‘O Captain! My Captain!’ is an allegorical poem written by Walt Whitman. The poem is one of the best-extended allegorical poems. Among the significant poetic concepts and literary devices that make his poem exceptional are the sound of words (a combination of words to reveal a special effect when we read them) and allusion (allegory, referring to something in an indirect manner, without using words that signify that one has made any direct reference). In this essay, “O Captain! My Captain!” shall be reviewed and analyzed.
Moreover, he extensively incorporates imagery (vivid language that evokes mental images or generates ideas) and rhyme (words having different sounds but with endings that sound alike) to make the poem more allegorical. Extensive use of poetry concepts has made people have an in-depth understanding of the poem in reference to Abraham Lincoln, the American president.
In essence, the allusion in “O Captain! My Captain!” refers to Abraham Lincoln. Whitman wrote the poem in the year 1865, the same year that Lincoln died. Captain is an allusion to the president, Abraham Lincoln, while the ‘ship’ (Whitman 1) is an illusion to the United States. The ‘fearful trip’ (Whitman 1) is an illusion to the troubles that the Americans including the president have to go through during the American Civil War while the phrase ‘some dream that on the deck, fallen cold and dead’ (Whitman 2) is an illusion to Lincoln’s assassination.
This implies that the poem is an illusion to Lincoln’s assassination during the American Civil War, a time when Americans were troubled and feared that they would die because of the war.
We get to know more about the assassination and the era through imagery, which incorporates three senses, sound, touch, and sight. Sight is in the second part of the first paragraph, the second line, ‘O bleeding drops of red’ (Whitman 1). One gets to envision the Captain bleeding and wonder what could have caused the bleeding.
This makes us realize someone hurt the Captain, Lincoln, which leads to the irony in the poem. In the second paragraph, the second line of the first part, there is sound imagery ‘the bugle trills’ (Whitman 2). This makes one imagine how joyful people were. Even though he was dead, people were grateful to Lincoln for helping them end the civil war, and that is why they held him highly. Thus, allegory in “O Captain! My Captain!” is clearly evident
One of the imagery incorporating touch is in the third paragraph, the first part, the second line ‘he has nor pulse not will’ (Whitman 3). This makes one realize the sadness of the poet as well as the people. Someone has to feel Lincoln’s pulse to ascertain that he is dead. It is unbelievable that he will never be the president even though he has helped Americans deal with the war.
The poem makes use of internal rhyme to maintain a steady rhythm. In line three ‘the port is near, the bells I hear’ (Whitman 1), and in the twentieth line ‘from fearful trip, the victor ship’ (Whitman 3), the poem exhibits an internal rhyme that enables the poem to have a joyful, quick and upbeat rhythm. Special syntax structure that features parallelism in lines adds to the tone of the poem
This exhibits excitement, and we get to know that the poet is speaking about how people are excited that they have won the civil war. However, when the poet is talking about sullen and sad moments, he interrupts the poem’s rhythm and redirects the attention of the reader.
To emphasize the shock of finding out that the Captain, Lincoln is dead, the poet makes sure that in each paragraph, the first part has a distinct rhyme scheme pattern. Nevertheless, as the analysis essay on “O Captain! My Captain!” shows, in the second part of each section, the rhyme scheme changes and focuses on the mood that reveals that the captain, Lincoln, is dead. For instance, in the first paragraph, the rhyme is AABB. However, in the second part, the rhyme takes a different direction CDEF
The poet also makes used of words and their sounds to communicate to the audience. In line one and nine, the repetition of the phrase ‘O Captain! My Captain’ (Whitman 2) is used to reveal that the captain’s death, immensely shocked the poet. In addition, at the end of every paragraph, the phrase ‘fallen cold and dead’ (Whitman 2) is repeated.
This emphasizes how difficult it is for people, including the poet, to believe that Lincoln is already dead. The repetition in “O Captain! My Captain!” reveals intense sadness and a hidden wish, the wish that Lincoln was alive. As explained, all the major poetry concepts used by Whitman, including the sound of words, allusion, imagery, and rhyme, helps us to understand the poem better in the form of a poem based on an extended metaphor.
Works Cited
Whitman, Walt. O Captain My Captain. Poetry Foundation, 2011. Web.
For a person who is not familiar with the Christian doctrine, John Bunyan’s seminal work helps create a world, ruled by the beliefs, fears, and hopes that are the established keystones, of the life of any god-fearing Christian. He has described in great detail, his arduous journey through a lot of trials and tribulations. It is only his undying hope and belief in the promise of a place in the hereafter, to him a place of undying bliss, which conveys him from one world to the next. Right from the time he begins his journey from his native town, the main character in the book demonstrates a tenacity of will that is nothing short of remarkable.
The purpose of this essay is to point out, in as much detail as possible, the allegorical allusions to the Christian way of life, or in short, the biblical teachings that are vital to the existence of the principal characters.
Allegory as the principal theme
John Bunyan’s book, The Pilgrim’s Progress, is a leading example of allegory right from the beginning to the end. Whether one is talking about the names of the characters in his book or the places that are described, there is a repeated return to what is supposed to be literary allusions to the Bible and Christian dogmas. While talking about the various places that the principal character of the book moves through, there is an allusion to the vagaries or in other words, the ups and downs of life; there is a pattern that has been followed that looks at allegorical allusions right through the book.
