The study will focus on the relationship between mood/attitude and impaired control in the context of alcohol consumption. The purpose of the study is to identify whether certain moods or attitudes result in a greater likelihood of impaired control during alcohol consumption in regular nondependent drinkers. The premise stems from some evidence indicating that problematic alcohol drinking behaviors may arise from different emotional states.
The rationale behind the interest in testing the idea
This idea seemed interesting to test because problematic alcohol consumption that is both a cause and a consequence of impaired control are often driven not just by the addictive properties of alcohol as a drug, but external factors as well. The original study by Vaughan et al. (2019) established that there is a relation between impaired control leading to impulsivity and alcohol intake in non-dependent drinkers. This study aims to identify factors that may lead to impaired control from a psycho-emotional perspective. Alcohol use disorder is defined as problematic patterns of alcohol consumption associated with impulsivity, impaired control over intake, and negative emotional state when not using. Therefore, emotional states of the individual may play a role in the cyclical nature of this disorder.
Hypothesis
H1: Nondependent drinkers demonstrating impaired control while consuming alcohol are experiencing negative emotional states including but not limited to depression, anxiety, grief, or anger.
H2: Nondependent drinkers experience fewer instances of impaired control when in a positive emotional state including but not limited to happiness, excitement, or calmness.
Overall, the study expects to demonstrate that negative emotional states lead to greater instances of impaired control, while positive emotional states tend to reduce impaired control. Therefore, problematic drinking behavior can be dependent on mood and regulated, potentially limiting impaired control if being aware of ones emotional state or doing something to improve it without relying on alcohol.
The key variables in the study
Variables
Nothing is being manipulated, longitudinal study. Variables that will be measured include mood of the participant, alcohol consumption patterns, and subjective reflection by participant. The mood/emotional state of the participant is the independent variable, while alcohol consumption is the dependent variable in this study.
Operational definitions
Mood of participant will be measured on a simple scale from -10 (most negative) to +10 (most positive) that is self-reported every time the individual chooses to consume alcohol. Alcohol consumption will be measured by number of drinks consumed and approximate time spent drinking to identify impaired control, also self-reported. The NIAAA defines heavy drinking for males as consuming more than 4 drinks per day or more than 14 per week, while binge drinking is 5 or more drinks in the span of 2 hours. The participants will be asked to leave a short reflection with subjective descriptions on emotions they felt prior and during the drinking process and whether their emotional state contributed to their alcohol consumption.
Sample Characteristics
The study would like to focus on young adults and middle-aged adults, aged 24 to 45. This population is most likely to be affected by problematic drinking behavior and experience life-affecting conditions. Populations younger are still likely to be affected by college drinking where alcohol is part of the social culture, while adults older are typically more mature and settled down in life. The selected age range is most likely to be affected by the so-called mid-life crisis and other major key life changes in human development. The study would like to focus on men primarily, as evidence demonstrates that there are empirical differences in the patterns that women consume alcohol as well as other influencing factors. The selected sample must be nondependent drinkers but those who experience issues with problematic alcohol consumption.
The type of methodology of the study
The research design
The study will follow a cohort longitudinal design, with self-reported survey data collection. It will be a special exposure cohort, closed study, with no comparison group. Using multinomial logistic regression, many data points of several people and time, certain patterns should emerge allowing to determine the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
The rationale behind the choice of the research design
This research design was selected because it offers a more realistic, real-world insight into the observed behavior. Both, emotional states and emotional alcohol consumption in relation to impaired control are extremely difficult to recreate in a research setting. Emotions are felt by individuals in the moment based on their existing contexts and interactions. The longitudinal design helps to provide more data points and draw patterns in such a complex topic, as emotional drinking can be both, a one-time occurrence or a constant behavior. That is, a person may demonstrate impaired control over multiple drinking sessions, but only one of them is because they are depressed, while the rest are just due to addiction. The collection of data over time will demonstrate any such tendencies or variations in the relationship between variables.
Study procedure and methodology
Over a period of 6 months, participants will be asked to fill out a survey with the variables described above, after they have completed a drinking session. Participants will be neither encouraged to drink at any point or have to meet any minimal requirements in alcohol consumption. The study is meant to be observational with minimal disruption to daily patterns of participants. The survey will be quick to fill out after any drinking session, with participants encouraged to be fully honest without any diagnosis being made based on their results. It is assumed sufficient amount of data will be gathered. Through the surveys, the research team can determine an association between mood/attitude and alcohol consumption behavior, whether certain emotions lead to levels associated with impaired control. This experimental design is ethical and voluntary, it is not encouraging detrimental behavior but simply collecting data based on events and behaviors that have happened to individuals. No harm will be caused to anyone or anything as a consequence of this experiment.
Reference
Vaughan, C. L., Stangl, B. L., Schwandt, M. L., Corey, K. M., Hendershot, C. S., & Ramchandani, V. A. (2019). The relationship between impaired control, impulsivity, and alcohol self-administration in nondependent drinkers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 27(3), 236246. Web.
Having a desire to conduct research in the field of alcohol consumption by adolescents aged 12-16 in the West Indies, it is important to create a detailed framework. We have already considered the main idea of the qualitative research, dwelt upon five approaches to this type of research and described the importance of the theoretical framework within the research. Therefore, at this stage of the discussion, it is important to consider the role of the theory in the five approaches to qualitative research with the purpose to underline the role of theory in our research plan and explain any considerations that should be kept in mind regarding theory. One of the first steps in conducting research is the consideration of the theory. The theory is used for consideration, identification, explaining and predicting the events of behavior, depending on the research questions (Ornek, 2008).
It has already been stated that narrative research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, and case study research are the approaches to qualitative research (Creswell, 2007). Designing the research methodology for each of these approaches it is important to understand the role of theory in each of them. Theory plays a great role in designing research, but many scholars do not pay much attention to it (Leong, & Austin, 2006). However, it is wrong as strong and argumentative research is usually based on consolidated and substantial literature review which comprises the greatest part of the theoretical data. Therefore, using any of the applications to the qualitative research mentioned above, the role of the theory use should be considered. It may be helpful for highlighting the role of the theoretical knowledge for designing methodology for considering the level of alcohol consumption by adolescents aged 12-16 in the West Indies.
Substantial theoretical support is a good key to good practical research. Wisker (2009) is sure that there is nothing so practical as a good theory (p. 157). The main idea of applying to the theory is to help explain the research questions to the audience. Additionally, theory helps to interpret the information which is going to be considered, it aims at helping to understand what exactly is going to be researched and how the discovery or research results are going to contribute to the existing knowledge. The theory is helpful in explaining the empirical data which is gathered by means of scientific research. Wisker (2009) points out a few specific warnings which should be considered. First, when using some theoretical data for utilizing research paradigms and traditions, one should explain how exactly the information is used and why this particular design is applied. Second, one should not consider too many theories which are not going to be applied in future practical research. Therefore, the theory should use specifically for asking research questions and interpreting the purpose and goals of the experiment.
As it has already been stated, there are five approaches to qualitative research, narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, and case study (Creswell, 2007). Each of these approaches is particular, it uses specific methods and requires different types of information to be implemented. Additionally, the role of theoretical knowledge in scientific methodology is not restricted to explaining the research questions and describing the goals. Specific concepts, the measurement and applications may be considered as well (Hall, 2008). Therefore, having considered the role of the research questions in general, the theory used while utilizing each of the applications should be considered.
