Recall bias is a systematic deviation from the truth, which occurs when the respondent’s answers are affected by his or her memory (Hassan, 2006). Recall bias is one of the factors that affect the credibility or validity of the research. In epidemiological studies, the concept of recall bias is equally important. This is because the correctness of the respondent’s answer will determine the level of dependence one can place in such research. The correctness of the answer is usually dependent on the memory of the respondent. Therefore, this article analyses the concept of recall bias in epidemiological studies involving alcohol consumption.
Various factors can contribute to recall bias in research. Anders et al in their paper ‘A Randomized Study of Secondary Prevention of Early Stage Problem Drinkers in Primary Health Care’ introduced a few factors in the methods that could lead to recall bias (1989). The element of time used in this research could introduce recall bias in the study. The questionnaires were delivered using mail and therefore, it took some time before they reached the respondents.
To add to this, the questionnaire focused on the previous week’s intake, during the weekdays and the weekend (Anders 1989). The time between the consumption of alcohol and answering the questionnaire is considerably long. During this time, the memory of the respondents may be distorted or may change thus introducing recall bias in the methods. Moreover, the researchers measured the alcohol consumption, and habits on basis of the previous week’s intake.
Time factor tends to affect the memory of the respondents. Each of the respondents will give an account of his or her alcohol consumption habits depending on what he or she recalls. This may reduce the level of accuracy in measurements because the respondent’s memory may not be very sharp after some time has passed. Therefore, to enhance this research, immediate analysis is required to ensure that the concept of recall bias is minimized.
Miles & Strang introduce an element of recall bias in the methods they used to analyze alcohol consumption and addiction (2001). The authors provided questionnaires to young people who had to report on their consumption habits. The subjects of the study had to report on the number of units consumed in the previous month and the number of units they consume on a typical day (Miles & Strang, 2001). Moreover, the questionnaire seeks to record data on the frequency of alcohol consumption. For example, data on weekly consumption, daily consumption, and monthly consumption. To add to this the researchers aim to find out the date that the subjects began drinking.
All these elements may contribute to recall bias. This is because when the subject is answering questions on daily alcohol consumption the information will be very accurate since his or her memory is not distorted by the time factor. However, when the subjects answer questions about monthly and weekly consumption, there may be deviations in the data given. This is because the period between consumption and the time of actually answering the questionnaire is long.
During this time, the subject may confuse or lose some memory about his or her consumption habits thus distorting information. The element of recall bias in this study may interfere with the results obtained by the researchers. Therefore, researchers have to introduce some form of control to ensure that the bias introduced in the study is eliminated. In the case of the time factor, researchers should perform their questioning immediately after consumption.
References
Anders, R., Lena, A., Hakan, B., Stefan B., Claes G., Olle H., Annika Hassler, Anna K., Peter M., Roland M., Kjell Nyman, Anders O., Eva O., Anders R., & Olle W. A. (1989). Randomized Study of Secondary Prevention of Early Stage Problem Drinkers in Primary Health Care. British Journal of Addiction, 84(1), 1319-1327.
Hassan, E. (2006). Recall Bias can be a Threat to Retrospective and Prospective Research Designs. Internet Journal of Epidemiology, 3(2), 1-10.
Miles, H. Winstock, A. & Strang, J. (2001). Identifying young people who drink too much: the clinical utility of the five-item Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Drug and Alcohol Review, 20 (1), 9-18.
Inflammation of the pancreas that damages and malfunctions the retroperitoneal organ is known as pancreatitis. The two most common types are Acute and Chronic Pancreatitis (CP). CP is thought to be the result of recurrent acute pancreatitis attacks. There is no direct link between alcohol and pancreatic cancer, but alcohol and its by-products can put the organ at risk for damage from other, more benign agents. Consequently, providing patients with alcohol (and smoking) cessation counseling and strategies is crucial for preventing recurrent attacks. Chronic alcohol consumption is the second most common cause of acute pancreatitis (AP) after gallstones, accounting for 17 percent to 25 percent of acute pancreatitis cases worldwide (Singhvi & Yadav, 2018). It usually appears in patients who have been drinking heavily for over five years (about four to five drinks a day) and only hardly ever occurs due to a single binge.
How often do heavy drinkers develop chronic pancreatitis?
Chronic alcohol use is the most frequent cause of chronic pancreatitis, accounting for 40% to 70% of all cases. It also raises the chance of getting pancreatic cancer in the person who consumes it (Adejumo et al., 2019). The recurrence of acute pancreatitis is linked to the development of chronic pancreatitis, and it is more prevalent in alcoholics who use alcohol often. In addition, most studies indicate that an AP episode begins with some degree of chronic pancreatic damage. Although studies have established a connection between heavy drinking and the condition, the exact mechanism by which alcohol triggers pancreatic inflammation is unknown. Alcohol-induced acute pancreatitis is the second most frequent cause of gallstones, accounting for 17 percent to 25 percent of all cases worldwide.
People who regularly consume four to five drinks a day for five years are more likely to develop this symptom. Acute pancreatitis seldom occurs as a consequence of a single night of heavy drinking. Chronic alcohol use is a common cause of chronic pancreatitis, accounting for 40 to 70 percent of all cases. Acute pancreatitis sufferers who are also heavy drinkers may develop chronic pancreatitis as a result of repeated attacks. Pancreatitis due to alcohol is also seen in those who drink heavily regularly and for an extended period. Chronic epigastric discomfort that radiates to the mid-back or flanks is one of the symptoms of nausea and vomiting.
What are the proposed mechanisms of alcohol-induced chronic pancreatitis?
One of the most severe side effects of alcoholism is alcoholic pancreatitis. Alcoholic pancreatitis risk rises linearly with alcohol use, indicating that alcohol is harmful to the pancreas in a dose-dependent manner. Though the illness strikes just a tiny percentage of drinkers, something other than alcohol may be needed to start clinically apparent pancreatic damage. The pancreas now processes alcohol in two ways: oxidatively and non-oxidatively via non-oxidative metabolites. Alcohol and its metabolites alter the acinar cells in a way that increases the risk of autodigestive damage by promoting the early activation of digestive enzymes inside the cells. Alcohol and its metabolites, cytokines, and growth factors produced during alcohol-induced pancreatic necroinflammation activate pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) (Juliusson et al., 2018). Alcoholic chronic pancreatitis caused fibrosis, and activated PSCs are the primary cells responsible for this.
Why may a proton pump inhibitor be helpful for this patient?
Doctors may help many acid-related diseases with the use of PPIs, and one study found that the PPI pantoprazole reduced tissue infiltration of inflammatory cells and necrosis of acinar tissue in rats with severe acute pancreatitis. Small, low-fat meals and adequate hydration have been shown in studies to reduce the likelihood of painful flare-ups. Even if alcohol isn’t the cause of your pancreatitis, you should nonetheless abstain from it. Medications that reduce stomach acidity may also be beneficial (Weiss et al., 2019). Ranitidine, for example, or omeprazole, a proton pump inhibitor, may be used as an H2 receptor blocker. The inactivation of supplementary pancreatic enzymes by stomach acid is reduced when patients take these medications.
