Category: Alcohol

The brain plays a major role in controlling various body functions such as movement, sensation, thinking, memory, and speech. It is divided into two halves with specialized functions. The right-brain’s functions include controlling the left side of the body, visual and spatial skills, memory storage, feelings and intuitions, holistic interpretations, and creativity. The left-brain’s functions include controlling the right side of the body, sequential analysis, memory storage in particular order, logical interpretations, reading and understanding language, and analyzing. Damage to either side of brain can lead to adverse effects on the individual’s body and behavior and any damage caused to a specific side is known to show its adverse effects on the opposite side of the body. For example, damage to the right hemisphere of the brain leads to cognitive-communication problems, such as impaired memory, attention problems, and poor reasoning.

The brain is a very complex structure in our body. The brain is made up of several different parts and each of those parts have different functions. Researchers are investigating the processes and the functions of the different structures of the brain. There is plenty of information that they have found to help us understand a little of the complexity of the human brain. One structure that researchers have paid much attention to is the hippocampus. The hippocampus is a S-shaped structure within the temporal lobe. The word hippocampus comes from the Latin word meaning ‘sea horse’. The hippocampus’s shape resembles a sea horse. The hippocampus serves a critical role in declarative memory which is our capacity to recall everyday facts and events. When alcohol is introduced to this part of the brain it will result in the human not remembering what happened at this time the next day, or two days possibly. Damage to the hippocampus can also lead to amnesia. One of the most famous cases involving amnesia is H.M. whose memory was severely impaired after an operation took out most of his hippocampus and medial temporal lobe. False memories are also formed in the hippocampus which makes people think they remember events or parts of events that never occurred. The hippocampus is part of the limbic system which consists of the cingulate cortex, olfactory cortex, and amygdala. The limbic system is important in motivations and emotions such us eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and aggression. The hippocampus also receives input from the olfactory which involves the sense of smell. Activation of the amygdala, which is mainly responsible for encoding and retaining emotional memories, can strengthen the memory formation in the hippocampus. The medial temporal lobe which contains the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex and para hippocampal cortex is the main brain area for aspects of memory. Long-term alcohol abuse can permanently damage the hippocampus and will make you not be able to learn anything as easy as before. If this system is damaged, then you can potentially blackout and go unconscious. This can happen just from alcohol alone, so just imagine what will happen if you keep damaging this part of the brain and you get addicted and do this to yourself all the time.

Another system is the central nervous system. The nervous system is a whole network of specialized cells which coordinate actions by sending signals from one part of the body to another. The signals can either be in form of electrochemical waves or chemical releases. It is comprised of the brain and the spinal cord that make up a large part of the entire nervous system. The spinal cord serves as a conduit for signals between the brain and the rest of the body. It also controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain. The brain is responsible for integrating most sensory information and coordinating body function, both consciously and unconsciously. Complex functions such as thinking and feeling as well as regulation of homeostasis are attributable to different parts of the brain. One function of the central nervous system is regulating body temperature. As we exercise, we create heat and in order to maintain constant temperature the nervous system sends messages to increase blood flow and sweating disperse the heat. When alcohol is introduced, your heart rate can increase and widen blood vessels in your skin making you sweat a lot. The alcohol will affect how signals flow through your body making you think, speak, and move more slowly. This is represented when you have consumed alcohol and you try to speak to someone, and they tell you that you don’t make any sense. You might also try to think of what day it is, and you won’t have any clue.

There is one other system that is affected by alcohol and that is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is part of the endocrine system which works together with the nervous system to control the flow of information to the nerves and other regions of the body. Together, the nervous system and the endocrine system ensure proper communication between various organs of the body to maintain a constant internal environment, also called homeostasis. Almost every organ and cell in the body is affected by the endocrine system. Its hormones control metabolism and energy levels, electrolyte balance, growth and development, and reproduction. This system when it is affected by alcohol can decrease your energy and make you more tired and lazy. It will make you very thirsty and will either be quenched by more alcohol, which will not work, or something else to drink. If you have ever heard of people saying that alcohol will stunt your growth it is true. It can harm your liver and bones and make them become weak. In adults, alcohol consumption can disrupt the ongoing balance between the erosion and the remodeling of bone tissue, contributing to alcoholic bone disease. Bone is a living tissue that continues to undergo change and replacement even after a person has attained full stature. Long-term alcohol consumption can interfere with bone growth and remodeling, resulting in decreased bone density and increased risk of fracture.

In conclusion, alcohol is not an ordinary commodity. While it carries connotations of pleasure and sociability in the minds of many, harmful consequences of its use are diverse and widespread. Worldwide, alcohol takes an enormous toll on lives and communities, especially in developing countries and its contribution to the overall burden of disease is expected to increase in the future. Particularly worrying trends are the increases in the average amount of alcohol consumed with more harmful and risky drinking patterns among young people. Young humans’ brains aren’t fully developed yet, and they should therefore sustain themselves from alcohol in the first place. If they don’t, then they will end up right where I am today: having a minor on their record. If they are eighteen it will be even worse than a minor, so I advise other youth to not even think of drinking until they are legally able to. Do the right thing for yourself and for the community around us.

References

1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmcarticlesPMC3548359
2. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-hippocampus-2795231
3. https://www.christopherreeve.org/living-with-paralysis/healthhow-the-spinal-cord-works
4. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles312628#disorders
5. https://www.verywellmind.com/impact-on-society-63268

Alcohol is the term we use for ethanol the substance reasonable for individuals to drink. Another kind of alcohol is methanol and it is hurtful to individuals. It is the result of solidifying sustenance substances like grapes or grain with sugar and yeast which allow them to age. People use alcohol in various structures and inside various social settings. In any case regardless of the way that alcohol is used the world over it is moreover regularly manhandled or misused at whatever point and any place, it occurs the abuse of alcohol impacts affects the abuser those close to him/her and the society. Even though most by far abuse alcohol because it improves them feel about themselves the truth is that over-use of alcohol tends to conflictingly influence the abusers’ character. Extended irritability confused thinking and believing are just a few different ways that alcohol hurts the human personality and associations by extension. One study prescribed that evil utilization of alcohol is behind as much as 40 percent of instances of certified harsh conduct at home. Alcohol enslavement is inferable from verbal and physical abuse of the friend and the children and passes on an uncommon commitment concerning the detachment of social associations. Children living in the home with a boozer have lower assessments higher paces of wretchedness and frequently feel socially isolated.

Exactly when alcohol is abused in excess of a period of time, the peril of mental mischief to the buyer increases. A great many examinations centers around the association between alcohol abuse and mental issue, for instance, uneasiness issues and wretchedness. People may from the outset over-refreshment with a particular ultimate objective to beat their low assumptions of gloom, anyway for sure, the more they drink, and the more debilitated they get the chance to be. Alcohol doesn’t kill downfall, rather it exacerbates the issue.