A narrative approach to qualitative research is based on the gathering of the stories, and personal experiences of one or two people. The interview questions are usually based on the previous discussion, therefore the process of communication takes a long period of time. The role of theoretical information, in this case, is going to be based on the description of the importance of this information. The main purpose of the research, the consideration of the experience and personal information should be grounded by means of the theory. Additionally, theory should explain the choice of the methodology and paradigm and the research questions. The researchers should spend time gathering theoretical issues devoted to the appropriateness and topicality of the problem (experience) under discussion. Additionally, much attention should be paid to the choice of the method as a narrative approach of the quantitative research does not give an opportunity for generalization of the research results.
A phenomenological approach to qualitative research is based on the consideration of the group experience or knowledge. The main peculiarity of this kind of research is that the research results may be generalized. Therefore, the choice of the theory for this application should be based on the larger qualities of the representatives. Thus, much attention should be paid to the discussion of the theoretical framework. The possibility of the generalization and the explanation of the research questions should be based on a thorough literature review. It is important to consider the necessity of the research in the sphere and support the importance of results generalization.
The ethnographic approach to qualitative research is based on ten cultural and traditional peculiarities of the society, group of people and other subjects for discussion. Theoretical data is important for considering the background information about the reasons for the formation of the traditions. In other words, the history of the area should be discussed. Additionally, the theoretical knowledge may help to reason the connection between the cultural aspects and the research questions. The previous research may be used for designing the paradigm of this research or for detailed consideration of the current problem. Additionally, Creswell (2007) states that multiple sources of information are necessary for this type of research.
Grounded theory application to qualitative research may be considered as systematic procedures and the constructivist approach (Clarke, 2005). The theory should explain each of the procedures in detail. It is important to refer to some well-known discussions of the procedures and constructivist approach. Additionally, referencing some particular sources of information, the researcher explains the reasons why specifically these methods and procedures are effective in considering this particular problem. Thorough and grounded theoretical research, in this case, helps reduce to a minimum the limitations connected with the choice of the approach and fitting to the research problem.
Case study research is research that is based on the experimental situation considered within a bounded system. The case study is usually based on theoretical information, that is why its role is exceptional in this case. The researcher should understand that the creation of the conditions for the case study and the measurement should be based on particular information. The empirical data may be obtained only in case substantial theoretical research has been conducted. It is important to include the theory in describing the methodology.
Considering our research based on the problem of alcohol consumption by adolescents aged 12-16 in the West Indies, we have chosen the ethnographic approach to the research as much information based on social customs and traditions should be gathered. The purpose of the research is to conduct a two-phase sequential mixed study aimed at obtaining statistical information and quantitative results from a sample for the research of the data in depth. Additionally, the family and social aspects should be covered before conducting the research. Considering the relation between alcohol consumption of the mentioned group, we are going to gather the theoretical and statistical information devoted to the age groups, entertainment facilities in the society, financial opportunities, family and school role in the life of children. On the basis of this information, an interview with each of the subjects is going to be conducted to understand how the presence or absence of some specific characteristics of society impacts adolescents behavior.
Therefore, it should be concluded that having a desire to conduct grounded research one should apply to the theory. The theoretical knowledge helps understand the necessity for the research, its topicality and provides the background information devoted to the issue under research. Being aware of the theory, one may base the research questions on it, explain those research questions and offer substantial arguments. Additionally, preliminary research helps understand that the problem under consideration really deserves solving and would not be the repetition of the idea which has already been considered by another researcher.
Reference List
Clarke, A. E. (2005). Situational analysis: Grounded theory after the postmodern turn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among five approaches. New York: Sage Publications.
Hall, R. (2008). Applied social research: planning, designing and conducting real-world research. Sydney: Macmillan Education AU.
Leong, F. T. L., & Austin, J. T. (2006). The psychology research handbook: a guide for graduate students and research assistants. New York: SAGE.
Ornek, F. (2008). An overview of a theoretical framework of phenomenography in qualitative education research: An example from physics education research. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning & Teaching, 9(2), 1-14.
Wisker, G. (2009). The Undergraduate Research Handbook. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
In 2002, the U.S. National Policy regarding the use and trade of alcohol, tobacco, firearms and explosives was adopted. The policy in question shed a lot of light on the subject matter, drawing a very distinct line between the accepted actions and the ones that will trigger legal repercussions. Therefore, its adoption can be viewed as a major foot forward in the development of the national policies (Krouse, 2012).
The fact that the issues under analysis were finally handled by a single legal body clearly is one of the advantages of the policy mentioned above. As a result of the specified innovation, a more timely and efficient response to the related concerns can be expected. Moreover, the bureau should be credited for managing the issues related to drugs, firearms and explosives on a nationwide level as well as on the international one, therefore, tracking down the sources of drug peddling and firearms trade successfully (Ritter, 2015).
Unfortunately, the policy also has several flaws. The lack of connection between the cause of the problem and its outcomes can be viewed as the primary one; while RATFE allows addressing the concerns related to illegal tobacco, alcohol, firearms and explosives use, it fails to eliminate the social, political, and economic factors that cause the specified issues in the first place (Phillips et al., 2015).
Maintaining Advantages and Eliminating Disadvantages
The introduction of the latest technological advances into the framework of RATFE operations will enhance the timeliness and efficacy of its responses to the instances of illegal usage of the above-mentioned substances and items. Therefore, it is crucial that RATFE could be provided with the tools that will allow for the reinforcement of the policy and a careful and accurate information acquisition, interpretation, and transfer.
The disadvantages listed above can be managed with the help of amendments to the current regulation. Particularly, RATFE may need to consider the possibility of analyzing the issues that lead to the increase in alcohol- and drug-related crimes; particularly, the socioeconomic factors will have to be investigated. Indeed, recent studies show that drug peddling, alcohol abuse, and exceeding the limits of self-defense, as well as other crimes that are related to the current gun control policies. It should be noted, though, that the introduction of the RATFE members to new roles and responsibilities will require carrying out extensive training so that the board could be able to conduct the necessary assessments of the existing risks in an appropriate manner and respond to the emerging threats in a timely fashion.
Scholarly Support
How the Articles Support the Analysis
The papers used in the course of research provide sufficient evidence for proving the points raised above. These studies inform the evaluation of the policy under analysis by providing relevant information concerning its implications. In other words, the resources allow identifying the positive and negative outcomes of the policy applied to practical dilemmas.
Why the Articles Are Deemed as Credible
The papers can be considered valid, as they have been published in peer-reviewed journals and on the U.S. government sites and are comparatively recent. Hence, the sources are quite trustworthy and, therefore, reliable. Providing enough information for the evaluation, these papers serve as a strong foundation for the analysis to be based on.
Reference List
Krouse, W. J. (2012). The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and operations for FY2011. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Web.
Phillips, C. D., Nwaiwu, O., Lin, S.-h., Edwards, R., Imanpour, S., & Ohsfeldt, R. (2015). Concealed handgun licensing and crime in four states. Journal of Criminology, 2015(803742), 18. Web.
The problem of alcohol and drug dependency has increased over the years, fueled by factors such as easy accessibility of drugs, high cost of living, poverty, financial instability, and laxity on the part of authorities to curb the vice. As a result, psychologists have been faced with an influx of drug addicts who are struggling to come out of the physical, psychological, and social effects brought about by their alcohol and drugs dependency. Behaviorism is one of the theories that psychologists continue to employ to help the victims out of the mess. Behaviorism confines itself to the objective study of quantifiable and observable characteristics of behaviors. It seeks to explain the behavior of humans and animals entirely in terms of measurable and observable responses to environmental stimuli. As such, behaviorism theory has been used widely to influence the therapeutic system of behavior modification
This paper has relied widely on the two types of conditioning classical and operant to explain how behaviorism theory can be used to help individuals out of their drug related problems. Classical conditioning, developed by Pavlov, occurs when a behavior turns to a reflex response of a stimulus. Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, argues that behavior can be reinforced through a system of rewards and punishments. This paper has extensively elaborated how the two techniques can be used by psychologists to curtail the vice of drug dependency.