Weiss, F. U., Laemmerhirt, F., & Lerch, M. M. (2019). Etiology and risk factors of acute and chronic pancreatitis. Visceral Medicine, 35(2), 73-81. Web.
The study offered beneficial insights concerning memory issues affecting youth with FASD in their daily functional challenges and the importance of future intervention research. It evaluated the existence of daily memory among FASD youth while controlling comorbidities such as socioeconomic status, other teratogens, and attention disorder. It was noted that the group has poor everyday memory in all domains. Children born by mothers who used to drink excess alcohol tend to have trouble remembering and learning new things. The umbilical cord passes alcohol from the mother to the baby causing damage to the developing brain. It became clear that these children suffer problems such as weak memory, trouble with attention, poor coordination, judgment, reasoning skills, and learning disabilities.
Traditionally, generalized joint hypermobility (JH) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been managed, assessed, and considered as varying conditions, and even treated by different specialists. However, the study revealed an unexpected association between the two conditions and improved awareness of the devastating impact of protean on development and health. Emphasis was on the syndromic presentations of GJH and musculoskeletal pain more so on the hypermobile Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.
Different factors were considered when establishing the link between the two conditions including chronic pain, fatigue, dysautonomia, impaired proprioception, and coordination. The findings indicated psychopathological and pathological pathways linking the two conditions, explaining the dyadic nature noted in the postnatal development concerning mind-body connections.
The study evaluated the neuropsychological and alcohol exposure parameter as well as the link to inattention and impulsivity. It involved a case-control cohort study with 28 mothers and children exposed to alcohol and another similar group of non-exposed people, and it was followed for 11 years. Comparable factors between the two groups included global IQ, sex, maternal, age, and social work. However, there was a significant statistical variation in the total errors, higher speed processing, and the extent of omission errors in the conducted d2 Test. Moreover, the RCFT test indicated poor scores on recall and copy explaining that children exposed to alcohol before birth are usually more impulsive and inattentive. They have poorer executive processing, visuospatial working memory, as well as verbal fluency skills.
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) influences the development of intellectual disabilities and its self-regulation is usually interpreted and defined poorly in diverse ways. This makes it difficult to understand the condition and make effective clinical decisions. Poor definitions hinder the provision of the right treatment and management of the condition. The study used the Walker and Avant methodology to define FASD to support the intervention of the affected people, improve self-regulation assessment and support informed clinical decisions. Attributes that define self-regulation are inhibition, deliberate actions, attentiveness, emotional regulation, and collected & calm behaviors. The study provided a unique operational definition that is appropriate and specific for this population.
Child development entails a sequence of emotional, thought, physical, and language changes that take place from infancy through to adolescence and the beginning of adulthood. The child advances from depending on their guardians or parents as they become more independent. The development process is influenced by many factors such as learning capacity, environmental facts, and genetic factors. It includes emotional regulation and social interaction, sensory awareness, cognition, and speech and language. Theories of Cognitive Development explain changes that take place as the child advance from one stage to the other. The cognitive process enables the child to gain better attention, memory, metacognition, and improved ability to solve problems. They learn better communication skills and use of language to express themselves.
People with high prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) usually develop Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). However, inaccurate exposure histories have been noted in the clinical diagnostic settings. The study applied the Lifestyle During Pregnancy Study (LDPS) to enhance the assessment of the potential effect of binge drinking and low-to-moderate consumption during the early stages of pregnancy. It involved a follow-up of 670 children and their mothers to determine the extent of diagnostic facial features. Findings of the study indicated that isolated binge exposures and low-to-moderate PAE levels tend to increase the risk for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome; Pregnancy / Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders among some fetuses. Based on the provided facts, it is advisable for pregnant mothers and women intending to conceive to avoid drinking alcohol.
Dynamic exchanges and interactions with the social and physical environment facilitate the learning process. Motor development improves the ability of children to learn and understand their surroundings. Strong motor skills influence positive development outcomes and it is important to promote the interaction between the mother and child. They also play a role in the improvement of sensory and perceptual skills since they promote the ability of the child to interact confidently. Motor experiences improve infants’ preferences for both faces and objects and promote social development. However, the relationship between motor skills and factors such as perceptual, cognitive, and social development remains unclear. It is also unknown whether third-party factors particularly the mother’s health determines the motor experiences.
Estimates from systematic reviews cover conventional observational studies implying that they are prone to biases. The study involved a comprehensive systematic review of both alternative analytical approaches and experimental human data to promote causal inference. The research findings revealed that prenatal alcohol exposure causes a detrimental impact on key areas such as low birth weight and cognitive outcomes.
It was noted that the effects of low levels of alcohol exposure are limited because of the associated biases linked to ethical obstacles and traditional observational methods. Alternative study designs including natural experiments and MR improves the understanding of the negative effects. The negative implication indicates that pregnant mothers should abstain from alcohol to promote the health of their babies.
Alcohol exposure tends to affect fetal brain development causing devastating neurobehavioral outcomes referred to as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). Prenatal alcohol exposure causes devastating behavioral and cognitive outcomes including concurrent psychopathology, learning and memory, language development, general intelligence, and academic performance. Moreover, the affected children are likely to have problem behaviors and lack important daily living skills. The neuropsychological profile has proven effective in supporting the diagnosis process and enhancing success rates. Identifying resiliency factors and risks is necessary for enhancing the development of appropriate preventive measures.
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs) affect the ability of children to listen and pay attention to details since they show auditory behaviors such as poor response to spoken stimuli. The condition causes auditory dysfunction which influences impaired processing of audible sounds and loss of audibility required to support sound-in-noise listening. The study concluded that exposure to alcohol during pregnancy increases the chances of hearing loss and listening difficulties. Hearing loss in FASD should be investigated further to understand it better and support the establishment of effective corrective measures.
Alcohol consumption among adolescents with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) is associated with many negative implications. A project step-up has been proposed to lower alcohol-related negative outcomes among FASD adolescent patients. The treatment development study has been successful in the management of issues affecting adolescent individuals with the condition. It has facilitated the elimination of the involved negative implication while improving their quality of life. Notably, the method seems to be more effective among heavy drinkers and less significant among infrequent/abstinent groups.
Consumption of alcohol during pregnancy is associated with embryonic development abnormalities depending on the exposure frequency, severity, and duration. Alcohol-related defects also depend on the timing, metabolism, as well as, maternal genetics. Birth defects start affecting the embryo in the third week of fertilization when the cranial neural crest is damaged. In the third week, the damage that occurs to the cellular pool reduces white matter in the brain and causes morphological abnormalities. The damage continues during the division of the brain into vesicles usually in the 6th and 7th weeks. More damage is caused in the 8th week during the start of the fetal stage.