Different people use alcohol as a gadget to assist them with loosening up and oversee troubling social conditions. Maybe they use alcohol in order to feel better in stressed family settings or to assist them with beating social feelings of dread when they need to go to social limits related to work or dating. Thus, likewise with debilitation, the amount of people who are alcoholic and who live with social feelings of trepidation is shockingly high. Lamentably, people who sick use alcohol, normally act in manners that reason others to pull back from them society. Actually soon, simply other individuals who abuse alcohol are within the group of friends.

The harmful effects of drinking alcohol are not limited to individuals and the people who live closest to them. Alcohol abuse is associated with a variety of social problems that affect people who are usually separated from the user. There is a reasonable relationship between alcohol consumption and higher absenteeism in the workplace. Morbid alcohol consumption is also associated with higher rates of ruthless bad behavior in the neighborhood. Because alcohol interferes with useful understanding, it is occasionally associated with risky sexual development. Finally, alcohol is involved in the majority of car accidents. Alcoholic beverages, or ethanol, may not be as toxic as methanol to the human body, but so far it has harmed everyone or is remotely related to the person who consumes it.

It is very unlikely that alcohol in moderation causes any problems to your eyes, however, the opposite can be said for consumption in excess. High levels of alcohol consumption can have short-term and long-term effects on the eye, and consuming too much of the wrong kind of alcohol, in some cases, can cause blindness. Ophthalmologist Payal Patel, MD, stated how our diet affects our body, and a poor diet with heavy alcohol does result in higher toxin levels and reduced vitamin absorption, which in turn affects the health of your eyes (Patel, 2019). Alcohol in large amounts can be very detrimental and it is important to remain aware of the risks so that this condition can be prevented, or treated when detected at an earlier stage.

Alcohol in any amount can have both negative physical and psychological impacts on your health. Amongst one of the short-term impacts specific to the eyes is double vision. Double vision occurs when two different images are seen by both eyes and both of these images are sent to the brain and the brain combines these images to be seen as double. (Bedinghaus, 2020). In normal binocular vision, both eyes view the same image of interest, the fovea of these eyes send the information to the same neurons in the visual cortex, simulating the same cortical area and are seen as being in the identical visual direction. These images are combined at the visual cortex to form a 3D image. In diplopia, the object you want to look at falls onto different points on the retina. This results in different cortical neurons being simulated and you see the single object in two different directions, hence the double vision. Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is the percentage of alcohol present in the bloodstream of an individual. When an individual has a BAC of 0.01%, their blood supply has one part of alcohol for every 1000 parts of blood. When the BAC reaches 0.15-0.19% blurred or double vision will be seen (Monico,2020). Eye movements are controlled by the 6 ocular muscles in each eye and must be well coordinated in order for the eyes to work together and 3 cranial nerves supply these extraocular muscles bringing the input from the brain to the eyes. A research study that was conducted found that Alcohol is also known to work as a depressor to the central nervous system. If alcohol is affecting the central nervous system and creating a defect in these pathways, there will be a direct effect on the extraocular muscles, leading to alterations in eye movements. The study also found that the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA may be decreased when alcohol is consumed. GABA can be found in the brain, including in the visual cortex. It is involved in visual function processing, including ocular movement regulation. The study concluded that alcohol does affect vision and influences eye movements, leading to double vision (Silva, 2017). Double vision can make life very difficult, specifically in completing simple tasks (Bedinghaus, 2020).

Another effect of Increased alcohol consumption is that it leads to decreased contrast sensitivity and physiological changes to the eye. The world health organization states that alcohol is one of the main causes of accidents on the road. The reason for this is that alcohol deteriorates vision so daily activities which require perfect vision like driving, are directly affected (Castro,2014). A study conducted by Castro evaluating the influence of alcohol on retinal-image quality and visual performance under low-illumination conditions found that the higher the rate of alcohol consumption, the poorer the visual discrimination capacity. In surroundings of high luminance, there was also a reduction in visual discrimination, accompanied by an increase in saccades and a deterioration in contrast sensitivity (Castro,2014). Contrast sensitivity is the ability to make distinctions between different objects depending on darkness or brightness (Rosenthal,2007). This is altered by alcohol consumption. As alcohol reduces the ability of the aye to adjust its vision for brightness and contrast, it is extremely dangerous for driving. A decrease in contrast sensitivity can lead to a loss of spatial awareness and mobility and increase the risk of accidents. Alongside driving at night, reduced contrast sensitivity can also make it difficult to recognize faces, read instructions or navigate (Rosenthal, 2007). When large amounts of alcohol are consumed, pupil size increases. The larger the pupil size, the poorer the retinal-image quality because the light penetrates the greater ocular medium, increasing aberration of the eye and scattering. Leading to a poorer image. This alongside the decreased contrast sensitivity, leads to poorer vision. Though this may be a short-term effect, if a drinking problem is not dealt with, this person may be a threat to themselves and other on the road. Alcohol will be affecting their decision-making ability, as well as how safely they are able to drive on the road(Castro, 2019). These physiological changes and visual alterations can make daily life very difficult, hence why excess consumption should be avoided.

Alcoholics tend to have poor vision due to vitamin deficiency. Vitamin absorption in the liver is affected by heavy drinking. Vitamins, specifically Vitamin B-1 and Vitamin A are required to maintain healthy eyesight. A lack of Vitamin B-1 can lead to the weakness of the eye muscles with a deficiency in Vitamin A leading to night blindness, thinning of the cornea, corneal perforation, and dry eyes. In some cases, the damage to the retina could be so severe that it leads to blindness (CooperVision). The more long-term damage that can be caused due to excessive drinking is tobacco-alcohol amblyopia. This is a condition where vision is lost bilaterally. Patients who suffer from tobacco-alcohol amblyopia often complain about how their vision is blurred and how they are unable to read small texts, or differentiate between red and green (Prakash). Alcoholic amblyopia is also often referred to as optic neuropathy, however, the main damage is not in the optic nerve, rather it is localized to the retina, chiasm or optic tracts (Behbehani). Even though the condition has been linked to alcohol, it has been found that the condition is very strongly linked to nutrition and it is the diet and lack of vitamins that often causes it. A case was reported regarding a 33-year-old male who was struggling with alcohol addiction and was drinking large amounts daily. This male then also gave up food for a duration of 7 days when he was struggling with abstinence of alcohol. He later developed blurry vision and the inability to distinguish between color and depth, showing signs of optic neuropathy. His symptoms were reversed with a proper diet, vitamin supplements and by staying away from alcohol. (Prakash). Although the toxicity of alcohol can lead to lesions in these regions in the eye, a poor diet with a lack of nutrients, specifically Vitamin A and Vitamin B-1, are seen as the main cause of the condition. Alcohol is what stops these vitamins from being absorbed so it is very important that people are aware of the harm excessive drinking can bring to the body, in particular the eyes. Those who are struggling with addiction can be given psychotherapy with the aim of helping them achieve abstinence and prevent a relapse. Similar psychotherapy was offered to the 33-year-old male who was also given anti-craving agents(Prakash). A Clinician can also play a role in detecting this condition before the bilateral loss of vision occurs as it can be treated with the correct interventions(Prakash).