In the application of behaviorism theory, psychologists must be able to instill in the addicts the concept that any unwanted behavior can effectively be changed through a vivid demonstration of a desired behavior. The theory is important in helping the drug addicts gain stimulus control, urge control, and social control over their predicaments. However, the theory is presented with major difficulties in that drug dependency is an individual decision that requires more individual good will rather than external help. Psychologists are also hard pressed to know the behavior reinforcements agents that causes particular individuals to be drug addicts. This paper also discusses spiritual treatment of alcohol and drug dependence. In spiritual treatment, addicts are brought in touch with the higher nature in an attempt to make them drop the vice.
Introduction
Though drugs and alcohol has been present in the world from the time of our forefathers, their use and abuse has risen tremendously during the last few decades. Today, nothing worries a parent of teenage children more than the possibility of their children being addicted to drugs and alcohol (Mahel, 2003; Domingos et al., 2008). The problem has been worsened by easy accessibility of the drugs and lack of clear cut policies from governments on how the problem should be controlled. The ever rising cost of living, poverty, and financial instability are also driving more people to self destruction by making them to depend more on drugs and alcohol to forget their problems.
Various theories and schools of thoughts have been established to inquire and offer useful insights on why people continue to abuse drugs and alcohol, and how they could be helped out of the situation. One of them is behaviorism, which psychologists believe its useful in helping individuals with drug and alcohol related problems. Behaviorism confines itself to the objective study of quantifiable and observable characteristics of behavior, excluding subjective phenomena such as motives and emotions (Baum, 2004; Davis et al., 2008). This paper attempts to uncover if behaviorism is indeed useful in helping individuals to tackle the problem of alcoholism and drug dependency
Effects of alcohol and drug abuse
Drugs and alcohol are a major problem in society today. Even with concerted efforts from a number of stakeholders, the people who abuse drugs seem to augment in number as the years advance. The prevalence of drug abuse is highest among teenagers and young people; the bulk of the countries productive population. This presents a real need for the issue to be addressed as a matter of urgency. Below are some of the effects of alcohol and drug dependency.
Physical effects
Dependence and prolonged use of drugs and alcohol has adverse effects on the physical wellbeing of the individual. After ingestion, alcohol is carried through the blood stream to the brain where it causes impairment and affects the persons normal functioning. It depresses the nervous system and can damage vital body organs (Clune, 2008). It is linked to medical conditions such as gastrointestinal problems, high blood pressure and several types of cancer, namely; cancer of the colon, stomach, liver and the pancreas. Different types of drugs also produce varying effects on the body. Marijuana has been linked to liver damage, increased heart rate and anxiety. Cocaine has been linked to chest pain, seizures, respiratory and cardiac arrest. Sedative hypnotics such as tranquillizers can cause memory impairment and opiates such as heroine can elevate blood pressure and cause pulmonary complications (Davis et al.).
Psychological effects
Continued use of alcohol breeds addiction among other psychological disorders. One looses control and becomes the slave of an overwhelming, compulsive desire to consume the drug. The realization that one has become dependent is usually a big blow to their self esteem. They may feel out of control, worthless and unable to control their lives. This prompts them to sink into depression and they may even try to commit suicide (Wozniak, 2007).
Social effects
The social life of any drug-alcohol dependent person is usually adversely affected. The habit may prompt them to withdraw from social life as they do not want to be found out by their friends and relatives. They may fail to fulfill certain promises that they had made to their friends or any responsibilities that they may have towards their families and this in effect, alienates them from their loved ones who may not understand their sudden change of behavior. It is the resultant solitude and loneliness that eventually drives them even deeper into their dependence. Family and friends may also feel like or actually abandon their addicted kin especially if they keep on denying their problem or if they keep relapsing into the habit (Clune, 2008; Calderia et al., 2008).
Behaviorism, alcohol and drug dependency
Behaviorists, according to Omrod (2003) seek to explain the behavior of humans and animals entirely in terms of measurable and observable responses to environmental stimuli. Basically, a behavior is a psychological reaction to environmental stimuli. According to the theorists, mental processes are irrelevant and unscientific. This theory was advanced further by American behaviorist, B.F. Skinner, who said that individual habits, which could be learned or unlearned plays an important role in conditioning emotions. In the same vein, it is worthy mentioning that the behaviorist theory gave rise to the therapeutic system of behavior modification. Therapy, as we all know, shapes behavior through a variety of processes referred to as conditioning (Clune, 2008; Davis et al., 2008).
Behaviorism as a learning theory
As already mentioned, the theory of behaviorism was developed by B.F. Skinner, who relied heavily on previous works of Guthrie, Tolman, Thorndike, and Hull. These investigators based their works around three principal assumptions. First, they assumed that behaviors are shaped by the environment. Second, they assumed that there must be a manifestation of behavior change if learning has taken place. Third, they came up with the principles of reinforcement and continuity as mechanisms used to explain the learning process (Clune, 2008). To date, behavioral theorists argue that learning takes place when an individual acquires new behavior through conditioning.
There are two types of conditioning. Classical conditioning, credited to Pavlov, occurs when a behavior turns to a reflex response of a stimulus. In his experiments, Pavlov discovered that dogs could learn to associate the sound of bell to mean that it was feeding time. When the bell rang, the dogs started to salivate even when there was no food. Here, salivating is the reflex response, whereas the sound of a bell is the stimulus (Davies et al., 2008). Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner on the basis that a behavior can be reinforced through a system of punishments or rewards. He argued that reinforcing a behavior through offering a reward increased the chances of that behavior recurring again; while punishing that behavior reduced the chances of its recurrence (Citation).
Classical conditioning and the treatment of drugs dependence
Some classical conditioning techniques such as aversive conditioning can be employed in cases where individuals wish to break free from a life threatening condition such as drug use or alcoholism. In line with the principles of classical conditioning, addiction occurs because of the pleasurable physiological effects of these substances which can be referred to as the unconditional stimuli and the actual taste of drugs which is the conditional stimuli. One wants to continue abusing the drugs due to the good feeling that it brings. If the conditional stimuli are paired with a negative response, say, nausea and vomiting the result will be an aversion to the unconditional stimulus which is the taste of the drugs (Zebrowski, 2007).
This technique involves introducing unpleasantness as a control agent in dealing with alcoholism and drug use. This assertion depends on the view that a response definitely terminates a primary aversive event. We all want to get away from situations that are unpleasant to us through negative reinforcement. According to Martin and Pear (2002), proponents believe that necessary coping responses can be attained without undue suffering through avoidance learning. This method has been used mostly by psychologists who introduce foul smelling medications for individuals to use whenever they are embraced by the desire to take drugs. The foul smelling-nausea causing prescriptions take out the desire to engage in drugs. Repeated exposure conditions the individuals mind not to take alcohol or drugs (Maher, 2003).
Operant conditioning and the treatment of drugs dependency
This technique is deeply rooted in B.F. Skinners operant conditioning theory. In this kind of therapy, individuals are motivated to change their behaviors by being promised some set rewards (Martin & Pear, 2002). Punishment has also been largely used as an aversive control technique. According to Maher (2003) and Clune (2008), the probability of a response producing stimuli is effectively decreased by punishment. But for it to be effective, Punishment must be administered immediately and with intensity. This method has been used by parents and institutions of learning to curtail the drug vice. If a child is punished immediately after engaging in drug abuse, chances are that he may not repeat the mistake again. Though successful, the therapy has been strictly resisted by many people, especially the human rights activists.
