid., 157. ] [4: White, “Decolonisation in the 1950s,” 102. ] [5: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 157. ] [6: ibid., 156. ] [7: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 159. ] [8: ibid., 156. ] [9: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 156. ]

New forms of transnational connection arose as a result of decolonization, posing a significant globalizing effect during the post-colonial era. Decolonization led to the creation of independent nation-states, former colonies that now took on much of the trappings of the nation-state as it emerged in Western Europe, and to some extent, Eastern Asia. The British enshrined an ideal of self-government among the white population in these nations, devising a model of a negotiated settlement, where colonial parliaments could develop their own laws and policies in order to keep white colonies tied to Britain. Notably, this method of decolonization was successful in settler colonies, as exhibited through the decentralization of British power from Canada, New Zealand, and Australia after World War One, however, was not extended to non-white settler colonies. In 1948, South Africa demonstrated its independence in internal affairs through the continuance of apartheid, shaping the post-independence years, but remained tied to Britain by its overseas trade, need for foreign investment, and membership of the Sterling Area.[footnoteRef:10] This resulted in the construction of stronger national identities, as the liberation of these territories politicized South Africa’s black population, rebalancing power in the nation. This, in turn, encouraged a sense of “national consciousness in peoples who have, for centuries, lived in dependence upon some other power…as the growth of national consciousness in Africa [became] a political fact.'[footnoteRef:11] However, in many of these communities, there was a lack of infrastructure and modern education to support this independence. Thus, the establishment of these nation-states had a large failure rate due to the lack of development required for complete autonomy. However, the issuing of the Atlantic Charter by the US and UK governments in August 1941, assisted in the establishment of self-governance and self-determination of colonies, lobbying for the promotion of democracy, and for territorial adjustments,[footnoteRef:12] improving transnational connections globally. The agreement led to many globalizing effects, as the decolonization of nations led to a reduction of trade restrictions, and global interconnection to improve economic and social links. Supporters of the Atlantic Charter signed ‘The United Nations Declaration on Granting Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples’ in 1960, proclaiming that the continuation of colonialism will hinder the development of “international economic co-operation, impedes the social, cultural and economic development of dependent peoples and militates against…ideals of universal peace.”[footnoteRef:13] This, therefore, resulted in the dismantling of the British Empire during the 1960s. By the end of the twentieth century, an almost “unnoticed decolonization”[footnoteRef:14] occurred, as South Africa became the dominant economic power, ultimately bolstering global transnational relations. [10: Hopkins, “Globalisation and Decolonisation,” 735.] [11: MacMillan, The Wind of Change Speech.] [12: The Atlantic Charter. ] [13: United Nations: Declaration of Granting Independence.] [14: Hopkins, “Globalisation and Decolonisation,” 735. ]

The growth of international agencies and transnational groups dedicated to the protection of human rights and the promotion of self-determination, significantly exemplify the globalizing factors resulting from the process of decolonization. The principles of self-determination as espoused by President Wilson in his fourteen-point plan for world peace after World War One, detailed the necessity of a “free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims [and that they]…must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.”[footnoteRef:15] These Wilsonian principles were generally well-received in London and Paris, however, neither believed the extension of these ideals would be applied to the non-European world. As “anti-colonial insurgency”[footnoteRef:16] grew, and the League of Nations redefined the “right of petition,”[footnoteRef:17] international thinking embraced the notion of self-determination and individual human rights. This was evident through the peaceful transition of power which facilitated the decolonization of India with the nation being offered dominion status in 1929, by the British viceroy Lord Irwin. As Britain continued to be placed in a difficult negotiating position, formal Indian independence was recognized in 1947. This was necessary in order to fight off rising nationalism within the colony and ‘recognize that the peoples of the world ardently desired the end of colonialism in all its manifestations.”[footnoteRef:18] Thus, this peaceful model of negotiated settlement resulted in the collapse of Empire, as globalization during the period of decolonization not only dismantled imperial systems but “assisted the replacement of the social and political hierarchy that had helped to sustain them.”[footnoteRef:19] This was possible as India had a coherent, literary, religious, and political system, allowing the nation to maintain a developmental trajectory, which was unattainable by many other nation-states. Other examples of international pressure occurred after World War Two, as Western nations became critical of the treatment of civilians in the Soviet bloc, exposing a “humanitarian double standard”[footnoteRef:20] when challenged about colonial issues. The West insisted these were domestic issues that had become less prominent, regarding international law and the pursuit of human rights globally.[footnoteRef:21] However, as the international system continued to develop a “global rights order”[footnoteRef:22] once local colonial issues fell under international scrutiny, as “these profound shifts knew no frontiers; they applied globally.”[footnoteRef:23] This moral order sanctioned imperial dominance and gave way to a new era of human rights. The UN Declaration of Independence attempted to acknowledge the ‘subjection of peoples to alien subjugation, domination, and exploitation constitutes a denial of fundamental human rights.”[footnoteRef:24] This, therefore, assisted in normalizing the view that self-determination should be promoted within Empires to enable individual nation-building and abolish “racially stratified empires.”[footnoteRef:25] Therefore, the right to self-determination assisted the global process of nation-building during the period of decolonization, as international agencies promoted universal concepts of minority and civil rights which, in turn, exacerbated new strains of anti-colonial nationalism.[footnoteRef:26] [15: Woodrow Wilson: Speech on the Fourteen Points. ] [16: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 144. ] [17: ibid., 150.] [18: United Nations: Declaration of Granting Independence.] [19: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 143. ] [20: ibid., 155.] [21: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 155.] [22: ibid., 155.] [23: Hopkins, “Globalisation and Decolonisation,” 729. ] [24: United Nations: Declaration of Granting Independence.] [25: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 156.] [26: ibid., 143.]