The use of substances such as marijuana, tobacco, and alcohol presents a detrimental impact on the health of adolescent people. They affect their well-being and health in many ways particularly because they affect their ability to make decisions and the appropriate judgment. School social workers (SSW) have the necessary skills and knowledge to conduct interventions and assessments with both families and adolescents to promote academic performance and functioning. Moreover, standards for supporting adolescents enhance the referral to treatment, identification, substance abuse prevention, and brief intervention. Screening can help determine adolescents with problems related to the use of substances to offer the necessary support.
Most of the parents engaging with child welfare systems on issues of substance use imply that their children are at risk of increased exposure to drugs before birth. Welfare agencies play a critical role in the provision and identification of services to address the negative effect of prenatal exposures. Children who are considered exposed entails child protection agencies and the practice is likely to influence the under-identification of children who were exposed to alcohol before being born.
The group is exposed to the risk of devastating child welfare outcomes since every child has specific needs. Further research is required to understand the role of the child welfare system in the caring and identification of issues affecting prenatally exposed children. More literature is required to facilitate the identification and support of children exposed to alcohol during pregnancy.
Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) influence behavioral difficulties including problems paying attention, temper tantrums as well as hyperactivity. The affected children face challenges concentrating, making decisions, interacting with others, and recalling past events. Behaviors depend on the extent and duration of exposure to alcohol and genetics. Binge drinkers affect their children more where brains are permanently damaged hindering their potential and ability to learn.
The study suggested that it is important for pregnant mothers to understand the dangers of drinking alcohol during pregnancy or before when planning to conceive. Mothers must make an effort to promote the quality of life of their babies by abstaining from alcohol and other substances that can cause detrimental impacts.
References
Agnihotri, S., Subramaniapillai, S., Keightley, M., Rasmussen, C., Cameron, D., Ryan, J., & Rovet, J. (2018). Everyday memory difficulties in children and adolescents with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 22(7), 462-469. Web.
Furtado, E., & Roriz, S. (2016). Inattention and impulsivity associated with prenatal alcohol exposure in a prospective cohort study with 11-years-old Brazilian children. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(12), 1327-1335. Web.
Gill, K., & Thompson-Hodgetts, S. (2018). Self-regulation in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: A concept analysis. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention, 11(3), 329-345. Web.
Keenan, T., Evans, S., & Crowley, K. (2016). An introduction to child development (3rd ed.). Sage.
Mattson, S., Bernes, G., & Doyle, L. (2019). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: A review of the neurobehavioral deficits associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 43(6), 1046-1062. Web.
McLaughlin, S., Thorne, J., Jirikowic, T., Waddington, T., Lee, A., & Astley Hemingway, S. (2019). Listening difficulties in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: More than a problem of audibility. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62(5), 1532-1548. Web.
O’Connor, M., Quattlebaum, J., Castañeda, M., & Dipple, K. (2016). Alcohol intervention for adolescents with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Project step up, a treatment development study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 40(8), 1744-1751. Web.
Singh, N., McCann, H., Weber, M., Gonzalez, S., & Alzate, M. (2018). Adolescent screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment for substance use: An application for school social workers. Children & Schools, 40(4), 249-252. Web.
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the negative effect of alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Prenatal liquor drinking boosts the chance of accidental abortion, decreases birth safety, and can generate a range of physical and mental impairments. It is one of the most common causes of mental retardation among children. The video represents how alcohol leads to defective brain growth and other negative outcomes (Rosary Films, 2018). Parents should be mindful and know about the damaging consequences of consuming alcohol during pregnancy. The majority of fetal alcohol range illnesses are witnessed in children’s institutions; foster and substitute families (Rosary Films, 2018). The diagnosis is often missed due to the lack of vivid features. It leads to a delay in the appropriate intervention and assistance. The sooner the assistance program begins, the better results can be achieved.
Children with FAS may have certain facial features: a smaller palpebral fissure, a thin upper lip, and the absence of a nasolabial fold. The child has a diminutive stature and a more undersized than the standard head. There is no effective, clinically tested, and approved treatment created to cure the damage caused by early ethanol exposure. The central strategy remains to warn prospective parents about the possible consequences through various educational programs and activities. It is not known when alcohol is most harmful to the fetus during pregnancy and whether there is a safe lower limit for alcohol consumption. Alcohol easily passes through the placental barrier and enters the body of the unborn child, who is not physiologically ready for its processing. Therefore, the concentration of alcohol in the baby’s body can be higher and linger longer than in the mother’s body (Wozniak et al. 764). So pregnant women should avoid any doses of alcohol within the whole length of pregnancy.
Supportive care for children with the syndrome should include appropriate stimulation and a caring environment. The most important thing is good nutrition and a calm, psychologically healthy environment in the house. Children with fetal alcohol syndrome may also need help in the learning process. They often have problems with counting, solving logical problems, and organizing almost all areas of life. Problems caused by FAS worsen as a person ages and can develop into mental illness, law violations, and an inability to live independently (Jonsson 162). At the moment, the syndrome is not well comprehended, and the healthcare system does not pay expected attention to the problem. The state should invest and direct more funds and scholarly forces to stop the unawareness and support these children.
Works Cited
Jonsson, Egon. “Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD): A Policy Perspective.” The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 64, no. 3, 2019, pp. 161–163, doi:10.1177/0706743718773706.
Wozniak, Jeffrey R et al. “Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder.” The Lancet. Neurology vol. 18,8 (2019): 760-770. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30150-4
Nosocomial or healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) continue to be a relevant problem in the modern healthcare system. In hospitals, patients and nurses are at immediate risk of HAIs exposure; hence, it is crucial to improve hygiene in medical facilities. The PICOT question is the following: How effective are alcohol-based sanitizers (I) compared to alcohol-free sanitizers and washing (C) in preventing HAIs (O) among patients and nurses (P) during their stay in the hospitals (T)? The current paper argues that the implementation of alcohol-based sanitizers significantly reduces the risks of nosocomial infections and has both direct and indirect benefits for all relevant stakeholders.
Background of Studies
The two chosen research works are quantitative studies by Najdawi et al. (2022) and Chojnacki et al. (2021), which are relatively similar in their objectives and methodologies. The first study by Najdawi et al. (2022) examines the overall efficiency of alcohol-based and alcohol-free sanitizers in preventing HAIs on the example of Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) strains. The research is significant since it reveals relevant information about the effectiveness of traditional and innovative hand sanitizers in moderating the most prominent strains that lead to nosocomial infections. Consequently, the research by Chojnacki et al. (2021) examines a significantly more diverse sample of forty-six commercial hand sanitizers acquired from various sources (e.g., gas stations, shops, and pharmacies). The highly varied distribution of sanitizers allowed the authors to examine the crucial differences and propose an objective overview of their potential application in hospitals. Lastly, the research question of both quantitative studies concerns the evaluation of alcohol-based and alcohol-free hand sanitizers in preventing HAIs.