Application of Behaviorism theory to drugs dependence
In classical conditioning, we have seen that if the conditional stimuli are paired with a negative response, say, nausea and vomiting the result will be an aversion to the unconditional stimulus which is the taste of the drugs (Zebrowski, 2007). This basically involves introducing unpleasantness as a control agent in dealing with alcoholism and drug use. In operant conditioning, we have seen that alcoholism and drug abuse can be checked through the introduction of a system of rewards and punishments.
In the application of behaviorism, psychologists must be able to instill in the addicts the concept that any unwanted behavior, no matter how bad it is, can effectively be changed by a vivid demonstration of the desired behavior. They must also be able to show to the addicts the consistent rewards that are tied with the efforts of stopping the habit of alcoholism and drug abuse. The rewards may be in the form of good health, good concentration, and financial independence. The punishments may be in the form of poor heath, life-threatening diseases, and poverty. Therapeutic activities towards rehabilitation may include, but not limited to making the addicts rehearse the desired behaviors, fulfilling specific assignments, or exposing the addicts to foul smelling medications when they have the urge to engage in the practice ( Scientific approaches , 2003).
This helps the alcohol and drugs addicts to gain control in three vital areas. First is the stimulus control, which will help the addicts to walk away from situations that are associated with alcohol and drugs indulgence. Stimulus control will also help the addicts to learn to use their time in activities that are incompatible with drugs abuse. Second, behavior theory will help the addicts to control the urges towards alcohol and substance abuse as the patients are helped to recognize and change the feelings, thoughts, and plans that leads them to drug indulgence. Finally, the theory helps addicts in social control, whereby social systems or rewards and punishments can be used on the individual to help him get out of the quagmire ( Scientific approaches, 2003). Such social systems rewards must be seen to reward alcohol abstinence and punish indulgence.
In real life situations, psychologists must first identify the specific target behaviors that need to be changed for an alcoholic to recover. Psychologists must have prior knowledge of how often the individual engages in alcoholism and the circumstances in which he is more likely to engage in alcoholism. For example, they need to know how many sticks of cigarettes an individual smokes every day. They also need to know if the individual smokes more at certain times or with certain people. They must come up with all the stimuli that bring about alcoholism. For example, you may smoke a cigarette due to stress or anxiety so that you may feel relaxed. In this case, stress and anxiety are stimuli that cause smoking, while smoking behavior is reinforced by the feeling of relaxation (Martin & Pear, 2002; Domingos et al, 2008).
Afterwards, psychologists must strive to control the stimuli. This can be accomplished by avoiding, eliminating, or reducing the instances of these stimuli. In here, the aversive conditioning techniques developed by psychologists come into play. A schedule of frequent reinforcement must also be provided. Positive reinforcement rather than punishment should always be encouraged (Martin & Pear, 2002; Baum, 2004).
Behaviorism as a hindrance of treatment
According to the theorists, every behavior must be reinforced. It therefore follows that alcoholism and drug dependency are reinforced behaviors. It is often hard for psychologists to know or discern the reinforcement agents of alcoholic behaviors. Even when they know the agents, they come across another brick wall in that alcoholism and drug dependency are individual decisions and therefore, exposing some addicts to nausea-causing medications in the hope of cutting the dependence never works at all. Some scholars have argued that dogs used in the experiment cannot be equated to human beings. People have cognitive senses and therefore make individual decisions on what to do with their lives. Human rights activists have also argued that punishment as a form of curtailing a behavior can actually reinforce the behavior. In these perspectives, behaviorism can hinder the treatment of alcohol and drug dependency.
Alternative therapy: Spiritual treatment
Behaviorism as a method of treatment can be made more effective if it is used together with spiritual treatment. In spiritual treatment, individual addicts are brought in touch with their higher nature. Individuals are made to feel that it is only the higher authority that can help them come out of their conditions since their problems are connected with the higher authority. This technique uses methods such as meditation to help the alcohol and drug addicts to live harmoniously with their spiritual side ( Spiritual treatment, 2007).
Though spiritual treatment is not founded on scientific principles, it has been found to help in the treatment of alcohol and drug-related problems especially to people who believe in the existence of a higher being. Through it, drug addicts are able to improve on their emotional and mental balance, thereby effectively kicking out the vice. Proponents of this concept believe that any type of healing must include a spiritual dimension ( Spiritual treatment, 2007). The only problem with this concept is that it cannot be used to solve alcohol and drug dependency problems on individuals who do not confess to a higher authority.
Conclusion and further research area
Behaviorism is quite effective in changing behaviors, especially when aversive conditioning techniques are used. It has been used by psychologists time and again in identifying the various environmental factors that continue to lead people to the vice. The fight against alcoholism and drug abuse is far from being won. The mechanisms that have been put in place are quite repetitive and have not been very effective as the number of substance abusers continues to escalate. The answer to this crisis lies in research. The efforts shown by the various research organizations are commendable but a lot more can still be done. There is need for regular surveys and evaluations so as to establish the real situation on the ground, the statistics and emerging new trends. This will help the various stakeholders to initiate appropriate protective measures. In this respect, the government needs to allocate more money to wards funding of research
References
Baum, W. (2004). Understanding behaviorism. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9781405112628.
Clune, C.A. (2008). Using the world to understand the mind: Evolutionary foundations for ecological psychology. The journal of mind and behavior, vol. 29, no. 1. Web.
Davis, R.L., Ninness, C., Rumph, R., McCuller, G., Stahl, K., Ward, T., & Vasquez, E. (2008).
Functional assessment of self-initiated maladaptive behaviors: A case study. Journal of behavior and social issues, vol. 17, pp 66-85. 2008. Web.
Domingos, N., Lambez, R., Aguias, P., & Chick, J. (2008). Effectiveness of sequential combined treatment in comparison with treatment as usual in preventing relapse in alcohol dependence. Journal of Alcohol and alcoholism, Vol. 43, no. 6. Web.
Glassman, W.E., & Haded, M. (2006). The Behaviorist approach. Approaches to psychology journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 12-18.
Martin, G.L., & Pear, J. (2002). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it, New York: Prentice Hall.
Mattaini, M.A. (2008). Behavior and social issues advances. Journal of behavior and social sciences, vol. 17, pp 6. Web.
Omrad, J.E. (2003). Human Learning. (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130941999.
Wozniak, R.H. (ed.) (1993). Theoretical roots of early behaviorism: Functionalism, the critique of introspection, and the nature and evolution of consciousness. London: Routledge/ Thoemmes.
Zebrowski, R.L. (2007). Aversive conditioning. The Journal of Applied behavior, Vol. 14, no.1. Web.
Scientifically based approaches to drug addiction treatment. (2003). Web.
Spiritual treatment for alcohol abuse and drug abuse in Colorado. (2007). Web.
Teenage binge drinking (TBD) seems to have become a major concern for the American society. According to the statistical data, 16% of the U.S. teenagers have tried binge drinking, and 12% still do it on a regular basis (Mares, van der Vorst, Engels & Lichtwarck-Aschoff, 2011). A range of dangerous myths and stereotypes concerning the safety of TBD is quite popular among teenagers; as a result, TBD not only persists, but also gains increasingly more popularity among its audience.
Definition
One of the most notable things about the phenomenon concerns the fact that there is no single definition for the phenomenon. Most sources claim that binge drinking occurs among teenagers and that the term cannot be attributed to people over nineteen (Mares, van der Vorst, Engels & Lichtwarck-Aschoff, 2011). However, when it comes to specifying what binge drinking actually involves, a range of contradictory facts emerge. For example, certain sources define binge drinking as a consumption of a specific amount of liquor in one session (e.g., more than four, five or six drinks) (Main, 2009). Other sources declare that binge drinking is a phenomenon during which the process of drinking becomes unintentional and, therefore, impossible to control (Main, 2009).