Post-1945 decolonization facilitated armed conflicts with new models for revolutionary warfare which spread across Empires and were instrumental in the increased globalized patterns of violence that developed and instituted change. During the period of post-colonial globalization, a significant global change occurred, eventuating in the dismantling of major Empires and the removal of territorial control. Financial and political institutions initiated by the decisions of government, economics, social change, and cultural representation transformed the way in which “colonialism is articulated, explained, and understood.”[footnoteRef:27] Decolonisation is often defined as “locally specific,” privileging the view that each country independently maintained national agency in the decision to end Empire within a nation.[footnoteRef:28] However, the prevalence of such conflict across each case of decolonization prompts questions relating to the perceived ‘uniqueness’ of this violence.[footnoteRef:29] Instead, a more holistic perspective of decolonization must be obtained, broadening the analysis of the end of formal Empire in Africa and Asia, to view decolonization as a “truly global movement that is shaping the present century.”[footnoteRef:30] As such, colonial conflicts should be viewed as interconnected, characterized by the “transmission of ideas and practices from one region to another.”[footnoteRef:31] [27: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 154. ] [28: ibid., 154. ] [29: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 154. ] [30: Hopkins, “Globalisation and Decolonisation,” 734. ] [31: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 154. ]

In assessing the globalizing impacts of decolonization post-1945, analysis of the violent model of French ‘La Mission Civilisatrice’ in ending the Empire, must be acknowledged to highlight the conflicts that arose and outlasted the formal decolonization process. The French did not devolve self-governance on their colonies, rather assumed a policy of assimilation, characterized by the integration of non-European subjects into the French Empire, exporting French religion, cultural norms, republican heritage, and language to its colonial possessions. The French colonial system was highly centralized, restricting the establishment of local government, and designed to hinder the development of Indigenous institutions, creating an atmosphere of violence that existed beyond the formal end of the Empire. Despite its status as a Republic, France ruled its colonies in an autocratic and undemocratic manner, as avenues of legitimate protest were limited, denying colonial subjects the right to defend their own independence. An example of French autocratic control over their colonies is exemplified through the violent transition of power as Vietnam fought for independence by developing a mass-based nationalist, anti-colonial movement leading to the defeat of French and Japanese forces. As in Vietnam, a combination of growing discontent from intellectuals who had studied overseas and had embraced new ideas of equality from oppression; French censorship of publications considered radical, economic discontent aggravated by the world depression; and the authoritarian nature of French rule, led to growing discontent which seemed to be motivated just as much by global, as well as local issues.[footnoteRef:32] The defeat of the French colonial efforts during the First Indochina War in May 1954, resulted in the division of Vietnam into a Communist-controlled North, and democratic South supported by US military aid within a Cold War context. Although the Vietnamese were successful in gaining independence from the French elites, this victory led to the outbreak of the Second Vietnamese War against America. Therefore, the continuation of violence beyond the formal end of the Empire existed due to significant globalizing mechanisms as violence and conflict perpetuated as a result of decolonization in the post-1945 period. [32: Betts, France and Decolonisation, 45.]

Decolonization after 1945 is characterized by a focus on the end of formal Empires, namely Britain, and France, in Africa and Asia, as countries in each continent obtained independence, beginning with India in 1947 and Africa in the 1970s, posing several globalizing effects on the world. Decolonization prompted greater migrational patterns, bolstered trade, and developed significant transnational connections, improving global interactions as well as changing conceptualizations of human rights and principles of self-determination. Decolonization created an atmosphere of increased globalized patterns of violence and conflict that outlasted the ‘formal’ end of Empires. Ultimately, the end of the Empire through processes of decolonization should be “framed globally, not nationally”[footnoteRef:33] as the development of independent nation-states created several significant globalizing changes. [33: Thomas and Thompson, “Empire and Globalisation,” 154. ]

Bibliography

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2. Hopkins, A.G. “Globalisation and Decolonisation.” The Journal of Commonwealth and Imperial History 45, no.5 (2017): 729-745. https://doi.org/10.1080/03086534.2017.1370218
3. MacMillan, Harold. The Wind of Change Speech, 1960. https://web-archives.univ-pau.fr/english/TD2doc1.pdf
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6. United Nations: Declaration of Granting Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, 1960. Fordham University: Internet History Sourcebooks. Accessed October 24, 2019. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1960-un-colonialism.asp
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American Exceptionalism is the concept that America is superior to the rest of the world and that it is allowed to do certain things, even occasionally bad ones, because of that superiority. This can be one-sided because it justifies every doing of America even if it’s bad.