Relevance to the Topic
Both studies are relevant to the topic since they provide direct evidence for the formulated PICOT question. Namely, the research papers examine the most prominent strains (O) in the healthcare setting (T), compare alcohol-based and alcohol-free sanitizers (C), and prove the effectiveness of the intervention (I). Concerning the population, the results of the studies could be applied to administered patients and nurses since all stakeholders are at risk of HAIs exposure during the hospital stay. Hence, the outcomes discussed in the two articles will be used to answer the PICOT question, emphasizing comparison and intervention groups since these categories are identical to the ones formulated in the thesis.
Method of Studies
The methodology of the two studies is relatively similar, implying that both papers examine the effectiveness of several hand sanitizers in reducing the density of prominent strains in the laboratory setting. The crucial differences include the sample size of hand sanitizers and the consequent method of statistical analysis. The research by Chojnacki et al. (2021) utilized “standard spot plating and kill curve-based assays” (p. 11), while Najdawi et al. (2022) used ImageJ to examine the characteristics of agar plates. The benefit of the first methodology is the combination of plate assay testing and kill curve testing might reveal the varied effectiveness of hand sanitizers among distinct strains. At the same time, the approach in the second work implies the improved accuracy of strain density estimation as they allow for more detailed digital pictures. One of the limitations of the first methodology is the random sample of hand sanitizers purchased from various stores, implying that the quality of the products might affect the results. The primary limitation of the second study is the artificial/lab setting. It means that the actual results in hospitals might differ from the experiments.
Results of Studies
The key finding of the study by Chojnacki et al. (2021) is that alcohol-based hand sanitizers, particularly 80% ethanol and 75% isopropyl, are highly effective in preventing HAIs. Moreover, these samples demonstrated a significantly higher antibacterial performance compared to other commercial products. Najdawi et al. (2022) have also established the elevated effectiveness of alcohol-based sanitizers, but the authors noted that sanitizers with benzalkonium chloride (BAC) components were even more effective. This outcome is the primary contradiction between the two papers. Both papers acknowledge the effectiveness of alcohol-based and BAC, but Najdawi et al. (2022) particularly emphasize the significance of the latter.
The implications of the studies include the advancement of academic research in hand sanitizers and their effects on nosocomial infection transmissions. The distinction among alcohol-free, alcohol-based, and sanitizers with active BAC components is crucial to minimize the prevalence of HAIs in medical facilities and reduce the number of associated incidents. Even though the results of the two studies provide relatively ambiguous implications, they are vital in advancing academic progress.
Ethical Considerations
Two vital ethical considerations in conducting research, particularly in laboratory medicine, are the safety of stakeholders and the credibility of results. The authors in the two examined studies have ensured the former by adhering to the regulated standards of laboratory experiments. Consequently, both works thoroughly describe the methodology, samples, and estimated effects to guarantee the credibility and transparency of the research. Ultimately, the papers by Chojnacki et al. (2021) and Najdawi et al. (2022) take ethical considerations into account while performing the experiments.
Conclusion
Nosocomial infections significantly obstruct healthcare services and lead to numerous complications in terms of stakeholders’ health and financial burden. The examined quantitative studies have thoroughly demonstrated that alcohol-based sanitizers greatly reduce the risks of HAIs and might minimize the collateral damage in medical facilities. Even though the authors achieved slightly different results in the comparison between alcohol-based (70-80% ethanol) and BAC sanitizers, it is evident that both types are highly effective and should be used in hospitals. Ultimately, the examined studies not only demonstrated the importance of alcohol-based hand sanitizers in preventing nosocomial infections but also advanced academic research on the topic.
Najdawi, J. J., Hubble, L. D., Scarborough, A. J., Watz, M. J., & Watson, P. (2022). Determining the efficacy of sanitizers against virulent nosocomial infections. Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 7, 1-3. Web.
To a great extent, the victim, Mrs. Maria Perez, a 53-year-old Puerto Rican lady, is presented to the hospital with comorbid gambling disorder and alcohol dependence. A strong correlation exists between the impacts of a guardian’s death with alcohol usage (Lacey et al., 2018). Notably, increased alcohol consumption and smoking among adolescents and adults are associated with parental absence due to demise. Mrs. Perez states that she has struggled to maintain sobriety since opening a new venture, “Rising Sun” casino. The physical environment can influence a person not to change negative behaviors.
In addition, Mrs. Perez reports being highly obsessed with gambling. Therefore, she drinks excessively to remain calm, particularly when participating in high-stake games. Significantly, Mrs. Perez has been smoking for the past two years, but currently, she is alarmed regarding the cigarette’s severe effects. There is a significant association between behavioral and substance addictions, leading to mental health disorders, thus a need for rehabilitation efforts, clinical courses, and treatment efficacy (“Impaired Decision-Making,” n.d.). She has increased weight by 7lbs due to excessive drinking, and Mrs. Perez is considering borrowing cash to pay her gambling debts amounting to $50,000. There are high similarities in hormonal responses between gambling and alcohol abuse disorders.
During the examination, various client factors can impact my decision-making as a psychiatric nurse practitioner (PNP). The patient was alert and oriented to the event, time, and place and appropriately dressed for the occasion, season, and weather. In addition, her speech was coherent and clear, and Mrs. Perez denies auditory and visual hallucinations. Even though the client rejects homicidal and suicidal ideation, her impulse control is impaired. Mrs. Perez is diagnosed with gambling and alcohol use disorders. In this case, the treatment is guided by clinical results, including reducing smoking, alcohol consumption, and gambling addiction.
Decision Point One
At first, I decided to give the victim an Antabuse (disulfiram), 250mg orally every morning. I selected this alternative as Antabuse was approved by the food and drug administration (FDA) in 1951 for the treatment of chronic alcohol dependence. Significantly, disulfiram helps deter clients from excessive drinking, thus improving their recovery. In the given case, Mrs. Perez is diagnosed with alcohol use disorder; Antabuse medication can aid her rehabilitation program as she is not engaged in active drinking. For example, Mrs. Perez takes one drink for approximately five days. Notably, disulfiram can be integrated with other drugs or used alone, making it effective in the treatment plan (Kleczkowska et al., 2021). The FDA administration has not authenticated pharmaceutical therapy to address gambling addiction. Therefore, Antabuse will make Mrs. Perez reduce alcohol uptake, which escalates when she visits casinos. Her smoking habit will deteriorate after the reduction of her gambling behavior.
When I decided to use disulfiram, I was hoping to achieve behavior modification for Mrs. Perez to assist her in stopping drinking. Even though the drug is not the cure for alcoholism, making her reduce excessive drinking will help her not to engage in huge debt for her to gamble. In hospitals, the PNP must provide the necessary medical prescription to the patients to help them enhance their daily behaviors (“Impaired Decision-Making,” n.d.). Another projected outcome I anticipated was to ensure that the clients stop complaining of metallic tastes, fatigue, and taste before visiting the clinic in the next four weeks. One of the essential ethical considerations while treating Mrs. Perez is nurse-patient communication about introducing her to alcohol medication. Patients not suffering from mental health illnesses must be involved in the decision-making process regarding their well-being (Cerit & Özveren, 2019). For example, since she is addicted to alcohol consumption and gambling, Mrs. Perez may reject disulfiram, which may negatively impact my treatment plan.