Alcohol also has many other short term effects and can cause other specific long-term damage to the eye. Eye twitching and dry eyes are just two of many other short term effects that alcohol can have on the eye (CooperVision). Although these short-term effects reduce with time, they are uncomfortable and can be quite frustrating to endure. Long-term damage includes the increased risk of cataract formation (CooperVision). Cataracts are cloudy regions in the eye that interfere with vision. Multiple studies have found that the risk of cataract formation is significantly greater in people who consume alcohol regularly as opposed to those who don`t (AOA). The risk of age-related macular degeneration, a condition that affects the middle part of your vision (NHS), is also increased with excessive alcohol consumption. The risk of both cataracts and age-related macular degeneration can be reduced through the consumption of more vitamins, such as Vitamin C, Vitamin E and zinc. Alcohol, however, as mentioned earlier, minimizes the absorption of these vitamins in the liver, hence increasing the risk of such conditions (AOA).

Even though all of the mentioned health conditions can occur due to alcohol consumption, this often occurs when someone is a heavy drinker or when alcohol is consumed in excess. Many who regularly drink don`t face these conditions, however, it is stressed not to consume a lot because of the risks attached to it. Encourage regular drinkers to visit optometrists regularly for health check-ups so that any complication may be detected in its early stage.

Word count- 1530

References

1. Patel, P. (2019) Can Alcohol Blind You? Available at HTTPS:www.ceenta.comnews-blogcan-alcohol-blind-you (Accessed 10 April 2021)
2. Bedinghaus, T. (2020) How Alcohol Affects Your eyes. Available at HTTPS:www.verywellhealth.comdouble-vision-3422095 Accessed 10 March 2021)
3. Monico, N (2020). Alcohol consumption and Blurred or Double Vision. Available at HTTPS:www.alcohol.orgeffectsblurred-vision (Accessed 6 March 2021)
4. Silva, J.B.S., Cristino, E.D., De Almeida, N.L., De Medeiros, P.C.B., dos Santos, N.A. (2017) Effects of acute alcohol ingestion on eye movements and cognition: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Available at: HTTPS:journals.plos.orgplosonearticle?id=10.1371journal.pone.0186061 (Accessed 10 March 2021)
5. Castro, J.J., Pozo, A.M., Rubiño, M., Anera, R.G., Del Barco, L.J. (2014) Retinal-Image Quality and Night-Vision Performance after Alcohol Consumption, Journal of Ophthalmology (704823) pg. 1-7 [online]. Available at: HTTPS:www.hindawi.comjournalsjoph2014704823 (Accessed 7 April 2021)
6. Rosenthal, B.P., Fischer, M. (2007) Functional vision changes in the normal and aging eye. Available at: HTTPS:www.sciencedirect.comtopicsmedicine-and-dentistrycontrast-sensitivity (Accessed 7 April 2021)
7. Coopervision (2014) What is the effect of alcohol on the eye? Available at HTTPS: CooperVision.comblogwhat-effect-alcohol-eye (Accessed 7 April 2021)
8. Behbehani, R., Sergott, R.C., Savino, P.J. (2005) Tobacco-alcohol amblyopia: a maculopathy?, Br J Ophthalmol 2005 Nov; 89(11): 1543-544. Available at: HTTPS:www.ncbi.nlm.nih.govpmcarticlesPMC1772913 (Accessed 7 April 2021)
9. Prakash, J., Ryali, VSSR., Srivastava, K., Bhat, P.S., Shashikumar, R., Singal, A. (2011) Tobacco-alcohol amblyopia: A rare complication of prolonged alcohol abuse, Ind Psychiatry J. 2011 Jan-Jun: 20(1): pg. 66-68. Available at HTTPS:www.ncbi.nlm.nih.govpmcarticlesPMC3425252 (Accessed 7 April 2021)
10. American Optometric Association () Cataract. Available at: HTTPS:www.aoa.orghealthy-eyeseye-and-vision-conditionscataract?sso=y (Accessed 7 April 2021)
11. American Optometric Association () Diet and nutrition. Available at: HTTPS:www.aoa.orghealthy-eyescaring-for-your-eyesdiet-and-nutrition?sso=y (Accessed 7 April 2021)
12. NHS (2018) What is AMD? Available at: HTTPS:www.nhs.ukconditionsage-related-macular-degeneration-amd (Accessed 7 April 2021)

Drunk driving is the criminal offense of operating a vehicle with a concentration of alcohol in your blood that exceeds the legal limit. According to the Government of Ontario, “Throughout Canada, the maximum legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) for fully licensed drivers is to be under 80 milligrams of alcohol in 100 milliliters of blood, or 0.08”. Nowadays, drunk driving offenses are addressed much more severely and are eminently deemed in today’s society. The primary cause of death and injuries in Canada is impaired driving, so naturally, making changes in the way the criminal justice system approaches impaired driving is a necessity for the government, in regards to the safety of our country and its citizens altogether. On June 21, 2018, Bill C-46, “an Act to amend the Criminal Code (offenses relating to conveyances) and to make consequential amendments to other Acts” was passed by the Parliament, was given Royal Assent, and came into force on December 18, 2018. This bill has notably transformed all laws concerning driving in general, and these reforms extend beyond just driving under the influence of alcohol. These new legislative reforms that have been put into place about impaired driving laws are proof that Canada has begun to prioritize the prevention of impaired driving offenses.

Police officers have been granted the ability to give obligatory breath tests to any driver they choose. If for any reason the driver refuses to comply and does not take the test, they will be criminally charged. It used to be formally required that a police officer had reasonable suspicion that a driver was under the influence of alcohol, but that is no longer the case. “Research suggests that up to 50% of drivers with a blood alcohol concentration above the legal limit may not be detected at roadside check stops”. This reform is undoubtedly facilitating the process of detecting impaired drivers, as well as preventing many future injuries and deaths. The bill has eliminated the “bolus drinking” defense, which drivers previously used to claim that the alcohol they had consumed before operating their vehicle had not been absorbed yet, therefore they were not impaired at the time they were pulled over, but that argument is no longer admissible. The newly created legislation has extended the time frame within which the driver was previously behind the wheel to two hours. This means a driver who is found to be at or over the alcohol limit within two hours of driving has committed a criminal offense. Another significant reform in regards to reducing the amount of drinking and driving offenses is the depletion of time an offender has to wait before enrolling in an ignition interlock program. Ignition interlock devices prohibit the ignition of the car from starting if the driver has consumed alcohol. Previously, drivers were required to wait a specific amount of time before their application was considered, but with the new legislation, there is no longer a waiting period for first offenders, a three-month wait period for second-time offenders, and six months for third-time offenders. There is evidential support that shows these ignition interlock devices prevent offenders from reoffending, therefore reducing future drunk driving accidents.