Many people were migrating to North America from 1492 to 1776. This was true however, many people were dying mainly the Native Indians and Africans. Many of the Native Indians died due to diseases brought by newcomers and intense labor. Wars also caused the majority of deaths in North America at the time. The Africans who migrated to North America were decreasing in population due to their conditions as slaves set by colonists.

The Indians did not fear the Europeans. There were not many settlers but there was enough land for everyone to use and plant crops. The Indian Natives helped the settlers by teaching them how to plant crops and survive on the land. The Indians did not understand that the settlers were going to keep the land. Natives even asked the English settlers to join them to fight other Indian tribes. The Native Americans also brought deer and corn to the feast.

The first settlers in the Western Hemisphere were the Paleo-Indians. The first group of settlers was only about 15-50 people and they survived by hunting and gathering. Although the Paleo-Indians started as a small group they grew rapidly. After getting way too large they split up into subdivided groups.

A factor that caused nomadic tribes to settle in different regions has to be the fact that the group got too large. Another factor is more food sources. As they expand and look for other food sources they find more food ranges as well.

Economic factors mainly motivated Europeans to explore the world. The many reasons that explorers left their countries to find undiscovered lands were for economic factors, political factors, and technological factors.

The Europeans brought plants, animals, and diseases. They killed off native habitats. Despite the demographic disaster and the ecological changes, the native people survived in sufficient numbers to hinder and slow down colonial expansion. The native people adapted to their changing circumstances and defended their homes.

Europeans bought plants, animals, and diseases, and Spain looked for new slaves to work for their gold mines. This way, they started to conquer by getting their work done more efficiently leading to being more efficient economically. The Spanish also learned of the rich Aztec Empire. They also continued to practice the strategy of divide and conquer. This helped to find local allies among the Indian people.

A Catholic religious order devoted to simple living, missionary, and physical labor. They were founded by a 13th-century man named Francis, who was the son of a wealthy businessman. He gave up all his worldly luxuries and started to teach throughout the countryside, garnering him a following that led to the formation of the Franciscan order of Monks. The Franciscan order is one of the four great mendicant orders of the church, and its members strive to cultivate the ideals of poverty and charity.

Spain’s empire in the 1700s consisted of wealth and power mainly in Mexico and Peru. However, there was great poverty in the northern regions. The northern colonies were also retained primarily as a military buffer zone.

The Spanish had acquired a vast American empire of extremes: alluring wealth and great poverty.

It was concluded that the closer the French got to the North, the more safety was provided for their colony. Canada’s St. Lawrence River provided easier access to trade with the Indians. This assured the French more extensive fur trade with them. The French simply found out that they could profit from trading for furs with the Indians in Canada.

The Natives also accompanied the French on hunting parties and showed them where the good fur animals could be found. The French made it a point to learn the Native languages and ways and established good relations that were based on equality with all of the tribes in the area. This close alliance, which was based on mutual respect and good treatment from both sides, led the Natives to side with the French in their conflicts with the English settlers that came later in the 1600s and into the mid-1700s.

Beginning in 1663 the royal government sought to populate new France several measures were taken the arrival of the Filles du Roi, granting land to soldiers of the Carignan-Salieres regiment, And the engage system. More than 3,000 settlers, including girls of marriageable age, were sent out in the 1660s. Few followed thereafter, but by natural increase, the population began to expand rapidly.

The middle ground consisted of creative misunderstandings in which Indians and Europeans attempted to build a set of mutually understandable practices. Both sides then try to engage in practices, such as European leaders taking on the role of a patriarch that distributes gifts, mediates conflicts, and ‘covers’ violent deaths. The Indians began participating in a market economy, compromised on legal punishments, and submitted to a limited degree to European oversight.

In order to expand their native alliances, the French established another colony along the Mississippi River. They named it “Louisiana” after King Louis XIV. This colony attracted very few colonists due to being prone to subtropical diseases. The 4,100 slaves, 3,300 settlers, and 600 soldiers who did live in Louisiana (1764) mostly lived near the Mississippi River near New Orleans. This helped with the supply of deerskins and tobacco.

By acquiring public money with the aid of Congress, railroad barons were able to finance a continental railroad linking California to America which at the time was East of the Mississippi with the exception of Texas and Missouri. Once the railroad was built the railroad barons began promoting the Great Plains as being terrific for farming and aggressively persuaded groups of Europeans and Eastern Americans to fill these empty lands. All of this was at the expense of the Natives who were stripped of their ancestral lands, forced onto reservations, frequently exploited, and even killed.

French trading posts began as seasonal fishing and whaling camps around the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The exchange of goods (furs for beads, kettles, hatchets, and knives) gave Indians a greater need to hunt

The main reason why the English settled in the Chesapeake Bay was that the Bay offered good harbors, also the land was fertile. The Chesapeake colonies of Virginia also served a vital purpose in the development of the English empire by providing tobacco, a cash crop.