Decision Point Two
My next decision is to ensure the client continues with her current dose of Antabuse and begins taking Wellbutrin (bupropion) XL 150mg orally daily. After four weeks, the clinical assessment indicates that the clients report feeling better and has reduced smoking and spending much money on gambling. Significantly, disulfiram can be integrated with bupropion, which will help Mrs. Perez reduce her extensive anxiety and depression, which is the primary rationale behind her excessive expenditure and high stakes on gambling. Mrs. Perez will not experience negative side effects of Wellbutrin as she rarely goes to the casino and has not taken alcohol for the last four weeks. In addition, bupropion will enable clients to stop smoking (Naglich et al., 2019). Therefore, contrasted with other options, incorporating Antabuse and Wellbutrin is better as it will enable the client to stop smoking and gambling.
When I was making this decision, I was hoping to achieve an increased reduction of the patient’s anxiety. The increased depression makes Mrs. Perez invest highly in gambling and smoke excessively. To a great extent, Wellbutrin is effective for treating major depressive disorder and has no effects that develop long-haul use (“Impaired Decision-Making,” n.d.). Therefore, the client will have a behavioral modification and fit into my clinical course. As a PNP, the ethical considerations may affect my communication and treatment blueprint with victims. In the case of patients suffering from alcohol disorders, the principle of nonmaleficence should be applied to ensure that the victim is not harmed (Cerit & Özveren, 2019). For example, effective dialogue with Mrs. Perez will ensure no medication errors are made and advise her that Wellbutrin should not be used by people who are drinking. Increasing patient safety and care is essential in the treatment, particularly when making decisions.
Decision Point Three
My third decision will be to ensure that the patient maintains the current doses of each medication and refer to counseling for her gambling problem. The victim reports that she experiences adverse side effects of Antabuse, including sedation, a metallic taste in her mouth, vomiting, nausea, and fatigue. Therefore, sustaining the existing dose and seeking counseling on the gambling problem is effective, as the client will be advised on better gambling techniques and ways to stop smoking (“Impaired Decision-Making,” n.d.). The patient will receive massive support on how to overcome smoking and drinking and continue benefitting socially and emotionally by attending consultative therapies.
When making the decision, I aimed to ensure that the client could appropriately manage the symptoms presented during the review. Therefore, since the patient report indicated that the side effects were declining, introducing pharmacological therapy would effectively manage the adverse medication impacts (Kleczkowska et al., 2021). Regarding Mrs. Perez’s case, one of the ethical considerations will be fear and internal resistance by the victim to comply with my new treatment plan of visiting a counselor. For example, Mrs. Perez is highly concerned with borrowing capital from her retirement account without alerting her spouse, which can hinder the treatment blueprint. In a healthcare facility, when making decisions, the PNP must involve the patient in decision-making (Cerit & Özveren, 2019). In the given case, Mrs. Perez suffers from alcohol consumption, gambling illness, and no mental health disorder. Therefore, her insights and contribution should be considered when a PNP makes a choice that directly affects her. For instance, when a PNP visits a counselor, Mrs. Perez can agree to receive cognitive behavioral therapies to make her stop smoking while taking Wellbutrin.
Conclusion
Notably, Mrs. Perez presents with symptoms of comorbid gambling and alcohol use disorders. Before gambling, the patient was addicted to excessive drinking after her father’s demise. There exists a high correlation between betting and alcoholism, particularly for teenagers who lack parental guidance (Kleczkowska et al., 2021). Regarding the use of Antabuse (disulfiram) 250mg orally every morning, I recommend the medication should not be discontinued after prescribing it to Mrs. Perez in eight weeks. To a great extent, Antabuse is associated with typical side effects, including nausea, vomiting, and flushing, which can impact the client negatively.
On the other hand, another treatment recommendation is that the client continues with her current dose of Antabuse and begins taking Wellbutrin (bupropion) XL 150mg orally daily. Integrating Wellbutrin will ensure that the client stops smoking, which is highly connected with anxiety, making her extensively invest a huge amount of money in gambling (Naglich et al., 2019). In addition, by utilizing bupropion, Mrs. Perez will highly reduce her depression and anxiety, which is the primary reason for her high stakes on betting.
Lastly, another treatment alternative is ensuring that the patient maintains the current doses of each medication and refers to counseling for her gambling issue. During consultative meetings with the advisor, the patient can receive adequate social and emotional assistance (“Impaired Decision-Making,” n.d.). The therapist may make her modify Mrs. Perez’s behaviors and stop her from drinking even if her father had died. The Antabuse and Wellbutrin medications should not be discontinued. To ensure improved relationship and interaction, the practitioner must adequately address the therapeutic alliance ruptures between the counselor and the patient. The client must be willing to discuss her social history for the effective clinical management of her gambling and alcohol disorders.
Primarily, I would like to congratulate you (Claudia) on being pregnant. This is a special period in the life of every woman and I am extremely happy that you were able to get pregnant yourself without any artificial treatment and intervention. As your healthcare investigator, I worry about your well-being and the health of your child; therefore, I need to make sure that your lifestyle is beneficial for you both. Therefore, I would like to provide you with some information regarding the use of alcohol during pregnancy. Remember that you are the person who is responsible for the pregnancy and, based on these facts, it will be for you to decide whether you would like to continue drinking wine or not.
Since you would like to understand if it is important for you to stop drinking alcohol, I would say that in case you want to prevent the emergence of any complications for the baby, it is essential for you to stop consuming wine. Based on various researchers, it can be confirmed that there is no safe time during pregnancy for drinking wine or any other kind of alcohol. Alcohol is associated with challenges in developing a healthy baby throughout pregnancy, including the period before a woman knows that she is pregnant (Popova et al., 2017). In addition, drinking any amount of alcohol during the first trimester of pregnancy puts the baby at risk of developing abnormal physical features (Popova et al., 2017).
However, these are not the only complications that can arise due to alcohol consumption. Judging from the nature of alcohol as a chemical, it is “a teratogen that can readily cross the placenta, resulting in damage to the brain and other organs of the developing embryo and fetus” (Popova et al., 2017). For this reason, alcohol has been established as a huge risk factor for such problems as stillbirth, premature birth, low birth weight, spontaneous abortion, and growth retardation (Popova et al., 2017). At the same time, one of the most serious fetal problems is the development of fetal alcohol syndrome which highly affects the future life of the baby negatively (Popova et al., 2017). In short, alcohol is a chemical that is not beneficial for your or your baby’s health in any way but only puts both of you in danger.