Thesis
Despite the fact that teenage binge drinking leads to a range of serious consequences and is bound to trigger major health issues for drinking teenagers, the issue is often overlooked compared to other problems concerning teenage drinking; as a result, TBD is never addressed properly and has drastic consequences on young adults. In order to solve the problem, the attitude towards TBD must be overlooked and a comprehensive health education strategy based on raising awareness, intensifying family support and developing proper stress coping mechanisms must be provided.
Factors: What Induced TBD
The major problem with TBD is that there seems to be an entire mythology grown around it; some of the suppositions are admittedly true, yet most of the myths surrounding the subject are completely false, hindering people from developing an efficient strategy to fight the disease. For a health educator, it is crucial to realize that teenagers are prone to developing impressive resistance when it comes to addressing their binge drinking issue.
It is a common idea that the lack of awareness concerning the effects of binge drinking is what makes teenagers grow addicted to liquor. Such an assumption, however, is far from being true. Instead, teenagers do not seem to realize the seriousness of the consequences. Hence, the awareness strategy must be aimed at proving the point instead of repeating the ideas that the patients have heard a million times before.
Perhaps, one of the most dangerous myths about TBD concerns the easiness, with which people supposedly get rid of it. According to the latest questionnaires and opinion polls, a number of young people, who indulge in binge drinking, assume that they will be able to quit whenever they want (Main, 2009). However, as further researches display, very few of such young people actually want to cease drinking; more to the point, most of them are doomed to increasing the daily amount of consumed alcohol to the point where they become addicted to it (Main, 2009). In addition, a range of adults assume that teenagers will inevitably start drinking because of the growing pains and their rebelliousness (Main, 2009).
While the common myths created by the adults, which allows the latter to shut eyes to the fact that TBD exists, the myths spawned and supported by teenagers are much more dangerous, since these myths are especially hard to prove wrong not because of their fallacies, but because of the unwillingness of young people to accept the truth. One of such myths is that TBD is not the actual drinking and that a teenager, who drinks only occasionally, though in quite heavy doses, is not subjected to developing a binge drinking issue (Main, 2009).
Apart from the misconceptions regarding the understanding of teenagers motivations for drinking and, therefore, underestimating the problem, people often fail to recognize alcohol dependency as a medical issue, because alcohol itself is rarely viewed as a drug. Indeed, as the recent research results show, 32% of adults consider alcohol consumption as something entirely out of the ordinary and do not see its regular use as a reason for concern (Mares, van der Vorst, Engels & Lichtwarck-Aschoff, 2011).
Alcohol, especially light liquor, is often viewed as an element of recreation; using alcohol drinks in order to experience relaxation, adults do not prevent teenagers from doing the same thing. Teenagers, in their turn, interpret such a response as an approval for continuing alcohol consumption and, in their turn, increase the amount of beverages consumed or the amount of times that they drink alcohol per day.
Unlike the previous issues, however, this one is by far the most dangerous myth affecting teenage binge drinking. In contrast to the previous ones, it affects the way in which a teenager will shape their attitude towards drinking in the future. As a result, the idea of using alcoholic beverages as a tool for relaxation is most likely to result in developing a serious drinking issue in adulthood (Mares, van der Vorst, Engels & Lichtwarck-Aschoff, 2011).
Consequences of TBD: Evaluating the Threat
As it has been stressed above, a range of people assume that TBD does not have any tangible effects on ones adult life. Unfortunately, researches have shown that this is far from being true. Apart from the obvious dependency on liquor as the key method of recreation, people, who used to indulge in TBD, are most likely to develop a range of disorders at a relatively young age. Among the most common ones, kidney failure (Steele, Belostotsky & Lau, 2012), alcohol induced liver disease (Herring, Berridge & Thom, 2008) and even mental health disorders (Squeglia et al., 2012) are listed.
It should be noted that most of these issues remain dormant up until the age of thirty, when the effects of TBD finally take their toll and trigger malfunction of a range of organs of human body. Indeed, according to the results of the study carried out by Squeglia et al. (2012), TBD does affect peoples capacity to carry out the basic logical tasks as they grow up, even though there are considerable differences in the results for male and female TBD: as the researchers state, females who develop heavy drinking patterns are more likely to have neural abnormalities that predate substance involvement (Squeglia et al., 2012, p. 536), whereas male teenage binge drinkers are more apt to developing substantial attention issues, which are especially noticeable in the male teenage binge drinkers, who have thicker cortices (Squeglia et al., 2012, p. 536).
Therefore, TBD is harmful in not only that it contributes to developing liver and kidney issues in young adults, but also in that TBD suppresses the brain functions of the human body, leading to major cognitive and memory issues in early adulthood.
Solutions: Designing the Appropriate Strategy for Health Education
In order to address the issue efficiently, busting the myths will not be enough; while being an admittedly important step to take, this can be counted only as the first part of a major process for the TBD threat prevention. Apart from disclosing the truth to teenagers and their parents, it will be required to provide both with the information on binge drinking and its prevention: A multifaceted approach, including a full range of prevention and intervention components, is required to safeguard the health of students from the effects of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials Commission, 2009, p. 59). The key to efficient intervention is not to use a big scare tactics, but to report the key facts honestly, at the same time providing parents and their children with efficient strategies for binge drinking prevention, including the means to get rid of such factors as peer pressure, emotional distress, etc.
Health education as the key: strategies
When it comes to defining the means to enhance TBD awareness among both parents and their children, the issue of health education should be brought up. It must be kept in mind that, for young people in 9th12th grades, the message must not be too on-the-nose; otherwise, it will not perform its key purpose. Hence, the following steps must be considered as the possible program for a course in health education on the TBD issue among nine-and twelve-graders:
Step one: Awareness campaigns.
As it has been stressed above, a range of myths concerning TBD is cycling among teenagers, thus, making the latter assume that TBD should not be a major concern. As it has been proven, this assumption is not only wrong, but also very dangerous, since it encourages teenagers to indulge in binge drinking and, therefore, leads to the development of early symptoms of alcoholic dependency in young adults.
Once the mechanism is launched, alcoholic dependency starts developing. Since a range of specialists claim that alcoholic dependency cannot be cured and can only go into the remission stage, the issue of TBD can be considered a major threat to both the health and the social life of young adults (California Department of Education, 2009).
Therefore, massive awareness campaigns regarding the threats of TBD must be launched, and discussions of the issue of TBD must be included into the curriculum of public schools. Teenagers have the right to know what is going to happen to them once they engage in TBD, and the school must provide this information to them.
Step two: Family support
No matter how hard teenagers might try to make their peers consider them fully independent, they, in fact, are linked to their family members very closely in terms of emotions and communication. Therefore, it is imperative that teenagers family members should provide sufficient support for their children and engage into the process of raising teenagers awareness.
It is crucial, though, that the family members should not be overbearing or overprotective; according to the DSM-V, overbearing is fraught with a range of serious consequences, starting from young people getting out of control and up to teenagers developing neuroses and other related disorders. In fact, the DSM-V manual suggests a very adequate method for parents to address or prevent the situation of teenage binge drinking:
Adaptive functioning is assessed using both clinical evaluation and individualized, culturally appropriate, psychometrically sound measures. Standardized measures are used with knowledgeable informants (e.g., parent or other family member; teacher; counselor; care provider) and the individual to the extent possible. (American Psychiatric Association, 2010, p. 37)
Apart from designing an efficient method of addressing the problem, the family members must also reconsider their own attitude towards alcohol consumption. Even though teenage binge drinking is often associated with college life when most students remain away from their parents, the latter may expand their influence to reach their child even if a teenager lives away. The parents, who have drinking issues themselves, on the other hand, have very little effect on their children; more importantly, with an example of drinking parents, a teenager is highly unlikely to quit binge drinking, as the American Psychiatric Association (2010) claims.