In the Chesapeake colonies such as Virginia (Jamestown) Natives originally showed them how to grow crops and even asked the English settlers to align with them to fight other Indian tribes. However, as Jamestownians kept taking more and more land their relationships turned bitter and the Powhatans revolted in 1622 and 1644.

The first permanent English settlement in America was Jamestown, founded in 1607 as an economic venture. Problems soon emerged in the small English outpost, which was ruled by the powerful leader Powhatan. Relations with the Powhatan Indians were tenuous, although trading opportunities were established. An unfamiliar climate, as well as a salty water supply and lack of food, conditions possibly aggravated by a prolonged drought, led to disease and death which negatively affected Jamestown.

By 1700, the Virginia colonists had made their fortunes through the rising of tobacco, setting a pattern that was followed in Maryland and the Carolinas. Lord Baltimore planned for Maryland to serve as a refuge for English Catholics who suffered political and religious discrimination in England. Protestants were also attracted by the inexpensive land that Baltimore offered to help him pay his debts.

Bacon’s rebellion led to the Colonists adopting slavery as the primary source of labor. Bacon’s rebellion was led by a group of former servants who were now free, without work, and looking for trouble. The slaves were never free and never looking for trouble. After the 1676 rebellion led by Bacon, the colonies decided that black slaves from Africa would be the way to go since they never got their freedom.

There was a growth in slavery for many factors but specifically due to slaves working longer days under stricter supervision to tend to tobacco and corn. Furthermore, stricter laws were being established in order to keep these slaves with their masters. First, none could leave without a written pass. However, in 1961 no slave was permitted to be freed unless the planted paid for their transportation. Soon after, free blacks were stripped of their rights.

The English hoped to absorb the Indians as economic subordinates.

The Puritans considered the Bible as the true law of God that provided guidelines for church government. They wished to shape the Church of England to meet their ideals. They called for a less priestly church that emphasized preaching. The Puritans emphasized Bible reading, prayer, and preaching in worship services. They simplified the ritual of the sacraments.

Families in New England were much larger and consisted of both males and females. In contrast, families of the Chesapeake were primarily men brought over to work the fields (England: six males for every four women Chesapeake: four men for every woman.) Also, the ages of settlers in New England ranged wildly, seeing as immigrants came into family groups. Chesapeake settlers were all in the same general age range. Chesapeake and New England differed greatly in their religions. Chesapeake was primarily Protestant and Catholic, whereas New England would be Puritan.

Pilgrims wanted to separate themselves from the Church of England. They also wanted to separate themselves from those who were not believers. Puritans wanted to remove themselves from non-Puritans. They originally wanted to leave Great Britain because they were not pleased with the way non-Puritans were worshiping without much interference.

New England was not a good place for farming. The farmers only farmed enough for themselves, so the people in New England had to find other ways to make money. The main ways to make money in the 1700 New England colonies were to build ships, whaling, and fish. Building ships was also a good way to make money. The reason it was a good money maker for the New England colonies was that they needed ships if they were a sailor, fisherman, whalers, or a traveling merchant. These colonies also built ships for England themselves.

City On a Hill was a sermon given by John Winthrop which declared that the Puritans in the New World would set an example of a great society to the Christian world. The sermon inspired the Puritans with a sense of holy duty that would be crucial if they wanted to increase their chances of survival in the New World.

The English founded a new set of colonies in New England at the beginning of the seventeenth century.

By producing sugar, to which most of the land was devoted, the West Indies became the most valuable set of English colonies. There was a very high European demand for sugar to make their daily consumption sweeter. Also, sugar was easy transportation.

The abundance of land in the Carolinas attracted West Indian men who were being overcrowded. The Lords also promised religious tolerance and political representation. South Carolina soon grew by 6,600 people in 1700.

The colony continued to attract great planters with slaves to speed the development. The Lords also allowed a master to claim a full 150 acres for each slave imported. This led to the growth of slavery in the Carolinas.

The most important reason for Georgia’s founding was defense. This meant that in the 1730s, South Carolina was a profitable British colony that was constantly threatened by the Spanish. Another reason Georgia was founded was because of Mercantilism. The trustees were hoping that Georgia would produce agricultural products that England couldn’t.

By producing sugar, the West Indies became the most valuable set of English colonies.

Britain’s main rival initially was the Dutch, who were superior in the trade of Northern and Western Europe. The Dutch economy also benefited from a certain government that adapted to policies of freedom and religion. In October of 1651, the English Parliament passed its Navigation Acts of 1651. These acts were designed to tighten the government’s control over trade between England, its colonies, and the rest of the world. The Navigations Act threatened the Dutch economy which sparked 3 wars between 1652 and 1674.

Pennsylvania was colonized by Swedish and Dutch settlers in the 17th century before the English took control of the colony in 1667. In 1681, William Penn established a colony based on religious tolerance which was settled by many Quakers along with its chief city Philadelphia. They were subject to persecution in England for a variety of reasons. Penn’s father had lent a lot of money to King Charles II, and after the elder Penn’s death, Charles settled the debt by granting Penn title to Pennsylvania. Quakers used it as a refuge to escape the legal restrictions placed on them in England.