In addition, there are other factors that you should take into consideration. This is your first-time pregnancy at an age of 43. It is great that you were able to get pregnant at 43 but, according to statistics, having a child at this age is risky for both you and your child’s health. It does not mean that you will have any kind of complications or problems with childbearing or delivering; however, it means that you have to be extremely careful, follow a healthy lifestyle, and make sure that your baby is safe and healthy. The best and the easiest way it can be done now is to prevent yourself from drinking alcohol. In this way, you can eliminate the risk that it puts on the health of your future child.
Although the health effects of drinking have been a subject of great controversy, a keen examination of the issue reveals that alcohol consumption has more negative effects on health than it can possibly be beneficial to human health.
Drinking of alcohol has been proven to have adverse effects on the health of people with certain health conditions like the IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Disease), liver problems, and even problems with digestion. That notwithstanding, excessive drinking can lead to development of a myriad of health complications (Tresca 1).
However, the side effects associated with alcohol normally vary from one person to another. These effects can either be short-lived or long-term. Some of these effects are reversible in cases where the person stops taking alcohol. However, continued consumption of alcohol leads to permanent health complications, or death. This paper is an in-depth exploration of the health effects that are associated with drinking alcohol.
Causes of drinking addiction
Research has shown that people who are not addicted to alcohol may be lucky to escape health complications. On the other hand, alcohol seems to have more devastating effects on people who are addicted to alcohol. It is thus of essence that before a discussion of the side effects of alcohol consumption, a detailed analysis of the causes of addiction to alcohol be conducted.
One of the leading causes of addiction to alcohol is peer pressure. Social drinkers find themselves being addicted to alcohol due to the pressure that is characteristic of this kind of drinking. A social drinker may decide that he/she will never take alcohol again, but he/she may later be influenced by his/her friends to take alcohol.
Other causes of addiction to alcohol include psychological disorders like Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. This is because psychological disorders like the stated PTSD make their victim to live in distress, and thus the victim may result to substance abuse in a bid to escape the depression associated with these disorders. Let us now have a look at the side effects of drinking alcohol.
Side effects of drinking alcohol
Drinking little amount of alcohol has been associated with a couple of health benefits like the lowering of the probability of heart diseases. However, the side effects of drinking beat such benefits. Drinking is associated with a number of side effects affecting mental health. Some of these side effects include insomnia, depression, and even amnesia. Drinking alcohol is also associated with a number of short term side effects that depend on how much a person has taken.
These side effects include unconsciousness, vomiting and dizziness. Among the long-term effects of alcohol consumption, which are the most serious side effects of consuming alcohol, is depression, heart diseases, liver disease and diabetes. Alcohol addiction is also associated with increased risk of developing cancer in a variety of tissues in the body. Some of the tissues that are prone to cancerous growth after consumption of large amounts of alcohol include the throat, the liver, the esophagus, the mouth etcetera.
Alcohol abuse is also associated with a number of neurological effects on its victim. It normally leads to extreme numbness, dementia, twitching of muscles, and other neurological disorders. The neurological disorders are caused by the fact that alcohol interferes with the nervous system, and thus its continued intake may ultimately lead to the aforementioned disorders of the nervous system (Lietz 1). These are very serious conditions that every person who consumes alcohol should be aware of.
Alcohol is also known to have adverse effects on the intestinal lining of the alimentary canal. When a person drinks too much alcohol, the latter irritates the lining of the gastro-intestinal tract. This is the cause of the aforementioned vomiting, and other effects like nausea and even diarrhea.
Worse still, the lining of the gastro-intestinal layer may be irritated to an extent that the victim starts to bleed. The information on this paragraph is particularly useful for people suffering from IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Disease). This is because people suffering from this disease experience the worst relative irritation of the GI tract by alcohol (Lietz 1). The latter even worsens the condition.
The aforementioned effect of alcohol consumption on the liver is exhibited by liver diseases like liver cirrhosis. When a person consumes alcohol excessively, he/she may develop alcoholic hepatitis. This is the condition that causes liver cirrhosis after an extended period of consuming alcohol. Cirrhosis is characterized by scarring of the liver due to constant healing, which eventually destroys the tissues of the liver.
Cirrhosis, caused by drinking of alcohol, has claimed a myriad of lives since time immemorial. Drinking too much alcohol is also associated with worsening of liver diseases that may exist before the victim starts abusing alcohol. This is caused by the fact that the liver is the organ responsible for removing toxic materials from the body, and also the fact that when a person is intoxicated with alcohol, the liver concentrates on removing alcohol from the body.
This leads to a build-up of undesirable materials like fatty acids in the liver, causing existing diseases to worsen. The liver can also get damaged by alcohol because alcohol can potentially alter or damage the cells of the liver. As stated above, a number of the medications prescribed for GI (Gastro-Intestinal) problems may react badly with alcohol (Marsh 1). This may make the liver unable to function properly in its role of removing toxins from the body.
Women who consume alcohol during their pregnancy make their babies develop a condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome, which is a serious combination of physical and mental disorders. Some of the disorders that such babies develop include birth defects, heart problems, eye defects, small heads, and the like (Lietz 1). These disorders make the child live a stressful life.
Conclusion
Making the personal choice to drink should be based on a clear understanding of the side effects of drinking. It is thus important for any person wishing to start drinking to evaluate the effects of drinking on the stomach, the liver and other body organs, and weigh these effects against the possible benefits that he/she may derive from drinking. However, many people get addicted to drinking even without knowing that they are becoming addicts.
What starts as social drinking or even occasional drinking may result to very serious repercussions like chronic conditions, or even death. Although there has been substantial controversy over this issue, with some people arguing that drinking has some health benefits, research has proven that in most cases, alcohol is harmful to human health. This is especially the case with people who have certain conditions like liver disease, or people who are taking medication that can negatively react with alcohol.
Works Cited
Lietz, Jessica. “Side effects of drinking alcohol”. 1999. Web.
Marsh, Jennifer. “Alcohol addiction and its side effects”. 2009. Web.
Integrated Advertising refers to the promotion of a certain product using a variety of media. Since the inception of Internet and the subsequent generational change, there has been tremendous change in the manner in which companies place their advertisements. The use of mobile advertising is quite popular with studies showing that it will be the most preferred by 2016.
Television advertising is still quite popular though it is largely driven by prime times and major programs. This transformation is across the board. However, a look at alcohol advertising paints an even more interesting picture. This paper looks at the nature of alcohol advertising integration, its effectiveness, and the influence it has on the general populace (Mims, unpaged).
Nature of Advertising
Alcohol advertising is diverse in nature. Companies spend so much money to create awareness of alcohol. Most of this advertising is on broadcast media. This includes radio, television, and other news channel. In these broadcast media, maximum attention is directed towards particular prime times and certain programs. In America particularly, most of alcohol advertisements (over 90%) appear in sports programs.
This is significant as it targets specific audiences. In Canada, for example, alcohol advertising features prominently when the popular game of hockey is underway. While majority of Canadians watch hockey games on television, a significant number attend live games.