There are a few passages in the book, however, where the pattern of allegory is reduced to virtual non-existence. This is obvious in the description of the Bond Woman and Mount Sinai. It is true that in all novels that purport to be totally allegorical, there are passages that do not fit into the description of the same. On the other hand, there are passages where there is a clear depiction of what the author is trying to depict, rather than allude to some biblical or Christian reference. Therefore, it would be relevant to state that The Pilgrim’s Progress is by and large a study in allegory and a rich one at that.
The beginning of the tortuous trail
While referring to the spiritual journey that is undertaken by the principal character of the book, Christian, one cannot but help to wonder whether this is a ‘trail’ or a ‘trial’. He leaves his hometown, which is the “City of Destruction” on his own with a lot of burdens on his back. This is probably one of the first references to the ‘burden’ of ‘original sin’ that is part of the cross that every righteous Christian has to bear. By setting off on his own, he proves that it is the salvation of his soul that is at stake and hence does not have much time or empathy for the misery of his wife and children.
Allusions to the highs and the lows
There is a clear indication in the book that the journey to heaven is fraught with all sorts of obstacles. Going through the “Slough of Despond” is indicative of being caught up in the quagmire of depression and self-pity. Fleeing from the fires of his native town implies that he is moving out of the fires of hate and despair towards a place where peace and spirituality reign.
The name “Valley of Humiliation” might sound negative, but it is not depicted as such in the book. It refers to the humiliation suffered by Jesus Christ when he had to bear his cross right up to the spot where he was crucified. On the other hand, the “Valley of the Shadow of Death” is a difficult stretch to cross as it symbolizes a journey between two very perilous places. Another indication that the celestial journey is an uphill one, is the mention of another place, the “Hill Difficulty”, which is actually bordered by two very hazardous paths called “Danger” and “Destruction”.
There are quite a few references to places of rest that Christian makes during his journey. For instance, the “House Beautiful” is a resting place for all pilgrims who can view a range of mountains, which is actually imagery of the vast Christian congregation that is also on a spiritual journey. The other places that are covered include “Vanity and Vanity Fair” and also “By-Path Meadow” and “Hill Lucre”, places that showcase various ‘temptations of the flesh.
There are brief periods of respite such as “Plain Ease” where the pilgrim sits down to admire the work of God and is spurred on to reach his celestial goal as quickly as possible.
The allegorical allusions reach their zenith in the description of “The Land of Beulah” and the “The Celestial City”. The former refers to verdant stretches that are symbolic of the gardens of Eden prior to the fall of man. The latter refers to the final goal of spiritual progress, the pilgrim’s progress that has to reach its logical end. Here again, there is a pointed reference to the location of this celestial abode, which in the book is situated atop a hill.
One of the most important references that Bunyan makes to the exclusive pathway to heaven is the “Wicket Gate”. It is an inconspicuous feature of most farmlands and Bunyan has used it to depict that this is the narrow way that best describes the surest path to the gates of heaven. It is a point of entry and only those who are prepared to pass through it can be assured of a place in heaven.
Conclusion
The words of Psalm 23 best describe the unshakeable faith that is expressed by the chief character, Christian: “Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me.” He is painfully aware of all the pitfalls on the way and is careful to avoid them as best as he can. He also knows that a slight misstep might cause him to be swallowed up into the gaping chasm or hole, a.k.a. hell, from which he has no hope of salvation. With the promise of heaven burning like a flaming torch, he moves towards his goal.
Though there is the predominance of allegory in the book, what is intriguing is, even in places where one would like to believe that what is written is indicative of what is actually present and is actually non-allegorical in nature, the author goes back to his allegorical style with aplomb, in order to cover the ups and downs of life here to reach the hereafter.
References
Bunyan, John. The Pilgrim’s Progress. New York: Pocket Books, Inc., 1957.
Psalm 23, The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. U.K. The Gideons International. 1977.
As seen in the writings of Plato regarding Socrates, which some will argue is a blending of the two philosophers’ ideas, one of the requirements for a moral and ethical man is that he must first know “his spiritual self as it really is, including all its shortcomings, strengths and potentialities” (Sahakian, Sahakian 32). This is, ultimately, the journey being taken by the unnamed man and boy in Cormac McCarthy’s novel The Road (2006) as they travel from somewhere in the northern United States to the south in order to find a climate they can survive in the post-apocalyptic wasteland the country has become.
As Plato was a disciple of Socrates and the source of much of the information we have regarding much of what this man had to say, Socrates’ concept of ethics is relevant to an understanding of Plato’s views and the discoveries of the characters in Cormac McCarthy’s novel. According to Socrates, it is the man who does not know himself who cannot accurately judge his own capabilities and his own unique path to the greatest good based on accurate use of his strengths and knowledge of his weaknesses. Socrates takes this another step by suggesting that knowledge of oneself will instruct from within regarding those things which are good (moral and ethical) and those things which are not.
He suggests this by claiming that things that are good will make us feel happy inside while things that are bad will be immediately recognizable to the man who knows himself because these actions will cause “spiritual degradation and mental deterioration” (Sahakian, Sahakian 33) that will be immediately apparent.
As the man and boy travel through the barren landscape, it can be seen that the ethics of the boy have developed along different routes than the ethics of his father, leading them each to different paths of salvation. This progression can be most clearly seen by making a comparison between Plato’s Allegory of the Cave and the situation in which the man and boy find themselves within McCarthy’s novel, particularly in terms of the characteristics of the cave, the nature of the forms presented and the ultimate enlightenment each character receives.