Canada’s newly established legislation has also made modifications to several of the offense penalties for drunk driving. Previously, a first-time offender would have to pay a minimum fine of $1000. New and improved mandatory penalties vary depending on the BAC of the first-time offender. If the blood alcohol concentration of the first-time offender was between 80-119 mg while they were operating the vehicle, the compulsory minimum fine would be $1000, a BAC of 120-159 mg would be $1500, and a BAC of 160 mg would result in a $2000 minimum fine. Another addition to the already-existing penalties is a newly mandated minimum fine of $2000 for any driver who rejects taking the mandatory breath test. The penalties for second-time and third-time offenders have remained at a minimum of 30-day incarceration and a minimum of 120-day incarceration, respectively. However, impaired driving offenses resulting in no injury or demise have been expanded to a minimum requirement of two years less a day, which had previously been 18 months, while impaired driving causing bodily harm is now considered a hybrid offense, which depending on the severity of the injuries, a summary conviction would be two years less a day, while an indictable offense would be 14 years imprisonment. The maximum penalty for any transportation offense resulting in death has been decidedly increased to life imprisonment, which had formerly been 14-year incarceration. These modifications of these penalties have without a doubt strengthened Canada’s structure and approach to impaired driving and instilled fear in drivers who regularly consume alcohol.

During the Second Reading in the House of Commons regarding Bill C-46, Hon. Jody Wilson-Raybould, Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada, said this: “I introduce the bill with the ultimate goal of reducing the significant number of deaths and injuries caused by impaired driving, a crime that continues to claim innocent lives and wreak havoc and devastation on Canadian families. No law is adequate comfort for devastating loss, but I want to stress that this proposed legislation was drafted with all victims of impaired driving in mind.” This quote demonstrates Canada’s awareness of the tragedies that come with drinking and driving offenses, and how these offenses must be treated with the proper amount of severity and prevented as much as possible. There is no doubt that with the enactment of these new laws and regulations, impaired driving offenses will slowly but surely begin to decrease as citizens are beginning to be made aware of the gravity of drinking and driving, and the prevention of impaired driving has been placed on a higher pedestal by the Canadian government.

Abstract

Drinking alcohol is the main risk factor causing health problems, especially for old people. In the United States, cirrhosis is a health issue that is mostly caused by drinking alcohol. However, it is hard to stop drinking alcohol as it causes old people addicted to it and they cannot escape from it. The interventions that will be addressed are television, the Internet, and social campaigns using social psychological theories and concepts such as the elaboration likelihood model, vividness effect, and fear appeal. The purpose of proposing the interventions is to deliver a lesson to old adults that they can lose a precious life from drinking alcohol, so they should get rid of bad health habits. By integrating social psychological theories and social media, old people will be able to maximize their perception of alcohol. As a result of proposing the interventions, the seriousness of cirrhosis in the United States will be reduced.

Prevent cirrhosis in older people by promoting a decrease in drinking alcohol.

Introduction

Even though numerous old people perceive drinking alcohol as causing a serious health matter which is cirrhosis, many old adults do not stop drinking alcohol because they are already addicted to it. The reason why people find alcohol is to forget about things that they regret and have a hard time with. If people continue to drink alcohol, they get many bad effects from it, including anxiety and depression. Because old people have weak physical health and psychological conditions, it should be the old adults who care the most about health among young, middle, and old people.

By continuously drinking alcohol, old people especially men are likely to get cirrhosis. The cirrhosis is a chronic liver disease which makes it perpetually damaged by inevitable scarring. There are several symptoms of cirrhosis. First, if people have cirrhosis, they might feel fluid in the abdomen which is called ascites. In case of not getting treated as soon as they feel uncomfortable about their stomach, it can cause organs damaged and possibly lead to death. The second symptom is jaundice. If red blood gets disrupted, the body produces bilirubin. When the liver no longer functions properly, the liver is filled with bilirubin. If an excessive amount of jaundice happens, it can turn their skin to yellow. The best way to recover from jaundice is to stop consuming alcohol. Lastly, it is gynecomastia, which is the abnormal enlargement of men’s breasts due to hormone imbalance.

In the United States, liver cirrhosis is considered a serious health concern. According to Statista, in 2012, the deaths of males and females were 14.9 and 7.1 per 100,000 population. However, there was a dramatic increase in the number of deaths caused by liver cirrhosis in 2016: 19.7 males and 10 females caused by liver cirrhosis in the United States. Liver cirrhosis is regarded as a life-threatening presence because it can cause spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, hepatic encephalopathy, and ascites.

This paper will lay out the possible ways to inform old people how drinking alcohol is very harmful to their liver. The interventions are based on social psychological theories and concepts to give them attention effectively to change bad healthy behavior. The concepts would be self-determination theory, social impact theory, and dynamical systems theory. Applying these concepts to the interventions would be able to persuade people by showing them multiple ways and to increase the possibility of adopting a healthy behavior. The interventions would include television news, the Internet, and social campaigns. This means that most of the old people have access to connect with the world. These would be able to extend older people’s awareness of health. They will understand the seriousness of cirrhosis caused by drinking alcohol and get an opportunity to learn alternatives to reverse their behaviors on health.

Literature Review

The first social psychological concept is the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) advanced by Petty and Cacioppo in 1980. It defines that people can be persuaded to change perspective in two ways; the central route and the peripheral route. When people have an interest and desire to deal with a problem, they would most likely be characterized by the central route. However, when they think the topic is not directly related to them and not interested in it, they would most likely follow the peripheral route. I think the peripheral route would work for aged people who are addicted to alcohol.

The vividness effect can be one of the factors that can help to persuade old people. Because as they get aged, it will not be easy for them to read and understand; therefore, using visualized materials would most likely work for motivation. People tend to remember and understand things better if a presentation is shown vividly with colors and graphs. The vividness effect is theorized that materials presented graphically are likely to be more effective than creating faded messages to catch a person’s attention. As a result, it definitely improves an individual’s motivation to accept a message and change his or her attitude and mind (Stephen Smith & David Shaffer).

The third is a psychological theory called fear appeals. According to Psychology research, it highlights negative results to motivate a person to reduce it. Using this theory, can make an individual’s mind stop adapting a bad behavior and change to a beneficial behavior. The theory is an assessment of the personal severity of the results related to health-damaged behavior. When the threat is applied to an individual, it will be the best motivation to protect himself or herself from that bad behavior. Then, older people who are addicted to alcohol would reduce drinking it and find a way to improve their health rather than leading themselves to death by continuously drinking alcohol.

Overview

The next section will be the interventions that will be outlined for alternative ways to change the bad behavior of drinking alcohol. Also, I will be adding social psychological concepts or theories to put together with the interventions. The reason for proposing the interventions is to persuade the elderly to reduce drinking alcohol and to overcome the addiction.

Intervention

In this section, I will be addressing how old people can stop drinking alcohol and adapt to healthy behavior. The following interventions would be focused on old people through television, the Internet, and social campaigns.