In these arenas, alcohol is massively advertised and estimations show that for every ten Canadians that watch these games, half drink alcohol related content while at it. In America, American soccer is a popular pastime. This is what culminates into super bowl Sundays. It is common knowledge that during these Sundays, advertisers pay a lot of money to place their adverts.
A check at these adverts indicates that majority of them are automobile related. Interestingly, the second largest category is alcohol ads. Hence, sports programming is a popular way to advertise alcohol in America. Pundits indicate that it accounts to over 90% of the total alcohol advertisements (Mims, unpaged).
The second most popular programming that attracts alcohol advertising is prime time television. For example when broadcasting news, when analyzing hot political topics, or when a certain popular show is been broadcast in television. All these are times when alcohol advertising is broadcast. However, it is important to note that certain laws govern prime time adverting of alcohol.
For example, in United States certain laws indicate that when advertising alcohol, 70% of the audience should be of above alcohol drinking age. Additionally, the message should explicitly expose the dangers of consuming alcohol. The laws are similar in Canada with special interest in letting the public know the danger of using alcoholic contents. The laws are also aimed at protecting young people who the advertisers deliberately target.
Alcohol advertisers advertise mostly on weekends. This is not by accident but design. During weekends, most young people are likely to engage in leisure activities, which are synonymous to drinking alcohol related products.
This forms a very influential platform for advertisers. Research indicates that over 90% of alcohol is consumed on weekends. This rubber-stamps the strategic move to advertise on weekends (Ulrich and Song, 296).
Influence on General Populace
Over the years, research has indicated a general direct effect of alcohol advertisements to consumption. However, there is no direct relationship between increased alcohol consumption and advertising. The manner in which companies advertise, as noted above, indicate that the greatest target audience is the youth.
While it is logical to conclude that advertisements on weekends may result in a specific target audience of young people, it is risky too. This is because most underage people are also free on weekends. Laws in both Canada and USA prohibit this. However, advertisers continue to do it albeit expertly avoiding these legal pitfalls (Mims, unpaged).
Alcohol advertisements do not necessarily lead to higher consumption. Studies indicate that alcohol advertisements lead to brand loyalty and increase the market share of alcohol companies. It is crucial to note that these advertisements have the effect of bringing new alcohol consuming people on board (Ulrich and Song, 297).
The most affected people are the youth. The advertising channels and the nature of advertising adopted by alcohol companies have the direct influence on youthful audience.
The advertisers associate alcohol consumption to class and a high status in society. It is also common for alcohol to be associated to success. This is the reason they advertise on popular games. Hence, youthful audiences are carried away and are easily influenced by these adverts (Grube, unpaged).
In addition to the above analysis, it is crucial to analyze the main advertising channels and the manner in which they are changing in the face of globalization and internet. Mobile advertising and internet related advertising is quickly gaining ground. Studies indicate that by 2016, mobile and internet advertising will surpass all traditional advertising channels combined.
These traditional channels include radio, television, print-media, and personal marketing. Hence, companies are shifting towards social media sites such as Face book, Twitter, Instagram and MySpace to advertise alcohol (Mims, unpaged).
The flipside to these advertisements is the potential of reaching unintended audiences. There are no legal structures in America to govern the impact of these ads to audiences of lesser ages strictly. However, it is simple and relatively cheap to advertise on these channels (Grube, unpaged).
Effectiveness of Advertising
Alcohol advertising is quite popular the world over. Alcohol selling companies stake in millions in profits. As noted earlier, there is not statistically proven correlation between alcohol consumption and advertising. However, these companies continually increase their market share and promote brand loyalty. The advertisements mostly affect the youth.
The currently trending internet and mobile advertising affects the youth most with over 90% of the youth directly exposed to raw adverts on alcohol. This is the same case with the nature of advertising adopted by these companies on other channels such as print media, radio, and television advertising.
Estimates indicate that close to 90% of youthful audiences are exposed to televised alcohol advertising. In the year 2010 for example, light television viewers were exposed to over 400 alcohol advertisements annually. Heavy television viewers at the same time were exposed to over 800 television ads around the same time (Grube, unpaged).
Television advertisements are supposed to reach certain legally permitted audiences. This excludes children below the age of majority, which is 21, in America. However, this is not usually the case. With the increased internet usage, children below this age are continually been exposed to such ads. The USA and Canadian legal fraternity is grappling with ways to try to curb this by proposing laws that govern alcohol advertising.
However, not much has been achieved since it is not possible to determine the age of a person who subscribes to social media sites or sites that are popular with such adverts.
These sites include sports promotion sites. Additionally, while companies may try to limit advertisements to sports programming, the audiences that watch these sports are mixed in terms of age. Families attend them, which constitutes young children who are exposed (Ulrich and Song, 298).
The above analysis indicates that the effectiveness of alcohol advertising is a critical area of discussion. There is no any right way to justify the wrong audiences who are exposed. The big question that many pundits ask is whether this scenario is by design or default. A critical analysis indicates that this is all by design. Alcohol companies are normally desperate to consolidate their market.
They are also desperate to ensure loyalty to their brands. The best to do this is to expose youthful audiences to the coolness associated with alcohol consumption. This sticks in their heads and they grow knowing that alcohol is good. There is no direct way of admitting this. However, America’s legal system requires that alcohol advertisements be captioned with the danger of consuming too much.
This may have the mitigating effect of discouraging alcohol consumption albeit at a minimal percentage. In conclusion, alcohol advertisements have both positive and negative effects. However, while positive effects can be readily quantified, the negative ones have to be carefully deduced from the effect it has on society. In America, at least 60% of people consume alcohol related content (Ulrich and Song, 297).
Textual and Image Advertising Analysis
Jim Fowles
Fowles says that an advert has appeals from the following dimensions. That is sex, affiliation, dominance, autonomy among others. An effective ad appeals to the person reading the advert from each dimension.
In the American culture, for example, everyone reveres winning and winners. Kids learn from their parents how to win in life and among peers. Hence, an ad that appeals to this characteristic is a direct influence to a majority of these people (Ulrich and Song, 297).
In the American and almost every culture in the world, men must have a certain appeal that borders on dominance to win the hearts of women. Advertisers use this fact and Fowles is an advocate. He is capable of protection of the family and his woman. He also stands out among his peers.
This means that he is the man every woman would go for. Therefore, an advert should have a direct psychological connection with majority of women. This does not mean they will use alcohol. However, it meets the whole intention of advertising, which is attention.
The other factor that Fowles uses to judge a good advert is autonomy. This stands out quite well in many alcohol adverts. However, an ad’s influence should cut across the board. It should not influence the targeted audience only.
This is the true nature of advertising. Although the target may be a certain group, an advert should strive to influence a large number of people. This is because in marketing the larger the pool the greater the likelihood of making a sale.
Courtland Bovee
While Jim Fowles analyzes the use of image in advertising, Courtland Bovee analyzes the use of text. The textual components of an advert should meet and exceed the expectations of the target group. The first textual component is the heading/headlines and subheadings. Textual advertisements are appealing to people who take time to read them. In the above case, most of the people are not patient.