The cave
Plato’s allegory begins with the placement of all humans within a dark cave, positioned in such a way that they can only see what their captors have elected to allow them to see. Within the primitive technology of his time, Plato described such a position. In the dialogue he presents, Socrates explains “here they [human beings] have been from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads” (Kreis 2004).
From where they sit, the world is composed of the shadows of things that are passing behind them, illuminated by a light source that cannot be seen or guessed at. Within this world, there is no color or natural light. What the people know about their world is extremely limited and sharply defined by the simple and relatively concrete terms of dark, light, hot, cold, here and not here. It is two dimensional, defined by height and width but never provided depth or texture. There are no real conceptions for shades of grey, no need to make fine distinctions and no decisions that must be made that are not drastic, such as the decisions one might need to decide if one suddenly found oneself free of their constraints.
Within the dialogue, Socrates goes on to explain that when one of these individuals is released from the bonds that bind him, “he will suffer sharp pains; the glare will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities of which in his former state he had seen the shadows” (Kreis 2004). Even when facing the true reality, these individuals will strive to reject what they see, still preferring to believe that what they once knew is still real.
However, Socrates continues the discussion by explaining that once this individual is forced to live in this newer light, the person will begin to understand their new perception as being the true reality by degrees: “… first he will see the shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven” (Kreis 2004). From this acceptance, Socrates theorized that the person would be very reluctant to return to the cave and would instead take pity on those he had left behind him in the cave.
The connection between Plato’s cave and the world introduced at the opening of McCarthy’s novel is almost impossible to miss. It is described as “nights dark beyond darkness and the days more gray each one than what had gone before. Like the onset of some cold glaucoma dimming away the world” (McCarthy 3). The people are required to wear anything they can find as screens over their mouths in order to breathe through the ash-filled air and the sun is permanently hidden behind the clouds, as are the moon and stars.
Everything, everywhere has been burned, turning the world into black and grey underneath a ‘sullen’ light that casts only feeble shadows at its peak. What colors that do exist are muted within this light and covered by the pall of ash and the biting cold. There are no animals, no plants and very few people.
Of these, most are rightly considered hostile. “The world shrinking down about a raw core of parsible entities. The names of things slowly following those things into oblivion. Colors. The names of birds. Things to eat. Finally the names of things one believed to be true. More fragile than he would have thought” (McCarthy 75). The reduction of the world into only a limited number of possibilities sounds very much like the reduced world of Plato’s cave.
The connection is made undeniable, though, with the description of the man’s dream in which “he had wandered in a cave where the child led him by the hand” (McCarthy 3) and the light source seems to have been their bodies symbolizing that both individuals are ‘enlightened’ beings. The man and boy are experiencing the same sort of pain and natural rejection of true reality that is described by Socrates as being felt by the man emerging from the cave.
The difference here is that the pain is the pain of a man being forced to re-enter the darkness of the cave despite all his conceptions of a better world. His reluctance to accept the reality before him forces him to feel pity for the young son who will never experience all the joys he’d once hoped to give him. This is obvious in the touching scene when he finds the can of Coke. “[H]e put his thumbnail under the aluminum clip on the top of the can and opened it.
He leaned his nose to the slight fizz coming from the can and then handed it to the boy. … You drink it … It’s because I won’t ever get to drink another one, isn’t it?” (McCarthy 20). As the man comes to realize, the world he remembers will never be anything more than a fantasy world to his son, a place of unrealizable possibilities for which the son must ultimately pity the father for having lost.
The forms
In the Allegory of the Cave, Plato sets forth the idea that mankind is only living in an illusion of life, that the reality is beyond the scope of our own senses and can only be reached through the intellect. As has been described, humans are locked within a specific position that only provides them with a two-dimensional, strictly limited understanding of the world around them. In this vision, Socrates explains that the human beings are watching a giant screen on which marionettes and other things dance, but the humans can only see the shadows of these moving things.
The actual colors and nature of these things cannot be perceived from such a perspective, but not having known anything else, Socrates argues that the humans don’t know there’s something to miss: “To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images” (Sahakian, Sahakian 388). While the people understand that the shapes on the screen are triangular or circular, they are unaware of the significance of the pyramids or the rubber ball. Although this is their reality as they can see it, Plato indicates a sense of mystery must pervade everything as the light source itself must provoke a sense of inquiry.
This can be compared in a very material sense with the forms of the remaining world that are often recognizable to the father, but have no meaning for the son. The sharing of a can of Coke is only one instance where the father, because of his knowledge of the world before the cataclysm that occurred, is able to find safe food and water for them to drink. The son sees a round metal cylinder, which could be something good to eat or something poisonous or something to power a kind of useful machine.
Toy trucks are given sound only through the vocal chords of the father rather than having ever actually heard one and trains are, to the boy, only stationary creatures standing on tracks to rust away with the centuries. Again, though, the author introduces a particularly poignant symbol of the differences between the forms of the father and those of the son with the finding of the sextant. A sextant is a tool of navigation that utilizes the sun, moon or stars as a light source to find direction (Nova 2002).