Therefore, it would be an appropriate step to start with defining the possible issues with alcohol consumption among the family members. It is imperative that a teenager should have a positive role model to relate to. It is only with the help of supportive parents, who either do not have or have got rid of alcoholic dependency that a positive environment for a teenager to quit binge drinking can be created.
Step three: Self-actualization
The third step can be interpreted as the reinforcement of the stages that have been listed above. It should be kept in mind that the complete remission and the following transfer from one lifestyle to another will require that a teenager should cope with a lot of stress. It is obvious that a person, who used to indulge in binge drinking, is going to experience much stress when abandoning the habit, which used to bring so much delight into their life. As a result, an efficient stress coping mechanism will have to be developed so that the patient should not experience chronic stress (Hahn, Payne & Lucas, 2010, p. 81).
Among the key suggestions for developing the proper coping mechanisms, the enhancement of self-actualization (Hahn, Payne & Lucas, 2010, p. 32) must be mentioned. The patient must reconsider their values and get their priorities straight, therefore, realizing that binge drinking only prevents them from reaching their goals; more to the point, TBD erases the progress made and deprives one of personality completely.
As soon as the process of self-actualization starts, the communication process with the family members must be enhanced; thus, the patient will be able to retain their psychological health. It is especially important that the emphasis should be made on the nonverbal elements of communication (Hahn, Payne & Lucas, 2010, p. 33)
Conclusion
Teenage binge drinking is a major problem for not only the United States, but also for a range of states all over the world. Because of a range of myths surrounding TBD, not only teenagers, but also a range of adults tend to treat the issue rather lightly. However, TBD poses a serious threat to young people, leading to major issues in the adult life; as a result, a comprehensive health education strategy must be provided to raise awareness among both teenagers and adults.
In order to prevent and address the issue, such a stress-coping mechanism as self-actualization of the patient can be suggested. As long as the patient has the support of the family and is provided with the information regarding the TBD, they are most likely to be safe from TBD and its consequences.
Reference List
American Psychiatric Association. (2010). DSM-V. New York, NY: American Psychiatric Association. Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials Commission.
California Department of Education. (2009). Health framework for California public schools. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education.
Hahn, D. B., Payne, W. A. & Lucas, E. B. (2010). Understanding your health. 11th ed. New York City, NY: McGraw Hill.
Herring, R., Berridge, V. & Thom, B. (2008). Binge drinking: an exploration of a confused concept. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(6), 476-479. Retrieved from JSTOR.
Main, C. T. (2009). Underage drinking and the drinking age. Policy Review, 155(1), p. 33. Retrieved from ProQuest.
Mares, S. H. W., van der Vorst, H., Engels, R. C. M. E. & Lichtwarck-Aschoff, A. (2011). Parental alcohol use, alcohol-related problems, and alcohol-specic attitudes, alcohol-specic communication, and adolescent excessive alcohol use and alcohol-related problems: An indirect path model. Addictive Behaviors, 36(3), 209216. Retrieved from ScienceDirect.
Squeglia, L. M., Sorg, S. F., Schweinsburg, A. D., Wetherill, R. R., Pulido, C. & Tapert, S. F. (2012). Binge drinking differentially affects adolescent male and female brain morphometry. Psychopharmacology, 220(3), 529539. Retrieved from ResearchGate.
Steele, M. R., Belostotsky, B. & Lau, K. K. (2012). The dangers of substance abuse in adolescents with chronic kidney disease: A review of the literature. CANNT Journal, 22(1), 1524. Retrieved from ProQuest.
Alcohol and substance abuse during pregnancy are famous for the adverse effects they have on the fetal development during gestation. A lot of research has been conducted on this relationship and none so far has come up with any positive effects of alcohol on the growth or development of an unborn child of an alcoholic or substance abusing pregnant woman.
Many people abuse various drugs throughout their lives including cocaine, methamphetamine, tobacco, prescription opiate, marijuana, and alcohol among others. However, most researchers seem more inclined to conduct studies on the effects of alcohol abuse than of any other drug, with tobacco being second in popularity.
The reasons for this trend in research could be that alcohols effects are easily identifiable, especially since they are embodied in a condition known as Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, (FASD), which outlines a range of varying health disorders in newborn babies because of prenatal exposure to alcohol.
Among these are; Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), which affects children whose mothers consumed alcohol throughout most of the pregnancy, and Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE), which are individual or separate symptoms of FAS, but are manifested in children whose mothers either drank less amounts or during specific semesters.
Consequently, such children will exhibit a range of deficits in growth and development, but not to the full-blown level or combinations as FAS symptoms. The mothers may have consumed a lot of alcohol during the first semester only, which results in distorted facial features and retarded brain development.
This paper will conduct a literature review of most of the studies that have been conducted in this field and further summarizing from them the adverse effects of exposing unborn babies to alcohol and drug abuse. It is important to note that such effects carry on into adulthood, although the physical manifestations are somewhat ameliorated during puberty spurts. However, mental deficits remain painfully obvious throughout the persons life.
Objectives
This paper intends to bring to the awareness of pregnant women and their families the dangers associated with exposing themselves and their unborn children to both alcohol and substance abuse. Most of the research conducted in this field of study has been fragmented and disconnected from related research.
Therefore, it is the intention of the paper to link all these studies in a bid to generate a comprehensive display of both substance abuse and alcoholism during pregnancy and the effects attached to this form of deviance. In addition to pointing out the morphological and Central Nervous Systems (CNS) shortcomings in such a child, the paper also intends to touch on the psychological harm that comes with such a condition, and its strain on the mother-child relationship.
Aim
The aim of such a display of adverse effects is to provide the public with comprehensive insight into what happens when one abuses any drug during pregnancy. Most FAS conditions have been diagnosed in children of young teenage mothers (16-22). The presumption behind these diagnoses is that these youth are not prepared to handle the responsibilities of child-care, right from the carrying of pregnancies to term.
Consequently, they engage in binge drinking and substance abuse either to rebel or to cope with the stigma and rejection that is associated with pregnancy at this age. Mothers do not know the damage they are doing to the children in their womb, and this paper aims at creating this much-needed awareness.
With knowledge comes empowerment, if they knowingly abuse drugs after glimpsing at the probable effect, it will not be in ignorance. Secondly, this study hopes to put together the propositions of previous research on how to counter the problem of fetal exposure to drugs. It will compile the proposals of past researchers and consequently have reformists adopt some of them during policy making to alleviate this problem from the society.
Methodology
I will compile the findings of related research while including the disclaimers given by such researchers over the accuracy of their findings. This includes indicating whether any steps were taken to eliminate other confounding variables such as post-natal exposures to socioeconomic difficulties and family problems, as well as mothers age and quality of antenatal care allocated to the unborn infant.
Next, I will categorize the effects of substance abuse based on the drug in question across the board, i.e., I will combine all research that has been conducted on effects of tobacco for instance, then move on to those of cocaine, and so on.
In other words, this paper will pick on the strengths of every study and avoid overlapping shortcomings, making it very reliable. For those studies with similar findings, they shall not all be included. The vein of the findings shall be adopted, and the different sources shall serve as additional evidence. Others with similar ideas but different characteristics shall be used to build on the already developing train of thought.
Literature Review
This paper derives its authority from several sources that have been cited as authority in the matter of fetal exposure to alcohol, and/ or substance abuse.
These are reports on the findings of various researches including the methodology applied, the theoretical frameworks, the strengths and weaknesses of each procedure, and recommendations for future researchers as well as for donors in terms of progressing corrective measures. Having already named them and given the topics here, in the next section of this paper where the paper discusses the findings, the write will just name the first two researchers and the title of their work then go ahead to report their findings.