Television

I would use a television medium to persuade and encourage old adults to move their minds from the addiction. On television, a commercial will be broadcast with a story which is well describes the bad effects of drinking alcohol among old people. The purpose of the commercial would be to use social psychology concepts; and fear appraisal in order to attract attention from aged people. The story would be: There would be an aged couple in a hospital meeting a doctor. However, the doctor would tell them that the old man had cirrhosis and that he would die soon. It gives a mental attack to the couple, and they feel desperate for life. As a result, old people who are watching the commercial would realize that they can lose life because of the damaged liver from drinking alcohol.

Internet

The second intervention that I will be using is the Internet. Liquor bottles and an old person will be depicted in a photo. Also, there would be a demographic showing how many old people got cirrhosis in recent years using a scatter plot. It will be posted on Yahoo where a large number of the aged people access frequently. It will work for 50-year-old people than the one who is 20 years old because cirrhosis is the main cause that occurs in aged people. They would be able to react to the vividness effect which helps to persuade and attract audiences easily. Therefore, it will mostly work for old people; they will be motivated by visualized materials and adopt healthy behavior.

Social Campaign

Third, I will be using the social campaign for the intervention to extend the bad perception about drinking alcohol. The social campaign would visit a hospital to meet a patient who suffers from cirrhosis and interview how he got it. The members of the campaign will interview him on how many liquor bottles he has drunk. Then, they will have a movement in the street to report the interview to the public about what will happen to life if they are addicted to alcohol. The people in the social campaign will use the fear appeals concept to persuade people to adopt healthy behavior.

Conclusion

By informing through several interventions, it will be helpful to persuade old people not to drink alcohol as it harms their health and leads to death. It will work effectively to make people aware of the seriousness of cirrhosis. Using the vividness effect is the most effective strategy to induce aged people’s attention because of the function of colors and graphics.

However, there are flaws in the interventions. As there can be audiences who are not interested in the social campaign, it will not be able to spread the campaign throughout the United States. As a result, a message will not be able to convey to the aged people efficiently. Also, it will be difficult for old people to change their habit of drinking alcohol as they have been drinking for most of the years of their lives.

However, proposing the interventions I showed above, will be helpful to persuade people not to get more addicted to alcohol and get cirrhosis. Then, after several years passes, we will be able to see that the number of old people who get cirrhosis decrease. There will be more healthy people than now.

Alcohol can destroy our life; it is our enemies. If you’re addicted to alcohol, it makes us doing bad things than we think. Alcohol has an impact on our life, our health and it can destroy our family. In this essay I will talk about what alcohol is, its effects on health and mortality.

Alcohol in alcoholic drinks we drink is a chemical called ethanol. It is a colorless volatile flammable liquid that is produced by the natural fermentation of sugars and is the intoxicating constituent of wine, beer, spirits, and other beverages and is also used as an industrial solvent and fuel.

“In 2000, total alcohol consumption per capita was 9.5 liters in the European Union countries, 7.7 liters in Australasia, 7.0 liters in Eastern Europe, 6.7 liters in America from the North, 4.1 liters in Latin America and 2.3 liters in the rest of the world” (Poikolainen, 2003).

Alcohol consumption affects the risk of death, different diseases, injuries, and mental illness. Alcohol interferes with the communication channels of the brain and can affect the appearance and functioning of the brain. These disturbances can change mood and behavior, and make it more difficult to think clearly and move-in coordination. By drinking a lot for a long time or too much for one time can damage the heart and cause problems such as cardiomyopathy (stretching and drooping of heart muscle), arrhythmias (irregular heartbeat), stroke, high blood pressure. “Alcohol causes the pancreas to produce toxic substances which can eventually lead to pancreatitis, dangerous inflammation and swelling of the blood vessels in the pancreas, which prevents proper digestion”.

Excessive alcohol consumption weighs heavily on the liver and can cause various liver problems and inflammation, such as steatosis, alcoholic hepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Alcohol can cause several types of cancer like head and neck cancer, esophageal cancer, liver cancer, breast cancer, and colorectal cancer. “Drinking too much can weaken your immune system, making your body a much easier target for the disease. Chronic drinkers are more likely to get diseases like pneumonia and tuberculosis than people who don’t drink too much. Drinking a lot at one time slows your body’s ability to prevent infection, even up to 24 hours after drinking” (Niaa, 2019).

Alcohol is an addiction and as we know all that addiction is a disease, we all that people who are addicted to alcohol quitting are hard for them. It is always hard for family and friends to understand how you cannot just quit because it hurting them, every parent does not like to see his son or daughter is addicted to alcohol. The reason it hard for them to quit because it’s a disease when a person takes drugs or drinks alcohol over some time, it can change their brain circuits. Addiction changes the functioning of certain essential parts of the brain so much that it is very difficult for people to stop using drugs or alcohol, even when they want to. “Researchers call this the brain dependence model. They view drug addiction and alcoholism not as a problem caused by a lack of willpower, but rather as a disease requiring treatment” (Abuse, 2016).

I will conclude by reminding you that we talk about three points what alcohol is, what effects it has on our health and how it is addiction. Alcohol is our horse enemies. It can ruin our life, our future. Alcohol kills. It a big issue problem for us and we all know that when you are alcohol-addicted, it been very hard to quit but they’re some who quit with their family support and their contribution.

From juggling deadlines to a part time job student life is not as easy as it seems. Money is in short supply and a considerable number of students leave home and move into student accommodation to get the freedom that adolescents desire. There are many new challenges individuals face when becoming independent for the first time such as experiencing a drug and alcohol culture.

Freshers’ week is the week before university official starts filled with sociable events immersing all years of students to mingle with one and other. During this period there is a pressure on young people to be a part of the drinking culture which also involves drug taking on occasions.

Meeting new people can be a daunting experience thus using alcohol or drugs as a crutch to ease the awkward tension. This habit could then turn into a common occurrence which is when this issue materializes. 60% of students find it difficult not to drink too much and 38%, overall, say alcohol helps them to socialize. New alcohol guidelines by the Department of Health and Social Care suggests that the maximum alcohol consumption for men and women is 14 units a week yet the average consumption for students is over 20 units. Furthermore, a survey by National Union of Students (NUS) shows there is a relationship between students and alcohol with “79% of students agree that drinking and getting drunk is part of university culture”.

Many night clubs target students during the week with low priced drink and free entry leading to impromptu night outs. Yet students fail to see the harmful effects of drinking to their body and their academic achievement. Drinking alcohol has many short and long-term impacts on the body from organ damage, an increase in blood pressure and various cancers. It has also been linked with affecting cognitive abilities from memory impairment, the ability to retain information and the failure of abstract thinking. Moreover, influencing academic achievement negatively.