The man “held it to his eye and turned the wheel. It was the first thing he’d seen in a long time that stirred him” (McCarthy 192). The reason he didn’t bring such a useful tool back for his son to use was because it no longer worked. The sun, permanently hidden behind clouds of ash, could only provide the earth with a diffuse light. Much like the hidden source of light in Plato’s cave, it is incapable of providing direction.
The Salvation
In Plato’s dialogue, Socrates explains that when one of the individuals from the cave is released from the bonds that bind him and “he is reluctantly dragged up a steep and rugged ascent, and held fast until he’s forced into the presence of the sun himself”, he has made an intellectual journey into a higher realm of understanding. Through this description, Plato introduces the imagery of a mountain, alluding to the depths of the cave, the ascent of the freed mind and then, finally, making the jump to the heavens by forcing his character into the presence of the sun.
With this imagery, one can easily understand how the person who stands higher on the mountain would be able to see things clearer than those standing in the valley, or the cave. Once his eyes become adjusted to the new light, this individual is able to more correctly assess the reality of the world he finds around him by degrees: “… first he will see the shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven” (Sahakian, Sahakian 388).
If that person returned to help the others find their way out of the cave and could make himself accepted as such, Socrates indicates the people would have a tendency to idolize him, but having only been ahead of them in seeing the true reality, this leader would be reluctant to take on such a role. However, if the person had returned to their imprisonment within the cave before their sight was adjusted, they would instead be ridiculed, considered crazy by the inhabitants of the cave who had never left and held as an example for why no one should try venturing out of the cave.
At the beginning of the book, the narrator tells the reader about the dream the man was having just before he woke up into the grey world of his present reality. In the dream, “he had wandered in a cave where the child led him by the hand” (McCarthy 3) and the light source seems to have been their bodies symbolizing that both individuals are ‘enlightened’ beings. However, the son was born just after the apocalyptic event occurred and has no memories of the world his father survived.
This is indicated through his incomprehension of the forms left over from his father’s world but doesn’t explain why he should be considered an enlightened being. Constant references to his blond hair and angelic look continue to reinforce the idea that the son is perhaps even more enlightened than the father. The reason for this relates back to Plato’s basic metaphor of adjusting one’s eyes to the light. While the man continues to hope for a better future for his son, he slowly begins to realize that the type of fire that once burned in him is useless in this new world. The discovery of an old coin forces the man to face reality. “The lettering was in Spanish.
He started to call to the boy where he trudged ahead and then he looked about at the gray country and the gray sky and he dropped the coin and hurried on to catch up” (McCarthy 173). As he realizes his survival skills and knowledge are based upon a world that no longer exists, the man’s fire can be seen to burn into ash and he dies, instructing his son to continue going south and to keep his fire burning.
The fire of the son, though, is enlightenment brought about by already having his eyes adjusted to the new light of the world. He is aware that he has lost much in losing the world of his father, but he is also aware that he must find a means of surviving in this world. Intuitively, he perceives that this salvation will only come from finding a way of joining up with other ‘good people’ and beginning the process of rebuilding society.
While his father’s goals are simply to keep the two of them alive, the boy realizes that the final destruction of humanity is the loss of kindness. He finds it increasingly difficult to obey the instructions of his father as they continue south, finally breaking down in tears to force his father to do the right thing for a man who had thought to steal everything they owned. Later that evening, the man tells the boy, “I wasn’t going to kill him” and the boy answers back “But we did kill him” (McCarthy 219).
The boy is the leader of the future because his eyes are already adjusted to the light of a world completely alien and incomprehensible to those of his father’s generation. Although he will require the help of the elder members of a group to interpret the forms of the previous generations, it will be his clear sight in identifying the unique value of the human being that will eventually push him to become the carrier of the light his father envisions.
Conclusion
Cormac McCarthy’s novel The Road is an interesting investigation of Plato’s allegory of the cave from the perspective of an enlightened society being forced to re-enter the darkness of a completely alien and hostile world. Both stories rely on a darkened, two-dimensional world in which options are few, environments are hostile and colorless and light is diffuse and mysterious. Within these worlds, there are items or forms that are equally mysterious and unidentifiable, such as the can of Coke and the flare gun that shoots fire to alert someone of a presence as compared to the marionettes and fire of Plato’s world.
While these are amazing things, they are things that just don’t exist and thus remain outside of the world of the child or the people in the cave. The man, having come from an enlightened world, introduces his son to those things that were missed as is predicted by Plato, but is unable to pass that enlightenment along because it no longer applies to this new world under this new light. Thus the man moves in a reverse direction from the enlightenment of Plato. However, the boy, also moving in this same direction, is moving into a new enlightenment. Like Plato’s enlightened leader, the boy understands the world as it is revealed under his new light and shows promise of finding humanity’s salvation in his mercy and kindness.
Works Cited
Kreis, Steven. “Plato: The Allegory of the Cave.” 2004. The History Guide. Web.
McCarthy, Cormac. The Road. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006.
Nova. “How a Sextant Works.” Shackleton’s Voyage of Endurance. Nova Online. New York: PBS, (2002). Web.
Sahakian, W. and Sahakian, M. Ideas of the Great Philosophers. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1966. Web.
Myths are traditional stories that include specific knowledge about nature or humans. Myths are often discussed in religions because they also contain a certain belief in gods and wonderful forces. Beliefs and myths are related to each other, and they differ mainly in the form of representation. Myths and religion are related to each other because they try to answer the important questions for humans, such as the story of world creation, which is presented in myths and religious texts (Coolidge, 2001, p. 12).