Due to the Scots losing their own Parliament, they won access to other colonies founded by the English. Between 1707 and 1775 there had already been about 145,000 Scottish migrants, outnumbering the Englishmen. Soon after the Scots, 100,000 Germans started to outnumber the English as they migrated to these thriving colonies alongside the Scots. The reason for the German migration was to find relief from chronic wars in Germany. Also, princes in Germany demanded military conscripts and religious conformities. Many enslaved Africans were also brought to America to work on plantations and American crops for the European market.

From a political perspective, “ The Great Awakening” led to stability since everyone now practiced the same religion. But instead of being a positive driving force for religious belief in general, religion became something of a pastime. The Awakening’s biggest significance was the way it prepared America for its War of Independence. Through the Awakening, the Colonists realized that religious power resided in their own hands, rather than in the hands of the Church of England, or any other religious authority.

Why were the British successful in colonizing America?

Necessity played a large part in Europe’s colonization and exploration period. For centuries Asian goods such as silk, spices, as well as pottery had been traveling the Silk Road. Europeans had been accustomed to these goods, however, this trade was placed under a threat by the middle of the 16th century. The traditional trade routes have been disrupted by the loss of power of the Mongol Empire, resulting in the rise of the Ottoman Turks. This has led to numerous improvements in the navigation and building process of ships, which meant that traveling to further destinations for longer periods would be made possible. The potential profit benefits for securing better trade with Asia had been recognized by the European countries and new routes by sea were sought.

An Italian explorer by the name of Christopher Columbus is known to be among the first that sought a more direct and faster route to Asia by not sailing east, but west. That is how Columbus managed to land on an island in the Caribbean in 1492, mistaking it for landing on an island in East Asia. Later on, other explorers, as well as the voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, it has been added to the knowledge of the land and determined that Columbus has managed to reach the “New World”. This led to explorers being sent to the New World by European powers, such as Spain, France, the Netherlands, and England. These countries were looking to gain control over trade and riches, sharing a desire for wealth and power. However, where they differentiate is in the motives and success in colonizing, or desiring to establish permanent settlements.

During the late sixteenth century England was a Protestant country that had become embroiled in a religious war with Catholic Spain. Britain was seeking ways to weaken the economic and military power of Spain. Some of the English privateers just like Francis Drake and Humphrey Gilbert had harassed the Spanish shipping. Gilbert had proposed colonizing North America on the basis of the Spanish model, with the goal to create a profitable English empire that can also be seen as a base for the privateers. The early efforts to establish colonies failed, however, Britain’s interest in colonizing America remained strong.

England was the most successful in colonizing other lands compared to all of the other European countries. Just like them, Britain was motivated by the riches, as well as the Northwest Passage. Nonetheless, these were not the only reasons why Britain had an interest in permanently populating the New World. “In 1606, King James I granted a charter to colonize Virginia to the Virginia Company of London, a joint-stock company of investors who believed there was a profit to be made.” The first permanent British colony had been formed in 1607 in Virginia, more precisely in Jamestown. The first years since the colonies settled in Jamestown, had been extremely hard due to the death rates that were high because of disease and starvation, not forgetting to mention the wars that took place with the local American Indians, as well as the deficiency of gold. (“Motivations for Colonization”, 2020).

Another reason was the faith in freedom and religion, which played a big part in the settlement of these colonies. Amongst the settlers, that left England to seek the New World, many of them were separatists. Separatists believed in the opportunity to live and worship in accordance with their beliefs, opposite to the Church of England. They believed that the Church has been dishonorable and corrupt, which is why they wanted to break away from it, pursuing worshiping their own faith in the New World. Their original plan was to land in Virginia, but the ship has been blown, of course, landing them on the coast of modern-day Massachusetts.

They could be considered the first Pilgrims, which have been followed by countless others who settled along the Atlantic coast. Britain had huge benefits from these settlements and encouraged them, receiving benefits from the vast array of raw materials found and cultivated by the colonies. The Pilgrims from England engaged in fishing, lumber, and the building of ships. Those that were located farther south provided tobacco, rice, and indigo. “Along with agriculture, fishing, and logging, New England became an important mercantile and shipbuilding center, serving as the hub for trading between the southern colonies and Europe.” (“The British Empire in North America”).

The Middle Colonies could be largely characterized by diversity ranging from religion, politics, and economy, to ethnicity. This would include modern-day New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, as well as Delaware. While the Chesapeake region including Virginia and Maryland, as well as the lower South colonies of Carolina and Georgia, would be included in the Colonial South. Until 1670 Carolina had not been settled, with the original settlers establishing trades in the provision, deerskin, and American Indian captives with the Caribbean Islands. All this led to the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies located on the Atlantic coast, starting with Virginia in 1607, and concluding in 1733 with Georgia. These colonies included New York, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, as well as Rhode Islands and Providence Plantations, with the development of an own self-government system for each and every colony.

During the following several centuries more colonies have been established. Ranging from North America, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. Most of the British colonies formed in America eventually managed to gain independence. Despite this, some of the colonies still opted to remain under the jurisdiction of Britain as British Overseas Territories. All of this worked out well for Britain with the colonies fighting and winning their independence 200 years later, benefiting financially from the relationship with the colonies.