A study from the Journal of Applied Psychology established a correlation between heavy drinkers and employment. It was reported an 10% decrease in employment following graduation for those who consume a significant amount of alcohol. The average alcohol fueled, hormone induced, blowout will conclude itself at 3am, 4am after the drunken walk home and the take away stop. Studies show the average student needs around nine hours of sleep, per night, to function and retain new knowledge. Adolescents that are sleep deprived are more likely to become absent from university therefore, get unsatisfactory grades due to a lack of attention and dedication.

Additionally, drinking is glorified by a range of university societies, for new students, as these groups plan weekly nights out with a theme attached to every event. Consequently, making some students feel peer pressured into going out and getting intoxicated to be included as part of that society as it is perceived as the norm. A survey, conducted by NUS, was completed by 2,215 university students discovered that “70% of students drink alcohol to fit in with their peers”. Furthermore, societies do not offer alternative activities that does not incorporate alcohol therefore there is no other opportunities to interact and socialize with the team.

A study corelated by Edinburgh Napier University demonstrates an alcohol price comparison of the cost of beer to the average monthly costs. For instance, having three pints in a pub, three times per week is the equivalent of spending £124.92 a month. Thus, exhibiting an expensive lifestyle on a student budget. The average SAAS loan consists of £475 a month budget and with the average student consuming 80 units a month, that’s a total of £160 directly funding alcohol or 33% of the SAAS loan.

A self-evident point to challenge coercion from peers when dealing with drugs is that it is illegal. Although, this doesn’t stop students from using it should be taken into consideration. Being introduced into a drug and alcohol culture at such a young age can be, away from home, can be a dangerous environment to be involved in.

Starting at university and becoming completely independent can be a daunting reality and with it, students will take any opportunity to procrastinate and evade the workload placed upon them. With a new sense of freedom many don’t understand the responsibility that follows from weekly budgeting to attending classes. For some, the step up to university can result in an overwhelming amount of stress and anxiety leading them down the road to stress and anxiety suppressants. Drugs and alcohol.

Alcohol consumption is one of the most significant health concerns around the world. It varies from country to country, but Europe is the heaviest drinking continent in the world with high level of alcohol consumption within United Kingdom and Ireland.

One uniquely endangered group is university students mostly young adults aged between 18 and 29 years of age that drink more and more due to binge drinking being an acceptable social norm among students. A vast number of scientific studies has been conducted to reach deeper into the topic of alcohol consumption among students and show how dangerous it is especially for young adults, for example a cross-sectional study conducted in a large Irish university suggests that there is a considerable evidence of a shift towards heavier alcohol use among university students and strong adverse effects of alcohol use (Davoren et al., 2015). Which is a huge problem particularly for young people that are studying to become future professionals. They are endangered the most and it is highly likely that they will suffer from consequences of such behavior, research that investigates adverse effect of alcohol use in adolescent individuals suggests notable neural and cognitive consequences of alcohol consumption specifically alterations in attention, verbal learning, visuospatial processing and memory, beside with changed development of grey and white matter volumes and disrupted white matter integrity however that is not all there are many more functional consequences of alcohol consumption such as cognitive flexibility decrease, behavioral inefficiencies and elevations in anxiety, disinhibition, impulsivity and risk-taking (Spear, 2018).

The question now should be: is there anything that triggers this specific behavior? It is obvious that studying within university is stressful for a lot of students and drinking behavior may be their way to compensate this high-level stress environment. So, this study is focused on the relationship between stress and alcohol consumption within university students.

Participants

There was a wide range of 410 participants that took part in study. Participant’s age ranged between 18 and 49, study analyzed mostly females that make up 74.6 percent of population of the research. The Majority of participants were in their first or second year of study, 48.5 percent were in the first year and 37.3 percent were in second, there was only 11.2 percent of people that studied in the third year and 2.9 percent students in their fourth year.

They were selected using opportunistic sampling technique which consists of the researcher choosing anyone who is available and willing to take part in the study.

Design

This study was based on cross-sectional design which is focused on large data collection for each participant which is carried out in single point in time. This design was selected for this study due to amount of collected information and anticipation that this data is expected to remain static.

Materials

Materials that were used to collect the data consisted of Health Behaviors survey which included several questionnaires. Most relevant ones were psychological stress measurement which was based on 14-item Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983) and binge drinking defined as four or more alcoholic drinks for females and five or more for males (Wechsler et al., 1995) with emphasis on how many binge drinking episodes they had in the previous 7 days.

Procedure

Participants were chosen using opportunist sampling technique so, everyone that was willing to take part in the study. Before the study took place emails were sent to university students asking if they are willing to take part in the study, after enough participants agreed to take part in research, a questionnaire with a series of questions associated to their stress levels and alcohol consumption were sent. Within emails sent there was also a consent form that every participant had to read through and give consent before taking part in the study. The questionnaire was designed to be simple and easy to understand, that way no one will have any problems or difficulties understanding the questions. After receiving response from each person involved the data was collected and compiled based on the cross-sectional study design. Then data was analyzed with the help of IBM SPSS Statistics program which concluded that there is in fact a positive correlation between stress levels and binge drinking.

Results

After collection of data and careful analysis, there is clear relation among stress and alcohol consumption which indicates that binge drinking may be some kind of reaction to high level stress which without doubt is a part of studying in university. Outcome of the study shows that without a question there is a positive correlation between stress and alcohol consumption, and it is significant at the 0.05 level.

Discussion

This study proves that there is positive correlation between stress and alcohol consumption, most likely high stress level which students experience throughout their studies triggers a reaction that makes them more susceptible to high alcohol consumption which supports hypothesis stated in the introduction. It is no surprise that relation exists due to a huge pool of studies based on relation of stress and alcohol that suggested this kind of link. The disturbing fact is the shift towards heavier alcohol use that was observed in Irish university (Davoren et al., 2015) which inferably relates to hypothesis stated in the introduction. It is easy to deduce if students lean more and more towards heavier alcohol use (binge drinking) and alcohol consumption grows proportionally with feeling of stress, this may possibly mean that high stress levels within university students are also on the rise and in consequence they are looking for easy way to ease the discomfort of being frequently under stress.

Limitations

Study was conducted using cross-sectional design which is based on collecting data at one point in time and straight away analyzing it. It is a limitation in itself because information may vary when data collection happens more than once and outcome may prove to be more reliable than it is when data is collected once.

There was 410 participant and 74.6 percent was female, it is a large majority of the group which makes the study less consistent when analyzing male stress and drinking behavior, but also because it focuses more on females it is specialized and more reliable when it comes to research of female student’s stress and alcohol consumption.

The study was under-representative of students at further year of study specifically third- and fourth-years students while first- and second-year students were overly represented.

Conclusion

This specific are of knowledge is constantly evolving but still needs improvement and more long-term research. The main weakness of research in the field is under-representation of certain groups and limited time resources to conduct such research on a large scale and long-term. The problem of heavy alcohol use within universities is a developing problem, with time it may become bigger so, studies conducted in the future are more than certain.