Greek Myths
Myth 1: Achilles
Literature it’s found in: Madeline Miller, The Song of Achilles
Myth 2: Sisyphus
Literature it’s found in: Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus
Greek myths include the stories about heroes and gods associated with the world’s creation and development. Myths are associated with the struggles among gods and heroic actions of kings and gods’ children.
The pieces of literature are important to discuss the themes developed in the Greek myths from the modern point of view.
Allegory Myths
Physical Allegory Myths
Myth 1: Aphrodite
Literature it’s found in: Isabel Allende, Aphrodite
Myth 2: Daphne
Literature it’s found in: Ovid, Metamorphoses
Physical allegory myths are associated with the idea of transformation and embodiment. Thus, Aphrodite often stands for love and beauty. Daphne is associated with the tragic story of love.
Ovid discusses the story of how Daphne was transformed into the laurel tree because of the tragic story of love. Allende discusses the story of Aphrodite as the embodiment of love. These pieces of literature are important to accentuate the associations of people associated with mythological characters.
Historical Allegory Myths
Myth 1: Priam
Literature it’s found in: Homer, Iliad
Myth 2: Cynortas
Literature it’s found in: Pausanias’s Description of Greece
Historical allegory myths presented the stories related to the real places and people in the context of Greek mythology.
Priam and Cynortas were the kings of the Greek territories, and the pieces of literature represent the stories about their rule as myths. These works are important to discuss real historical events with references to their heroic nature.
Moral Allegory Myths
Myth 1: Pyramus and Thisbe
Literature it’s found in: William Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night’s Dream
Myth 2: Eros and Psyche
Literature it’s found in: Apuleius, Cupid, and Psyche
Moral allegory myths are focused on the moral issues and aspects of the relationships. They are important to demonstrate ways to find the right moral decisions.
These tragic myths discuss the themes of eternal love, trust, and morality. They help in leading people to the right decisions regarding their feelings and relationships.
Medieval and Renaissance Myths
Myth 1: Venus and Adonis
Literature it’s found in: William Shakespeare, Venus, and Adonis
Myth 2: King Arthur
Literature it’s found in: The Story of King Arthur and His Knights
The Medieval and Renaissance myths were based on the classical Greek myths and on the medieval stories, which discusses the ideas of knighthood (Trembinski, 2006, p. 58).
Theories of Enlightenment Myths
Medieval myths represented in stories are important to understand the chivalry laws followed in the society. Renaissance myths are based on rethinking the Greek scenarios in the context of imitating classical ideas and patterns.
Myth 1: Hyperion
Literature it’s found in: John Keats, The Fall of Hyperion
Myth 2: Arcadia
Literature it’s found in: John Keats, “Ode on a Grecian Urn”
Enlightenment myths are based on the Greek myths, but they provide the discussion of the Greek themes in the social and moral contexts. The main focus is on social rules and morality (Barnett, 2003, p. 12).
These pieces of literature are important to present the interpretation of the classical myths in relation to the traditions of the 18th-19th centuries.
Works Cited
Barnett, S. (2003). The Enlightenment and religion: The myths of modernity. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Coolidge, O. (2001). Greek myths. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Trembinski, D. (2006). Medieval myths, legends, and songs. New York, NY: Crabtree Publishing Company.
“The Second Coming” – a poem by William Yeats – has relevance to the current world by portraying history as a repeating cycle. It evokes mixed feelings among readers, pushing them to think about Christ’s return and the changing order in the Christian world. For the reader who draws parallels between the text and the present time, like me, it symbolizes the instability that exists in the 21st century.
Discussion
The poem by Yeats is an allegory of the current day because the symbols and imagery used in the text resemble a hard time in history. He portrays the period of anarchy when the nation does not recognize authority. This line justifies it: “The falcon cannot hear the falconer” (Yeats). Thus, the first stanza aims to cause panic by depicting a terrible picture of the universe where everything is falling apart. My personal experience compares it with the last decade when people suffered from political unrest, global pandemic, and economic recession. It connects this poem to the period when the government provided more freedom to the nation, but people still struggled.
Symbols utilized in the text force readers to believe that the second coming brings terror. For example, it hints at the Sphinx: “A shape with lion body and the head of a man” (Yeats). Notably, the Sphinx is an evil demon of destruction, meaning that Yeats points to the idea that the world is coming closer to its collapse. Thus, he continues to evoke a fear of the unknown through literary devices.
Conclusion
To conclude, Yeats skillfully portrays the historical time when the world is changing. However, in his opinion, these changes do not result in a positive outcome but bring destruction. Readers feel the excitement for the second coming but also fear and anxiety of its unknown consequences. Thus, the poem resembles the current day when people face challenges and continue to fight even in the darkness.
Work Cited
Yeats, William. “The Second Coming.” Poetry Foundation, 1921. Web.