However, there were some cons to this. There was the fall of the colonies’ economy, as most of the profit had been going back to Britain. Due to this and other economic reasons, there has been an increase in slavery in the plantations that were located in the South, as well as African slaves being taken to America to be sold. Another thing is the diseases that the British had brought with them to the faraway colonies, leading to the deaths of many people. The British also committed theft by stealing land and resources from the colonies, which resulted in the near-extinction of various indigenous tribes. The original culture of the colonies was banned, ignored, or forgotten, as they were forced to accept British culture.

Lastly, there of course were also some advantages. Such as providing the colonies with better infrastructure and development, like better roads for example. Britain also put light on the idea of democracy in the colonies, helping them to build their own, as well as improving the law systems that they brought with them. As for education, it has also been improved with the help of the British system. Not forgetting to mention that by spreading the English language they enabled people to communicate with each other using one language.

References

1. Motivations for Colonization. (2020, May 19). National Geographic Headquarters. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/motivations-colonization/12th-grade/
2. The British Empire in North America. Lumencandela. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-british-empire-in-north-america/

Abstract:

Literature, which in its simplest form is said to be the mirror of society, does not only mean what is written but also what is being voiced. African author Bessie Amelia Emery Head, popularly known as Bessie Head, buys name not only for her lucidity in expression but also for her voice and concern towards trying times of her contemporary society. She is also an observer of what colonizers skillfully set governance in a society where people are most tradition-ridden. This paper, with an analytical method, mainly aims to incorporate a post-colonial reading of Bessie Head’s “Heaven is not Closed” and analyze the text focusing mainly on the Colonizer-Colonized nexus and the experiences of British colonialism. It also observes how the colonizers institute multiple networks to detach the people from the mainstream.

Keywords: Postcolonialism, subjugation, space, culture.

Collins English Dictionary defines “colonialism as the practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses their resources to increase its own power and wealth”. Colonialism, as a process, from the perspective of the colonized, was never welcome. In its simplest concept, colonialism can be defined as the direct domination of a country by another country on the basis of state power. To make the point distinct, some of the definitions regarding colonialism as a process is given below :

“Colonization often destroyed native cultures or altered them significantly, often producing new(hybrid) forms. Thus, colonization cannot, in the twentieth century, can be seen as an innocent settlement in a new place. It must, rather, be seen as a powerful mode of exploitation based on the difference in race, culture, forms of knowledge, technological advancements, and political systems.” (Nayar, 3)

Colonialism is defined as ‘control by one power over a dependent area or people’. In practice, colonialism is when one country violently invades and takes control of another country, claims the land as its own, and sends people — “settlers” — to live on that land.” ( Osman, 1)

Post-colonialism, in the words of Nayar, is a “mode of reading, political analysis and cultural resistance/interaction that deals with the history of colonialism…” (17). It is thus, a way of “remising, remembering, and critically integrating the colonial past” (Gandhi, 4). Nayar also states that:

The 1950s – 1960s in most post-colonial literature were matched by themes of nationalism and the euphoria of decolonization. The preferred mode was realism, as R.K. Narayan’s fiction demonstrated. In the midst of settling down to self-rule, new development agendas and manifestations were visible. Writers such as Wole Soyinka Chinua Achebe were negotiating, in the first round of post-colonial writing, themes as the following :

• Bi – culturalism (European and native)
• Nationalism
• Local and tribal identities as opposed to a universal humanism
• The conflict between European modernization and native tradition
• The usable past
• Generating a discourse about the nature of post-colonial identity (Nayar, 13)

Postcolonialism thus can be said in the words of Robert Young to be “a transformed historical situation, and the cultural formations that have arisen in response to changed political circumstances, in the former colonial power” Therefore it can be said that Postcolonial studies aim at focusing on the historical situations, cultural formations of all the countries that were once colonized(54). One of the most important aims of Postcolonial studies according to M.H. Abrams is “to disestablish Eurocentric norms of literary and artistic values and to expand the literary canon to include colonial and postcolonial writers”(307).

Studying the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized is one of the major issues that post-colonial literature takes about, along with the conflict between tradition and the modern way of thinking. Written in the third person narrative, the story “Heaven is not Closed” not only explores the religious conflict but also the colonizer-colonized relationship in a very subtle way:

“The missionary was a short, anonymous–looking man who wears glasses. He had been the resident missionary for some time, and like all his fellows he did not particularly like the people. He always complained to his own head that they were terrible beggars and rather stupid.” (Head, 58-59)

The introduction of the missionary in such a manner and his anonymity is somewhat a technique on the part of Head to portray the character of the missionary as rather a universal character. However, we come across the same missionary with a changed attitude at the very next moment when Galethebege told him about her marriage. His words “Welcome in my dear, let us talk about the arrangement”, somehow reflects the exaggerated affection of the people related to the so-called superior space of the “society”, the missionary. Bassie Head, in a sense, is thus voicing the colonizer-colonized relationship which is no more than a power relationship accompanied by professionalism.