It is also important to note that within the above studies, are inclusions of other studies that the researchers compare or contrast their findings and methodologies. I shall include such in-text researchers where a relevant point is projected, but just to the extent which is mentioned under the current research.
Findings
Alcohol
Alcohol is a teratogen. In other words, it is a substance that is harmful to the development of the body, both physically and mentally (Larkby, & Day, 1997, p. 192). When a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, it is absorbed into her mainstream and absorbed alongside food and oxygen by the fetuss system.
Consequently, the fetus becomes inebriated, and unfortunately, its clean-up mechanism that is responsible of ridding the body of toxic substance is not nearly as efficient as that of its mother. The alcohol is thus retained for long periods within the fetus resulting in the adverse effects of alcohol on fetal growth and development. A child may be born with withdrawal symptoms such as restlessness, muscle tremors, irritability, and eating and sleeping disorders (Nulman, Rovet, & Stewart, 1997, p. 259).
During the first trimester, particularly the first until the fourth week, the heart, the Central Nervous System (week 3 marks the beginning of brain development) eyes, legs, arms, ears, lungs, kidneys and genitals are the organs that are in development. Consequently, exposing the fetus to alcohol then can result into morphological deficits such as alterations in facial features as well as small eye openings (short palpebral fissures).
It can further result into the development of epicanthic folds on eyelids, short upturned nose, flattened philtrum, (middle ridge linking nose and lip) thin upper lip, flattened midface, underdevelopment of upper and / or lower jaw, and abnormal skull structure (Clarren, Olson, Clarren & Astley, 2002, p. 315).
They also include mental development inhibition, which results in mental retardation and behavioral problems. In particular, such an individuals brain parts are underdeveloped. These include the hippocampus, frontal lobes, corpus collosum, and basal ganglia.
Consequently, they suffer delayed motor and speech development, hearing impairments, abnormalities in sleep patterns, and difficulty in adapting and responding to stimuli. One of the most effective tools used in diagnosing these deficits is the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (Loebstein, & Koren, 1997, p. 195).
Alcohol abuse during the third trimester causes growth retardation. Consequently, infants are born with a low birth weight and height and they remain thin and short through the rest of their lives. Some researchers carried forward their studies to investigate the continuance of these effects in the adulthood of the patient.
Morphological features such as facial distortions are ameliorated during adolescence by puberty spurts as well as normal muscle development (Clarren, Olson, Clarren, & Astley, 2002, p. 320). However, mental retardation remains.
One study indicated that such individuals IQ ranges from a low 29 (completely retarded) to 105 (high average). Consequently, most of them have learning disabilities due to inherent mental incapacitation. Neuropsychological measures have yielded results that indicate that these individuals, (5-15) have difficulties in; processing and storing information, visual and spatial skills, problem solving-they cannot make complex decisions, and poor sequential processing.
Behavioral problems that have been observed include hyperactivity, irritation during infancy, inattention, lack of concentration, lack of independent living skills, stubbornness, social withdrawal, and social problems such as depression and anxiety. Conduct problems include lying, cheating, stealing, poor communication, antisocial inclinations, and problems with substance and drug abuse.
Research has proved that the relationship between amount and duration of exposure can either be linear i.e. it is directly proportional and the more an expectant woman drinks, the more the damage caused on the infant. It can also be a threshold relationship (Nulman, Rovet, & Stewart, 1997, p. 263). This came up with the few exceptional cases where alcohol did not adversely affect the fetus; therefore, there was a quest to establish the threshold amount of alcohol that can be consumed without affecting the unborn baby.
Unfortunately, for drinkers, no such amount has been established this far because different people react differently to different amounts of alcohol consumed. Most researchers noted age of the mother, socioeconomic status after birth, maternal rejection of the infant and maternal co morbidity with medical or psychiatric disorders as the confounding variables of their research but that once controlled, however, these factors have negligent effects on the findings.
Tobacco
Research has proved the directly proportional relationship (linear) between maternal smoking during pregnancy and criminal inclination and substance abuse by the adult who suffered this exposure as a fetus (Brennan, Grekin, & Mortensen, 2002, p. 50).
The most common crimes such individuals engage in include; murder, attempted murder, robbery, rape, assault (including domestic assault), illegal possession of a weapon, theft, breaking and entering, fraud, forgery, blackmail, embezzlement, vandalism, prostitution, pimping, and narcotics offenses.
It is important to note that there was no special relationship between the inclination to commit narcotic offences and fetal exposure to tobacco. This research also proved that, male offspring of such history is given to more aggression and violence than their female counterparts are. An interesting relationship was addressed between female offspring inclination to become dependent on substance abuse and exposure to tobacco in the womb (Brennan, Grekin, & Mortensen, 2002, p. 52).
It was proved that this relationship is linear, and that the aggression portrayed by these females is largely in the process of acquiring illicit substances. Therefore, future researchers seeking to address the issue of violence in female offspring exposed to tobacco in the uterus are advised to focus on disturbance reports and statements instead of charge records.
Cocaine
In addition to some defects associated with alcohol use such as reduced circumference of skull and growth defects, addicted cocaine users who continue to use it during pregnancy have various ill effects.
These range from spontaneous abortions, abruption of placenta (these two are more common when cocaine is taken intravenously, they cause fetal hypoxemia), premature labor, precipitous deliveries, stillbirths, and me conium staining (Loebstein, & Koren, 1997, p. 195). A cocaine-specific effect is prenatal cerebral infraction, which results from the constriction of the veins circulating blood in the cerebrum. Such a child will have difficulty with comprehension and expression.
Recommendations
Most researchers recommended that the therapists to be used in counseling addicted expectant women be friendlier and give the mothers hope in recovery. This can be made possible if we use therapists who are themselves recovering from dependence (Nulman, Rovet, & Stewart, 1997, p. 262).
Many proposed the inclusion of the more complex psychomotor development assessment to phase out physical assessment. Finally, some proposed the incorporation of prevention and intervention strategy development by future researchers (Larkby, & Day, 1997, p. 197).
Critical Analysis of a Key Concept
I choose to analyze alcohol consumption by expectant women. Alcohol has been a social beverage since time immemorial and most people accept it, as it is not regarding the repercussions they subject themselves into when they consume it. However, some people consume it to forget their problems or as a way of coping with their stress issues.
This study has proved that alcohol consumption is detrimental to fetal health. Every drink an expectant woman consumes is taken by her unborn baby as well. The effects of this are inhuman, as the baby will be damaged for life. They can be born already addicted to alcohol and suffering withdrawal symptoms, or with physical, mental and neurological deformations, which will affect them for life.
Extreme cases of deformation are difficult on the mother as well. It is interesting to note that, there is no threshold amount of alcohol that a person can consume without risking his/her babys health. Most women in my community consume wine almost every night after dinner for digestive purposes.
There is also the misled belief that wine is not too strong a drink. A simple sip at the wrong time of fetal development can wreak havoc on the babys IQ. It is also important to note that such a child will always blame the mother for his condition, meaning that there will be a strained relationship at best with the child, in addition to the burden of raising a deformed child.
Finally, statistics show that drinking is more common among Caucasian females that African Americans or Hispanics, and that it increase with the level of education. It is therefore important that we pay attention to these statistics and findings to protect our children from deformities at birth and in life.
Conclusion
This paper has looked into the effects of alcohol and substance during pregnancy on the newborn and on the mother-child relationship. It has surveyed the findings of authoritative researchers and compiled them to draw its conclusions on this phenomenon.
It has also indicated the aims of the study as intending to create awareness among the youth, and policy makers on the adverse effects of drug use during pregnancy. It included recommendations for future researchers as well as for policy makers seeking to alleviate this growing problem, and finally, it critically analyses alcoholism in among women. I would advice all affected parties to pay attention to its findings to stay off trouble with drugs.