Hundreds of decisions and actions are to be taken during flight operations of an aircraft, ranging from pre-flight processes like weather interpretation, fueling, route selection and checklists, to flight operations such as taxing, take-off, cruise and landing. Proper procedures must be correctly executed to ensure safe completion of flight operations and that no risks are taken or hazards are created that may affect the aircraft, aircrew, passengers, cargo and other airplanes. A pilot’s ability to make decision, and or execute tasks that mitigates the possibility of an accident or incident is believably the most important role in an aircraft’s safety, and anything that impairs this judgement increases the potential for accident/incidents to occur. Consumption of alcohol slows down the message travelling between the brain and body, impairing the ability of a person’s mental and manual operations. Alcohol has been linked to a number of aviation incidents involving pilot error.

This case study will analyze the role alcohol may have played in the crash of Aeroflot Flight 821 at Perm International Airport along incidents involving the consumption of alcohol. The report of the subsequent Aviation Accident Database, along with literature relating to alcohol and its effects will form the basis of the analysis. First research findings about alcohol, its effects on a person, and alcohol in aviation specifically, will be examined. A study showing the effects of alcohol on flight operations environment will be examined. An account of an incident and the major finding by the Federal Air Transport Agency (RCAA) will be provided. Next a discussion of the impact of alcohol played in the incident and lessons that can be learnt for the form this. Finally, recommendations will be made on how to avoid such incidents from occurring again.

More than half the global population drinks alcohol, and it has become a cultural and social phenomenon. Alcohol is a depressant drug, which means it effects the central nervous system slowing the messages travelling from the brain to the rest of the body. When alcohol is consumed, it is absorbed into the blood and tissue of the body thought the detoxification process. The liver breaks down the alcohol and metabolizes it through your body, where it then enters the brain and central nervous system directly interacting with dopamine and serotonin receptors; this is where the ‘feel food’ sensation comes from (addictionblog, 2012). Impairing effects of alcohol are present only minutes after it has been consumed, these impairments include: relaxation, trouble concentrating, slower reflexes, increased confidence and emotional impacts (feeling happier/ sadder). When excess amounts of alcohol are consumed, other factors of impairment take place, including: confusion, blurred vision, short-term memory loss, nausea and the possibility of losing consciousness, entering an alcohol induced coma, and even death (BBC, 2014). These impairments pose a risk to pilots as things such as confusion, blurred vision and slowed reflexes have an impact on the ability of pilots mental and manual operations of aircraft. The majority of adverse effects produced by alcohol on the human body relate to the brain, eyes, and inner ear which are three crucial organs to a pilot. Long-term adverse effects of alcohol include high blood pressure, increased stroke risk, increased risk of heart and liver disease, nerve damage and the increased possibility of mouth and throat cancer. This is why the Federal Aviation administration implemented rules for persons who perform safety-sensitive functions (time from the point a driver begins to work or is required to be ready to work until the time he or she is relieved from work and all responsibilities for performing work) must have a blood alcohol concentration of 0.04 or lower, and pilots are banned from consuming alcohol within eight hours or reporting duty (FAA, 2019). Rules implemented by specific company policies may stricken these rules. These factors have been discussed as the main causes of many incidents over the years leading to tests being conducted to see the adverse effects of alcohol on flight operations. Tests have been undertaken to determine the factors of which alcohol effects the ability of a pilot, tests such as one conducted by the Aerospace Human Factors Research Division and Human Research Facility in March of 1991 (NCBI, 2019).

The study included four volunteer carrier pilots, who were studied during eight simulated flights between San Francisco and Los Angeles. Two flights were conducted at four target blood alcohol concentrations (BAC): 0, 0.025, 0.050 and 0.075%. The simulated flights lasted approximately one hour and were conducted with full crews in a simulated ATC environment. The data received for the study was examined from direct observations and videotapes for discrete errors committed by the pilots (NCBI, 2019). During the study it was found that the total number of errors rose in a linear fashion with blood alcohol concentration. Meaning as the blood alcohol concentration of the subjects increased the number of substantial errors made also increased. Planning and procedural errors increased along with failure of vigilance within the subject groups with the introduction of heightened blood alcohol concentrations. Failures in crew coordination were found not to be associated with BAC during the study. The study found that serious errors increased significantly even at the lowest BAC studied (0.025%), compared with control values (NCBI, 1991). The study clearly showed the correlation between alcohol and pilots mental and physical performance.

Aviation provides an environment where mistakes are unforgiving in nature. Correspondingly, impairment of aircrew performance by alcohol can, and occasionally does, lead to a catastrophic mistake. Such is the Case of Aeroflot Flight 821. Aeroflot Flight 821 was scheduled domestic passenger flight from Moscow (Sheremetyevo International Airport) to Perm (Bolshoye Savino International Airport) on a Boeing 737-505 aircraft. Aboard the plane there was a two-member flight team (captain and first-officer), four flight attendants and 82 passengers. The flight crashed on final approach to perm airport killing all aboard on impact with the ground. An investigation into the final moments into the flight was conducted by the Russian Transport Oversight Authority (RTOA) and the Russian CAA (RCAA) after the accident. It was found that the flight was conducted without deviation during take-off and cruise. During the base turn, to heading 210°, approaching landing course at 600m of altitude both autopilot and auto-throttle disengaged. After this the aircraft climbed to 1300m, rolled 360° over the left wing and collided with the ground (Aviation Accident Database, 2008). Eye-witness accounts state the plane struck the ground with an angle of attack approximately 30-40° of attitude. Initial investigations found that the cause of the accident was spatial disorientation of the flight crew: the inability to correctly determine attitude, altitude or airspeed in relation to the earth. Which is why after the autopilot and auto-throttle disengaged the aircraft, the captain (PF) flipped the aircraft to the left and enter a steep descent and crash the aircraft. This was determined due to the night time operation of the flight. Other factors of the crash were determined to be a lack of proficiency in aircraft handling, crew resource management and of skills associated with upset recovery using ‘western’-type attitude indications (Aviation Accident Database, 2008). Later forensic examinations found “an unspecific amount of alcohol in the captains’ bodily tissue”. This was determined by the RTAO and RCAA to be one of the contributing factors in the captains’ total spatial disorientation, that lead to the crash killing 88 people. All contributing factors of the accident as determined by the RTAO and RCAA are listed below:

• Loss of spatial orientation by the crew and chiefly by the captain who was piloting the aircraft during the landing phase.
• Forensic examination found an unspecified amount of alcohol in the captain’s tissue. He also did not have adequate rest before the flight.
• Inadequate practices by Aeroflot-Nord in managing and operating the Boeing 737 aircraft.
• The aircraft had been flown for a long time with a throttle problem (Aviation Accident Database, 2008).