“He stared at her with professional interest. She was a complete non-entity, a part of the vague black blur which was his congregation – oh, they noticed chiefs and people like that, but not the silent mass of humble and lowly who had an almost wired capacity to creep quietly through life.” (Head, 59)

Gelethbege who is shown as a firm believer in Christianity can also be seen as a bridge between the colonizer and the colonized. Her love for Christianity along with her passion to get married to Ralokae in the presence of God (Church) somehow or the other shows the impact of the colonizer over the colonized in the name of “civilization”. To her dismay, the missionary, after coming to know about Ralokae’s wish of marrying Galethebege under the Setswana custom, imposed his power over her and said that they would not allow her to do so. This, however, showcase the power structure that was under work in the name of religion.

“It was beyond her to reason that the missionary was the representative of both God and something evil, the mark of ‘civilization’. His rage and hatred were directed at Raloke, and the only way in which he could inflict punishment was to banish Galethbege from the Church.” (Head, 61)

Even though the whole story tends to look at Christianity at its primary level but deep down, Bassie Head, like many other African writers, takes in the part to talk about the whole concept of civilization in terms of the colonizer and the colonized. Bassie’s technique of imposing the inner instinct in Galethebege can be seen as the process of giving voice to those people who went through the dominant power structure.

Just like many of the writers from the colonized countries, Bassie’s head also tried to focus light on the dark curtains of ‘civilization’ and to show the real picture painted over the colonized subjects by the colonizers. The conflict between the modern and the traditional is seen throughout the story. It is Ralokae who at a certain point in time act as a mouthpiece of Bessie Head, who speaks about the real picture of a civilized society under the name of religion.

“The God might be alright, he(Ralokae) explained, but there is something wrong with the people who brought the word of the Gospel to the land. Their love was enslaving black people and he could not stand it. That is why he was without belief. It was the people he did not trust. They were full of tricks. They were a people who, at the sight of a black man, pointed a finger in the air, looked away into the distance, and said impatiently: ‘Boy! Will you carry this? Boy! Will you fetch this!’ They had brought a new order of things into the land and they made the people cry for love. One never had to cry for love in the customary way of life. Respect was there for people all the time. That is why he rejected all things foreign”. (Head, 58)

Bassie Head’s portraiture of Raloke is often seen as her direct voice against colonial oppression over the colonized subjects. She with an extraordinary manner draws a true colored picture of the ‘civilized’ section stained with domination and exploitation over their colonized subjects.

The approach to Bassie Head’s “Heaven is not Closed” with a colonial-colonized relationship standpoint leads us to a conclusion as readers, to the rough, derogative exploitation of the native people that prevailed in the countries that were dominated by the Colonizers. The reality behind the profound showcased superiority of colonial Christian missionaries was set up during that period. After a careful reading of the text, a reader is expected to analyze the text in the above-mentioned ways and obtain a general idea about the prevailing atmosphere in the colonies. The text can also be viewed as a broad pen picture of the social conditions as portrayed by Bassie Head with her extraordinarily simplistic presentation, thus, making the argument ‘literature is the mirror of the society’ valid. As the people have been getting entangled with the age-old traditions and deriving a standard of living to suit their urges and wishes, any outward dominating influence, be it meticulous subjugation or anything else, remains conflicted and the present text, in question, rightly incarcerates such question in a more tangible form.

Works Cited

1. Abrams, M.H. and Geoffrey Galt Harphan. A Glossary of Literary Terms. India: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.
2. Bessie, Head. “Heaven is Not Closed.” Palimpsest. Ed. Bibhash Choudhury. India: Papyrus, 2013. Print.
3. Collins, Harper. COBUILD Advanced English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/colonialism
4. Gandhi, Leela. Post Colonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998. Print.
5. Nayar, Pramod K. Postcolonial Literature: An Introduction. India: Pearson India Education Service Pvt Ltd, 2008. Print.
6. Osman, Jamila. Colonialism Explained. 22 Nov. 2017. https://www.teenvogue.com/story/colonialism-explained
7. Young, Robert. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publication, 2001. Print.

Jamestown and New England were two different settlements that the English colonizers hereby the people were looking for either land, opportunities, or jobs.

Similarities between Jamestown and New England

Both settlements were formed by English immigrants who moved from their homeland either due to political, economic, religious, or social reasons. The migrants wanted better opportunities that were becoming scarce in their country. The English empire was expanding, and migrants either who came to New England or Jamestown were all part of the expansion. New England was the first English settlement in New England, the second after Jamestown. On the other hand, Jamestown was the first English settlement in North America. Therefore, both settlements were closely related to the timing of their settlements. Both settlements edged out the natives through various means such as war and persuasion using money and trade. They were able to occupy their land and continue farming and doing other forms of business. The places the migrant in both Jamestown and New England settlements choose to settle were strategic to their objectives. They had very fertile soils, natural resources like gold, and closeness to water bodies for irrigation or transportation. For example, the Virginia company that funded the Jamestown settlement had given instructions to the migrants on where to settle due to gold in the area.

Differences between Jamestown and New England settlements.