This group includes teenagers, men and people who are starting to make it in life. Hence, psychologically, they do not want things that might appear as disturbances (Ulrich and Song, 296). In using textual ads, Bovee offers some dos and don’ts. For example, it is suicidal to use commonly used phrases or clichés.
This dilutes the message of an advert. He advises that the text be bold enough to meet the eyes of the reader. He also says it is important to use short and easy-to-remember phrases. He refers to them as catchy and appealing to the eye (Young, 50).
Conclusion
Integrated advertising is quite popular currently. Many organizations prefer it as it brings together different aspects of the product. From the analysis, it is evident that alcohol advertising is popular in USA. The perspectives by Jim Fowles and Courtland Bovee present an interesting look into the core nature of image and textual advertising and their appeals (Kotabe & Helsen, 12).
This paper brings out the aspect of integrated advertising quite well and vividly explains it using the case of alcohol advertising in USA. With a consumption rate of over 60%, alcohol is one of the advertised products in USA. Additionally, alcohol brings about the concept of integrated advertising quite well considering the flexible nature with which different media can be used as a tool for its advertisement.
Works Cited
Grube, Joel. 2012. Alcohol in the Media: Drinking Portrayals, Alcohol Advertising, and Alcohol Consumption among Youth.
Kotabe, Masaki and K. Helsen. Global Marketing Management, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Print.
Ulrich, Kaiser & Song Minjae. “Do Media Consumers Really Dislike Advertising? An Empirical Assessment of the Role of Advertising in Print Media Markets.” International Journal of Industrial Organization, 27.2 (2009): 292-301. Print.
Young, Charles. The Advertising Handbook: Ideas in Flight, Seattle: Wiley and Sons, 2005. Print.
History of tobacco advertising in the American media
This is the promotion of tobacco products by the tobacco industry in the media. Currently, tobacco advertisement is one of the most regulated forms of marketing in the media industry. The earliest form of tobacco advertisement in the United States media dates back to 1789 in the New York Dairy. This advertisement was from P. Lorillard and Company and was promoting the companies tobacco products. By this time the tobacco companies used the local and regional newspapers to advertise their products because they were engaged in small-scale production and their products were distributed within small geographical areas (Borio 4).
The first tobacco brand to receive a wide range of popularity was “Bull Durham” in 1868 which started to place national wide media advertisements which were emphasizing on how the company products, an example of their slogan is “to roll your own.” In the 1970s the development of color lithography was a boost to the tobacco advisement in the U.S. media. This is because the companies were able to come up with more creative images in the presentation of their products. This development led to the printing of pictures in the cigarette card which was the new marketing concept. By the end of the 19th century, there was the development of magazines that carried different cigarette adverts. An example of a magazine that was used in cigarette advertising was Punch. Most of these magazines had national wide distribution and they had become a major advertising tool to many products.
During the early part of the twentieth century, tobacco advertisement in the media grew tremendously. There were nationwide advertisements on the radio, television, and newspapers. The tobacco companies had grown and they had a nationwide distribution network and the Media advertisement by this time was not regulated. There was increased competition from the cigarette manufacturers that led to a stimulated advertisement in the media on cigarette products (Pollay 2).
In the 1950s and 1960s, there was increased advertisement of cigarette brands on television and radio. The cigarette brands started to sponsor various programs on televisions. Some of the most famous ads in the tobacco industry in the 1960s came from the Wiston cigarettes, the company aired adverts with slogans that went like, “ Winston tastes good like a cigarette should!” the other competitor with a famous advert in the media was for the Tateyton cigarettes. The cigarette TV commercials were many and they became more creative and interesting with time.
The control and regulation of cigarette advertisement started in 1967 when the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) gave their concerns on the increasing number of cigarette advertising commercials in the media. The FCC gives direction to tobacco companies to pay for anti-smoking ads in the media. The public health cigarette smoking act was passed by congress in 1970 which banned all cigarette advertisements on television and the radio. After this bill was passed tobacco products were only advertised in magazines, newspapers, and billboards. After the banning of radio and television advertisements, many tobacco companies bought big advertisement spaces in the print media which were not banned.
In 1994 the cigarette adverts became more controlled even in the print media after the release of the report (by surgeon general) that prevented the use of tobacco products among young people. The report concluded that young people were susceptible to cigarette promotions and they made them become victims of cigarette smoking. Currently, cigarette advertisement in the media is banned by the federal government.
Alcohol advertisement in the American media
Alcohol advertisement also dates back to the late 19th century when brewing companies started to place adverts in the newspaper to promote their products.
These alcohol advertisements become many as more brewing companies expanded their regional markets and distribution areas. One of the recognizable brands that were advertised in the early 20th century was the Guinness brand. Some of the remembered slogans for these brands include “Guinness for strength”: This was aired in the 1940s. Due to the development of the TV and radio industry in the early 19th century, there was the development of many creative commercials for alcoholic products (Martin 143).
In the 1950s there were series of congress committee hearings that proposed the banning of alcohol and cigarette ads. The alcohol brewing industries fought back to be allowed to advertise their products. During this period no regulation on alcohol products was implemented. During this time there was increased media advisement on the TV and radio. This was due to increased competition as many brewing companies wanted to expand their market share. There was also the emergence of many alcohol brands which needed to be advertised so that they can penetrate the market. This growth in the alcohol industry saw many programs on the TV being sponsored by various alcohol brands.
From 1988 there was the development of various mechanisms to control alcohol advertisement in the American media. This is through the formation of self-regulatory bodies which are responsible for creating ethics in alcohol advertising. These current standards were to set a limit to the media on the group of people it can advertise alcohol products to. These regulations were put in place to protect children from alcohol ads. Currently, the media can air an alcohol advertisement to a population where over 70 percent are above the age of 21 years. They are also other regulations as to the type of advertisement that can be aired in the media such as the use of tools that can be appealing to the children is regulated (Gallagher 3).
The self-regulatory mechanism of alcohol is too strong in the United States such that alcohol ads are well regulated and mostly avoids regulation by the federal government. The media vendors have also developed a tendency to reject alcohol advertisements in their programs. There are some televisions networks in the United States who (although their viewers have attained the drinking age) don’t accept alcohol adverts.
Conclusion
The alcohol and tobacco advertisement has faced a lot of challenges which has resulted from the ethical issues in these adverts. The history of media advertising of the two products has shown that they have undergone various regulations by the federal government. There has been a complete ban on media advertisement of tobacco products due to health risks that are associated with the consumption of these products. The media advertisement on alcohol products has also been placed under a strict self-regulating mechanism that has curtailed the freedom of these adverts. This history reflects the continued demand by society to the media to observe ethics in the advertisement.
Works cited
Borio Gene. “Tobacco Timeline: The Twentieth Century 1900-1949–The Rise of the Cigarette.” Tobacco.org, 1993. Web.