Good Country People is a short allegorical story, written by Flannery O’Connor, about the dual nature of religious workers, loneliness, and egocentrism. Indeed, even the characters’ names possess a hidden meaning about their appearance, personality, or life. The story commences with the description of two old ladies and their children who belong to two different social classes. Mrs. Freeman is a maid in Mrs. Hopewell’s house, and the former was described as a woman with two primary unpleasant facial expressions for the public. Since the story was told from Mrs. Hopewell’s viewpoint, she was presented as a calm, polite, and tolerant person, noticing but forgiving other people’s flaws, including her daughter Joy, who chose the formal name Hulga. Their bitter coexistence was interrupted by a 19-year-old handsome man, Manley Pointer, who sold Bibles door-to-door and claimed to have the same heart disease as Joy but appeared to be a criminal. Through symbolism, O’Connor was able to convey the characters’ unique features with their names, connection to parents with Hulga’s wooden leg, Joy’s mindset with her glasses, and Pointer’s non-religiousness with the hollow Bible.
The first symbol is the characters’ names that partly represent their fates and personalities. For example, the reader is not provided with the first names of Mrs. Freeman and Mrs. Hopewell. They acquired their last names from marriages, indirectly pointing to the only function that women could have in the South at that time, indicating the forced fate that is opposite of their actual situation. For instance, Mrs. Freeman is not a slave, but she is not free because she is a maid, while Mrs. Hopewell is hopeless. The women’s personalities were revealed in their dialogues and their children. Both are polite and consider themselves good individuals who sometimes have to endure other people’s rudeness or ignorance. Mrs. Freeman’s daughters, Glynese and Carramae, red and blond girls, whom Joy associated with Glycerin and Caramel, indicating a lack of respect for their chosen life path (O’Connor 2). Moreover, Joy was never joyful in reality; thus, she changed her name to Hulga to complete the image of an ugly person to avoid the traditional path of all South women. Specifically, she seemed to want to avoid marriage and childbirth.
The second allegoric element in this story was Hulga’s wooden leg. This symbol represents her inability to become independent of her mother. Indeed, she still lives with her parent, is unemployed, and does not have relationships with other people. It appears that she was born with a congenital heart defect that, in the best-case scenario, would allow her to live until her forties (O’Connor 5). Still, Mrs. Hopewell wanted her daughter to get married at the right age. However, an accidental gunshot wound at the age of ten became a pivotal point in Joy’s life when she was implanted with the wooden leg and escaped the usual fate of her female counterparts. Despite a PhD degree, the girl did not work and lived with her mother, waiting for her own death. The appearance of Pointer gave her a tiny hope for a new life. However, the girl’s dreams did not become a reality because Hulga was deceived by the young man and lost her artificial leg. Nevertheless, the disappearance of her prosthesis was an allegory for the opportunity to detach from the parental home and start an adult life.
The third allegoric element of the short story was Hulga’s glasses that Manley stole along with her wooden leg. Hulga’s glasses are her vision and ability to see the world clearly, both literally and figuratively. However, she was ready to refuse her beliefs for this man. Thus, she allowed him to take away her glasses during the moment of intimacy: “when her glasses got in his way, he took them off her and slipped them into his pocket” (O’Connor 13). Since Pointer escaped, Hulga was left without glasses because she no longer could look at the world through the lens of her old mindset.
The fourth symbol was the young man’s suitcase with two Bibles. Indeed, one of the Bibles was an empty container for whiskey, cards, and condoms (O’Connor 15). The hollow represented not only Pointer’s absence of Christian beliefs but was also an allegory for the insincerity of some religious workers, who talk about God and are simultaneously involved in sinful acts. Furthermore, this picture and the young man’s altered behavior not only ruined Hulga’s hope for a different future but also confirmed her atheist believes.
In summary, O’Connor’s Good Country People represents the issues of the dishonesty of religious workers, the difficulty of detaching from parental supervision, and the obsession of individuals with their goodness and other people’s faults. This story showed a painful experience of a young woman with poor health who failed to build social connections despite several university degrees. Four symbolic elements in this short story uncovered Hulga’s journey to detachment from her mother and old beliefs. The first was the characters’ names that described their appearance and personalities. The second was Hulga’s artificial leg as an anchor to her mother. The third was Hulga glasses, which the young man stole from her smoothly, becoming the critical facilitator of disillusionment. The fourth was Pointer’s suitcase with fake Bibles as a symbol of the falsity of his religiousness. Overall, the evil act of the young man left Hulga in rage and disappointment but with a more realistic perception of the world.
Works Cited
O’Connor, Flannery. Good Country People. Gothic Digital Series, 1955.
The film “Dona Barbara” employs allegory to portray two worlds. The novel is set in the 1940s Venezuelan transitional period. During this time, the country was experiencing a new culture and way of life brought about by the discovery of oil.
As such, an oil economy was starting to emerge, bringing with it an urban culture. The emergence of urbanism set the pace for a conflict between modern civilization and barbarism. This conflict is neatly depicted through allegory. Therefore, the film can be seen as both a national as well as a literary allegory.
In “Dona Barbara”, the conflict is signified through a number of allegorical symbols, such as urban culture versus the rural, progressiveness against retrogressiveness, the law against the outlaw, masculinity versus femininity, rational thought against the irrational thought (passion and Freudian sexual desires), et cetera.
There are many critics of the film, each of whom has a varied version of the use of allegory. However, all the critics are in agreement that the use of allegory helps to clearly depict two oppositions not only in the film but also of the 1940s Venezuela. Thus, the film is seen as a way of confronting the old and the new cultures and the significant conflict that arises from this fusion. Allegory is not only used for literary sense but also for explicitly portraying the social cultural history of Venezuela.