The main differences arose from the reasons that brought the migrants over to North America and the composition of these migrants. The group that settled in Jamestown was purely motivated by economic and social reasons. There were there to trade, farm, and make money to climb the social class. They were not running away from anything back in their country and were motivated by opportunities presented by the expansion of the English empire. However, the migrants who settled in New England were either political or religious people fleeing persecution from their home country. They were referred to as Puritans. They believed that England’s church, which had political and religious powers, was borrowing so much from Catholicism; therefore, it needed to be purified. Since they encountered a lot of opposition from the church, they had to flee to North America.

Another significant difference between the two settlements was how they acquired land and other resources. First of all, puritans who settled in the Plymouth area encountered Indians and other tribes. On arrival, an epidemic hand wiped out many villages; therefore, they did not get much resistance from the natives when acquiring land. Later on, they used the military to massacre the natives and take over their land. That was after more people came from England, and the stress on the land resources was becoming extreme. The Jamestown settlement was established through grants and military warrants. When the migrants arrived in Jamestown, they signed treaties with the natives and bought the land. Whenever they were unable to use diplomacy, they exerted their military power by stating that they had the right to land since they fought in the military. But generally, they bought the land. The Puritans also settled in an area where most natives moved during the winter to the new settlement and returned when the conditions were favorable. When they moved out, the Puritans would move into their lands.

In 1760, America was rapidly expanding and establishing itself as a superpower. The population had grown to over a million people, and the economy was booming, thanks to commerce in tobacco, lumber, rice, and dried fish, for example. America was edging closer toward revolution as people began to rebel against the brutal British rulers. They accepted religion, were mostly protestant, and had a melting pot of religions, but were anti-Catholic in most areas. Many states had various cultures, with individuals from the Netherlands, Germany, and Sweden in some, and primarily English in others; at the same time, the Irish and Scottish populations began to grow. Also, the idea of slavery was becoming more unpopular as people saw it as morally wrong. So, in this essay, I will be discussing political, economic, cultural, population, and religion in terms of how America`s colonies were similar and different in the 1760s.

One way the colonies were similar was that many of them were anti-Catholic. This arose from the early settler’s desire to abolish the Catholic Church, as they were protestant, they considered Catholicism corrupt. They wanted to promote Protestantism and spoke about how they were ideals, as well as how Catholicism had been corrupted, and this had a huge impact on Catholicism, as colonies believed the early settlers and began to join Protestantism, which is why most colonies were protestant. They didn’t despise Catholicism in and of itself. They despised Catholicism’s corruption and policies, however. This was mainly caused by the fact that the king had control over the Church, and they brought this argument with them and started to disapprove of Catholicism. Martin Luther, for example, was an anti-Catholic who put a strong emphasis on opposing Catholicism and promoting Protestantism, and it worked because many colonies followed his lead. It was even against the law to shelter or assist a priest! Priests were not allowed to stay in the Commonwealth for more than 5 days, and Catholics were not allowed to hold office. Anti-Catholic laws were enacted in colonies such as Virginia and Massachusetts, and anti-Catholic legislation was enacted in Rhode Island. Anti-Catholicism existed in Maryland for a short time.

Another way the colonies were similar was that many people fled persecution in their home countries to seek religious freedom in America, many of the early settlers were protestants, therefore most of the colonies had anti-Catholic laws. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, for example, were colonies with many religious refugees. There were multiple races in many states, including black, white, and native. Mixing black and white people resulted in mixed-race people in many places. As a result, most colonies made unification between black and white people prohibited. In addition, because many individuals immigrated from England seeking religious freedom, English culture heavily dominated in most colonies. Also, because individuals arrived from West Africa, England, the Netherlands, and Germany, there would have been a wide variety of languages in many of the colonies, therefore America is seen as a ‘Melting pot’ and these cultures did not gather up in one colony, they spread-out out in many, hence why the cultures were similar. Also, many people went to America because it was seen as rich and had gold, and there was a lot of opportunity, hence why it is called the ‘land of opportunity’, so many people went to America to these colonies seeking gold, and even though there was no gold, there were lucrative trades such as timber, slave trade, fishing, and tobacco in which you could earn a lot of money, which is why people went to America. Numerous colonies were attacked by natives, the Spanish, and the French. One example is New Hampshire, where the French assaulted and reduced the native population. Because of the wars against them, the native population in most colonies plummeted.

The colonies were also similar in that they were all unified as a result of Britain’s Navigation Acts. Because Britain wanted to import goods and conduct trade, it also had to go via the mercantile system, which meant that most of the colonies’ goods were similar, such as timber and tobacco. However, most of these colonies did not agree with Britain’s policies but were forced to comply. It also encouraged colonial trade, and most colonies began trading as a result in order to survive. This demonstrates the colonies’ ties once more since they all began relying on trading to exist. Also, many foreigners could not trade as it was banned in many colonies. The Navigation Act made it illegal for colonies to send goods to countries other than the United Kingdom.

Another similarity is that all colonies had a similar government structure, which is understandable given that they were all ruled by the British. This was made up of a governor and a legislative assembly, and the governor was selected by the crown, indicating British control. In most colonies, the legislative assembly was divided into two houses: upper and lower houses. All the colonies had a form of democracy.