The presence of alcohol in the captains’ blood was determined as one of the leading factors Aeroflot’s 821 demise, along with other human factor issues, such as fatigue and inadequate training and other systematic errors, such as the engine throttling issue (Aviation Accident Database, 2008). A study undertaken by the federal aviation administration (FAA) found that 9% aviation incidents that occurred from 2000 to 2007 were alcohol related. 215 out of 2391 pilots of incidents that occurred during this time frame, had a history of alcohol offenses. Further study into toxicity levels found that 11% (23 of 215) of the pilots with previous offenses were found to have ethyl alcohol within their system prior to a fatal incident (FAA, 2008). For example, an investigation was undertaken by the FAA into the case of a 48-year-old male, who died after his Piper PA-24-180 aircraft colliding with the ground. Toxicity tests taken show that alcohol was present in the pilot system at concentrations of 0.054% in the blood, 0.106% in the vitreous, and 0.095% in the muscle (all being over the legal limit in America: 0.04%). “The NTSB determined a contributing factor in the incident to be the pilot’s impairment due to alcohol” (FAA, 2008). Many other cases were studied and found that most cases where the pilot had alcohol in their system, confusion and over-confidence in their piloting abilities lead to the crash.

This case study examined the role alcohol may have played in the crash of Aeroflot 821 at Perm International Airport on September 13, 2008. Studies of human factors in aviation have shown that alcohol influences the perception and behavior of a pilot. If a crew member has the presence of alcohol in their system, it is likely their reaction time performance, and overall physical capability will be adversely affected. This appeared to be the case for Aeroflot 821 where the captain had the presence of alcohol in his system during flight operations. As a result, of the positive BAC, the captain’s judgment appeared to have been impaired, resulting in complete spatial orientation. This case highlights the need for an effective alcohol risk management procedure (FRMS) and a special issuance (SI) program, along with focused training to ensure crew are fully aware of the impact of sleep inertia on performance, particularly decision making.

Based on the main findings of this case study, recommendations are proposed. First, as alcohol impairs alertness and performance, through the use of an effective alcohol risk management procedure (ARMP) and CRM training, aircrew should be trained to identify an UAS (Unsafe Aircraft State) when a flight crew member is intoxicated with alcohol and other drugs. Strict no alcohol parameters have been in-place in airlines for some time, though through ARMP and CRM training, the effective power distance is diminished and flight members can feel free to speak up if they believe someone is intoxicated. Through the use of ARMP and CRM pilots are able to identify the symptoms of heightened BAC both in themselves and others. Furthermore, a special issuance (SI) program should be implemented to monitor pilots suffering from alcohol dependence, to ensure a balance of safety and productivity in the aviation industry.

References

1. Aviation Accident Database. (2008). Aeroflot-Nord – Boeing – B737-505 (VP-BKO) flight AFL821. [online] Available at: http://www.aviation-accidents.net/aeroflot-nord-boeing-b737-505-vp-bko-flight-afl821/ [Accessed 18 Sep. 2019]. In text: (Aviation Accident Database, 2008).
2. The Science of Alcohol: How Booze Affects Your Body. (2014). Retrieved 18 September 2019, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/30350860/the-science-of-alcohol-how-booze-affects-your-body In text: (BBC, 2014).
3. Billings CE, Demosthenes T, White TR, O’Hara DB (1991). Effects of Alcohol on Pilot Performance in Simulated Flight. – PubMed – NCBI. [online] Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2012569 [Accessed 18 Sep. 2019]. In text: (NCBI, 1991).
4. How Does Alcohol Work? (2012). Retrieved 18 September 2019, from https://alcohol.addictionblog.org/how-does-alcohol-work/ In text: (addictionblog, 2012).
5. Faa.gov. (2008). Alcohol-Related Aviation Accidents Involving Pilots with Previous Alcohol Offenses. [online] Available at: https://www.faa.gov/data_research/research/med_humanfacs/oamtechreports/2000s/media/200822.pdf [Accessed 18 Sep. 2019]. In text: (FAA, 2008).
6. Faa.gov. (2017). Alcohol and Flying. [online] Available at: https://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/alcohol.pdf [Accessed 18 Sep. 2019]. In text: (FAA, 2017).
7. Skybrary.aero. (2018). The Effects of Alcohol and Drugs on Pilot Performance – SKYbrary Aviation Safety. [online] Available at: https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/The_Effects_of_Alcohol_and_Drugs_on_Pilot_Performance [Accessed 18 Sep. 2019]. In text: (Skybrary, 2018).

When I was a sophomore, I got invited to go to a party with my friends during our Christmas break. We were all having a good time until an older male came and offered us a drink, and because we didn’t know what it was, we accepted it. As I took my first sip from the cup, I felt the bitter taste of the liquid flowing down my throat, causing me to throw up. I did some research the following morning and found out that alcohol has many disadvantages on the teenage body. Drinking alcohol while you’re still in high school can lead to health problems and drug addiction.

I think students in high school shouldn’t drink alcohol because it can lead to health problems. Alcohol is a depressant, which means that it slows down the function of the central nervous system. According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 7.1 million young people between ages 12 and 20 reported that they have drunk alcohol in 2018. During this age range, the brain is still developing. By drinking alcohol, there is a significant impact on long-term thinking and memory skills. Elevated liver enzymes have also been found in some adolescents who drink alcohol. Drinking alcohol during puberty, a period when hormonal changes occur in adolescents, can affect the critical hormonal balance necessary for normal development of organs, muscles, and bones (‘Underage Drinking’). This means that the effects of alcohol on high school students between this age range can lead to mental and physical health problems, and it is not a laughing matter. These changes are permanent and must be taken seriously, especially if you don’t want other health problems to develop when you’re older.

Drinking alcohol can lead to alcoholism. Alcoholism is an addiction to the consumption of alcoholic liquor (‘Alcoholism’). Alcohol is the most commonly abused substance globally, including individuals under the age of 21. There are many reasons why teenagers in high school drink and some of these are: thinking it’s cool to drink, wanting to fit in, feeling pressured to drink, or even battling anxiety or depression (Murray). This means that the person may want to fit in with their friends by drinking. They may get influenced or pressured to drink because others around them are doing it. They may also be dealing with anxiety or depression and feel that their only solution is drinking. As the person grows older, their dependency on the drug may increase, and they may develop an addiction to the drug.

Many may argue that drinking is good for you. They may think drinking relieves boredom and stress, or it may make them feel happy for a short period of time because of the effects of the drug. They feel this way because the substance causes the brain to release high levels of chemicals associated with pleasure or reward (‘Addiction as a Disease’). They may also resort to drinking as an escape from the problems in their daily life. However, these shouldn’t be the reasons why you should drink. Drinking has negative effects on your body, and these changes are permanent. They are dangerous to your health especially because the brain is still developing at this time. You shouldn’t put your life in danger because it’s so important. Since drinking is so addictive, it may even lead to death. You may even encounter accidents such as car crashes, fights, and even death.

In conclusion, health problems and addiction can develop from drinking while you’re in high school. You shouldn’t feel pressured to drink. It is not the only solution to your problems in life. Drinking causes permanent damages to your mental and physical health. These can be grave and deadly, so don’t drink. Refraining from drinking will only benefit you and your body. These are reasons why you shouldn’t drink.