The allegorical nature of the film is embedded in the film itself as seen in a number of symbols. Allegory is used to illustrate a transition between civilization and barbarism. The character, Dona Barbara, is seen as a synthesis not just of the two worlds, but also in transit between barbarism and civilization. She is an allegory of barbarism and a symbol of the uncultured woman of loose morals.
This is evident in her tendency to use the power of seduction to overpower men, a characteristic that has earned her the title, ‘the devourer of men’1. Still, Dona Barbara is seen as a representation of civility and decorum when she genuinely falls in love with Santos Luzardo2. She is seen as a child of the two worlds and a victim of the Venezuelan social cultural conflict. This transformation from bad to good is overshadowed by the general character of Dona Barbara, otherwise christened Barbarita (a homophone to barbarism).
The initial representation of Barbara as a simple girl is soon overshadowed by her transition to a gang leader who uses violence to achieve what she wants. This transition is translated in the Freudian perceptive that childhood sexual experiences determine adult behavior. Dona is a victim of child rape and violence and this transformation is thus seen as a way of reliving her childhood. Dona is thus the allegory of the Venezuelan woman who is a victim of the synthesis between civilization and barbarism.
The film is a good example on the use of literature to reflect on matters of social cultural and historical importance to a nation. Allegory is used to show a clear distinction between the Venezuelan historical conflict between law and lawlessness, and
John King. Magical reels: a history of cinema in Latin America. (London: Verso, 2000). 49
Juan Pablo Dabove. Nightmares of the lettered city: banditry and literature in Latin America. (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007). 271-280
the subsequent consequences. This country has always been torn between the old agrarian order (the rule of the law) and lawlessness (characterized by violence). This is portrayed in the Ilanera agrarian rural culture in which there is confusion between law and lawlessness.
The director of the film achieves this by intertwining cattle ranching (the allegory of agrarian law – civilization) and cattle rustling (the allegory lawlessness – barbarism) 2. Santos Luzardo, a civil gentleman, is also a symbol of the confusion between lawlessness and the rule of the law.
The judges (symbolic of lawfulness) rule against him, thereby denying him the ownership of his property3. Santos Luzardo’s acceptance of this rule is an indication that he does not necessarily see himself as a victim of the injustices as he is well aware of his violent past, a means through which he acquired his wealth. As such, literature is used to not only synthesis civilization and barbarism, but also to clearly depict Venezuelan social cultural historical struggles with lawlessness.
The film is a clear depiction of how literature can be used to illuminate not only the relevance of literary characters but also of reality. Allegory is a stylistic device employed by the director of this film to highlight the social cultural conflict in 1940s Venezuela, brought about by the emergence of urban civilization. It thus helps to portray the synthesis of the civility of modernity and the barbarism of the
Juan Pablo Dabove. Nightmares of the lettered city: banditry and literature in Latin America. (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007). 271-280
“Dona Barbara” directed by Fernando de Fuentes. (RTI Colombia) pre-1940s Venezuela. This synthesis is seen effectively through some characters like Barbarita, law, and gender, among others.
Bibliography
Dabove, Juan. Nightmares of the Lettered City: Banditry and Literature in Latin America. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2007. 271-280
“Dona Barbara” directed by Fernando de Fuentes. RTI: Colombia.
King, John. Magical Reels: A History of Cinema in Latin America. London: Verso, 2000. 49
The film Crossroads is a very impressive example of an odyssey from a young man, fascinated by blues, to a recognized musician. This road-movie represents a striking assembly of music and drama. Beautiful music is combined with metaphorical meaning. Moreover, this film abounds in symbols and allegories and provides food for thought. Crossroads incarnates not only a journey for self-knowledge, but also deep ideas and concerns about genuine culture and music.
The story is about an ambitious beginner, who is fond of blues and tries to resemble his idols, one of which is Robert Johnson, a legendary bluesman. To achieve his cherished life-long ambition and become a skilled famous musician, Eugene Martone trails an elderly African blues musician, Willie Brown. This legendary performer lives in a Harlem hospital, where Eugene gets a job. The young man seeks for a lost thirtieth song of Robert Johnson and asks Willie for help, because Brown was Johnson’s longtime friend.
An Old Legend of the Devil
The first example of allegory can be found in an episode when Eugene plays blues to prove that he really needs to find this lost song. Brown admits that Martone plays with no soul. “Soul” is a linking motif through the whole film. In his youth Willie came to a crossroads, where Robert Johnson had made a deal with the Devil, and exchanged his soul for fame and success of a bluesman like Robert did. In fact, it is Willie who has no soul. He is cheated and tries to return his soul, but to achieve his goal he must go to the same crossroads. “Feeling cheated by his lack of fame, Willie goes back to the crossroads to renege on the deal” (Schroeder 97). He needs to give his dues to the Devil. Thus, soul symbolizes high price to pay for intention of becoming famous and recognized. Maybe, this price is too high for an ordinary human, which is mortal.
Actually, Willie manipulates Eugene and assumes that he knows the missing Robert Johnson’s tune. Martone helps him to return to Mississippi in exchange for this tune. Young Eugene lives through the lessons in want and hard living. He experiences love and betray, genuine feelings and artificial smiles. He becomes an adult man, and his lifelong dream becomes even more cherished despite obstacles he comes across.
The appearance of supernatural when they reached a rural crossroads in Mississippi is a sinister omen. Willie reveals the truth that there is no missing song. He cheers Eugene up that the young man has learnt much more than any song could teach him. Brown hints that his and Robert Johnson’s gift for music were given them by the Devil. It is this ill-boding contract that makes him suffer. All of a sudden, the Devil nicknamed Scratch shows up. He declares the contract between him and Brown valid.
This motif resembles an old legend about Faust who is reputed to have sold his soul to the Devil. Thus, an image of the Devil in the film is also an allegory. This cunning seducer represents burning ambition, fame and acknowledgement. Yearning for glory turns people into the Devil’s prey. They are ready to sacrifice their souls to become celebrated people. The Devil symbolizes irresistible temptation to get secret knowledge and become famous. Secret notion of harmonica is like the fruit from the tree of knowledge. Brown and Martone are proposed a new deal. Eugene participates in a special concert and competes with the Devil’s assistant Jack Butler. Jack Butler sold his soul too. He became an outstanding musician and was sure in his superiority. If Martone wins, Brown will get his soul back. If Eugene loses, his soul will be a forfeit. This new contract proves cunning nature of the Satan. The filmmakers combine fiction with true-to-life perfection of performing skill.
This mythical suggestion is strengthened by means of involving a real-life blues legend. The rumors told that Robert Johnson had sold his soul. It could justify his sudden famousness. Thus, the filmmakers achieve deeper meaning than a simple music fable could have. They deal with a vast variety of characters from imaginary to authentic. It makes the movie fascinating and original.
Papa Legba
The character of devil is introduced in the film by means of calling him Legba. This voodoo god stands at a spiritual crossroads. It makes him to have something in common with the idea and title of the film Crossroads. Legba gives or refuses to give permission to speak to main spiritual leader. He is a divine interpreter. To crown it all, Legba was a vehicle of communication between a world of people and a world of gods, who awarded or deprived of gifts. It is through him people could address gods and get responses. And through him Eugene could get outstanding musical ability like Brown and Johnson. Legba implies a somehow divine nature of giftedness for music and proves the main collision of the film built on the supernatural acquirement of musical ability.
Black-and-white Flashbacks
The elements of fiction mingle with true-to-life episodes. At first, back-and–white flashbacks about Robert Johnson’s life seem to contribute to verisimilitude, but their real purpose is just the opposite. They are intended to show mystical past and highlight the deal of Johnson with the Devil. Brown who tries to reclaim his soul from the Devil is sure to fail, because the Satan never loses his bets, which are made at a crossroads.
Crossroads as Intersection of Old and New
The most vivid symbol of a crossroads is not unambiguous. Its prime meaning of a place where treaties with the Devil are concluded is combined with another meaning. A rural crossroads at a deserted place symbolizes intersection of eternal evil represented by the Devil, old generation represented by Brown and new breath brought by Eugene. This new breath will contribute to the development of blues and refresh it. If there is no missing song, there is no necessity to stick to old things. It does not mean rejection; it means a new round of blues, new names, new songs and new performers.
This crossroads is a symbol of choice everybody should make in his life: to remain honest to himself or sell his soul to the Devil. Such choice shows what sacrifices a human can make to become famous. Whether celebrity is worth it, it is up to each person to decide. The Devil speculates in fairness and venality. He is persuaded in vile nature of people.
This intersection of spiritual unity and low instincts is depicted in the climax of the film. The guitar duel between Eugene playing the blues and the Devil’s assistant playing heavy metal is not simply a contest; it is a crossing of contaminated culture of the modern music industry and pure art, performing skill, and classical values. In this head-cutting contest Eugene beats the Devil with a classical guitar riff. Brown gets his soul back and Martone is recognized as a unique and outstanding bluesman.
Guitar Duel and Happy End
And one more allegory is embodied in the notion of crossroads. It is a meeting of genuine, original music and newly born cold-hearted disharmonious rhythm. Here old means authentic and candid, and new is artificial and fake. The filmmakers do not reject new tendencies; they just warn about threatening spiritual impoverishment and readiness to sacrifice everything in order to succeed.
More to the point, Eugene wins the battle because he resorts to classical training. He performs music that his rival cannot match. Brown gets his soul back, and he and Eugene come to be again in Mississippi. They hit the road. There are many unpredictable adventures ahead of them.
It appears to be a happy ending. Willie Brown is liberated from damnation and enjoys freedom of traveling without any restrictions; Eugene Martone has reached credentials as an outstanding bluesman, nicknamed “Lightning”. Thus, the main characters achieved their goals. But what appears to be an ending may turn out into a new beginning. This road of celebrity and acknowledgement can be much more difficult that that of maturation. An ordeal of fame often brings to pride and striving for individual prominence at any cost. Who knows, maybe to let Eugene to win is one more shrewd trick of the Devil.
Conclusion
Many temptations surround people. The film succeeded in showing them in a fascinating ensemble of music and fable. This story was inspired by an old legend and an authentic character of talented bluesmen Robert Johnson. Fiction and genuineness intermingle in the movie and create a canvas of allegory and reality. Elaborated symbols contribute to the main idea of the film and prove sincerity and straightforwardness of a real music despite its age.
Works Cited
Schroeder, Patricia R. Robert Johnson, mythmaking, and contemporary American culture. Urbana Univ. of Illinois Press, 2004.