References
Brennan, A., Grekin R., Mortensen, E. (2002). Relationship of Maternal Smoking During
Pregnancy With Criminal Arrest and Hospitalization for Substance Abuse in Male and Female Adult Offspring. American Journal of Psychiatry , 3 (2), pp. 48-54.
Clarren, K., Olson, C., Clarren, S., & Astley S. (2002). A Child with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. In G. M. (ed.), Interdisciplinary Clinical Assessment of Young Children with Developmental Disabilities. Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Larkby, C. & Day, N. (1997). The Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure. Alcohol Health & Research World , 4 (1), pp.192-197.
Loebstein, R., & Koren, G. (1997). Pregnancy Outcome and Neurodevelopment of Children Exposed In Utero to Psychoactive Drugs: The Motherisk Experience. Journal ofPsychiatry & Neuroscience ,2(1), pp. 192-196.
Nulman, I., Rovet, J., & Stewart, D. (1997). Neurodevelopment Of Children Exposed In Utero To Antidepressant Drugs. The New England Journal of Medicine , 1 (1), pp. 258-262.
Discuss the regions of the brain affected by alcohol. How does this drug alter brain chemistry?
Alcohol alters the normal functioning of the body system similar to any other drug. As commonly known, excessive alcohol consumption leads to addiction whereby the affected individual develops alcohol dependency syndrome. At this stage, the person who suffers from alcohol dependency craves more and more of it. Due to increased alcohol consumption, the brain as well as other sensitive parts of the body undergoes gross damage.
Additionally, the normal operation of the brain is also altered. Some of the brain parts affected by alcohol are the nucleus, accumbency, cerebral cortex, sub cortical areas such as the hypothalamus and the limbic system, the basal forebrain, and the cerebellum (Clapp, Hofmann & Behave, 2008). The limbic system of the brain is responsible for the expression of emotional feelings whereas the thalamus is responsible for the release of hormones in response to stimuli such as stress and the general behavior and psychological effects by communicating with the brain. The cerebral cortex of the brain is affected by the neurotoxic effects of alcoholism which causes a disease known as atrophy.
Deficiency of thiamine may equally result in damage to some portions of the hypothalamus due to breakages of the blood vessels. Worse still, alcoholism may lead to vulnerability of the frontal lobe. Neuropathological studies and neuroimaging show increased vulnerability of the frontal brain areas to alcoholism. Research by behavioral neuroscientists shows that the prefrontal cortex is of the brain is responsible for emotional, cognitive, and relational activities. It controls planning and regulates behavior by inhibiting the occurrence of unwanted actions and supports adaptive skills such as good judgment, tenacity behaviors, and problemsolving capabilities (Clapp, Hofmann & Behave, 2008).
What treatments did the individual seek? Were there any available at the time?
The individual in this story happened to have suffered serious brain damage in a construction site although there were no visible and serious signs at the time when the person was injured. He quickly went to the doctor and sought h medical attention. As time went by, the patient started behaving differently shifting from his initial known personality. The company which he was working for later refused to readmit him into the job.
The patient then went to New Hampshire where he worked at a stable, became a driver of coaches in Chile, and finally joined his family members in San Francisco in the United States at the place of his death aged thirty-six having experienced several seizures. During this time, the patient was the most popular in the field of neuroscience since his condition provided a link between the change in personality and brain trauma.
At the time of gages accident, no known established knowledge and correlation between brain damage may cause trauma as was the case for him when his lower frontal lobes were damaged alongside the effects of this damage on personality and behavior. This is why gage became the most famous patient since doctors took a lot of interest in his case and conducted more studies to establish the relationship between brain damage and behavior which he suffered (Twomey, 2010).
This attests to the reason why his photograph is preserved at the Harvard Medicine Museum library. It is also important to emphasize that there were no viable treatment options at that time to cater to the brain damage which he sustained.
References
Clapp, P., Hofmann, P.L. & Behave, S.V. (2008.) How adaptation of the brain to alcohol leads to dependence: A pharmacological perspective. Alcohol Research & Health, 31(4):310339.
Twomey, S. (2010). An accident with a tamping iron made Pheneas gage historys most famous brain-injury survivor. Web.
A variety of assessment tools exists that help case management professionals gather the most accurate data about their clients. One such tool is A Pocket Guide for Alcohol Screening and Brief Intervention for Youth. The purpose of this tool is to help gather information about the alcohol use of school students and provide intervention resources. This tool includes a two-step flow-chart for screening school students of different age groups for alcohol use. It recommends specific activities for different risk groups. This tool is a good choice for a professional as it is an all-in-one solution for both screening and interventions.
Another useful tool is Guideline for Alcohol and Substance Use Screening, Brief Intervention, Referral to Treatment. It is a two-page guide that provides questions for a brief alcohol and substance use screening. Also, it includes the exact advice for the health care professional to follow depending on the screening results. The intervention statements included in this tool vary according to the clients reaction. This guide is compact but very informative and can be used even with clients who are not willing to work on a change, which makes it an excellent resource for a case management professional.
Case Study
The client is an eighteen-years-old male, a high-school student, unemployed, and living with his parents. The client was referred by his parents who report that the client has substance use problems. The clients parents are worried that the client might face legal charges. The client believes that drugs help him concentrate and uses substances to reduce anxiety.
Guideline for Alcohol and Substance Use Screening, Brief Intervention, Referral to Treatment was used to gather information, and the client falls into the Harmful Use category. The other tool was not applicable because the client has both drug and alcohol use problems. The client reports using different substances to control restlessness and anxiety, which are typical symptoms of ADHD (Wolraich, 2006, p. 87). The goal of the treatment is to eliminate ADHD symptoms and stabilize the substance abuse disorder.
Developing Goals
The client reports symptoms associated with Acute Stress Disorder (ASD), including anxiety, insomnia, and having difficulty concentrating (Kivi, 2015). The client reports recurring thoughts about her son, who is in the military, and fears that he is under threat of serious injury. The client is under stress at work and worried about her daughters poor academic performance. The client uses alcohol to calm herself down and believes that she would not be able to fall asleep without it.
The client reports having stomach cramping and pain, which is likely a result of stomach inflammation due to repeated or excessive drinking (Stomach Pain after Drinking Alcohol, 2016, para. 6). The client is likely to suffer from Substance Use Disorder (SUD), and ASD is likely a primary contributor to her alcohol reliance. The treatment should cater to the clients immediate needs. Short-term goals of the treatment are:
providing pain relief medication for stomach aches;
prescribing soporific drugs to improve sleeping behaviors;
educating the client about alcohol abuse and providing counseling to help the client cope with her current situation.
Mid-term goals are to provide psychotherapy and prescribing medication to reduce the symptoms of ASD and as a result, stabilize SUD. Values that caused the client to seek help, such as the well-being and academic performance of her daughter, can be used to motivate her to overcome ASD and SUD (Summers, 2009, p. 9).
The major barrier to recovery is the fact that the client cannot control what happens to her son. However, in the long-term, the clients adaptive coping mechanisms can and should be increased. Other long-term goals include managing gastrointestinal problems and coordinating care including working with clinicians. The agencies that provide the necessary services in my area are Samaritan Counseling Center Inc and Alcohol Treatment Centers Montgomery.
References
Kivi, R. (2015). Acute Stress Disorder. Web.
Stomach Pain after Drinking Alcohol. (2016). Web.
Summers, N. (2009). Fundamentals of Case Management Practice, Skills for the Human Services, Fourth edition. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Wolraich, M. (2006). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Infants & Young Children, 19(2), 86-93. Web.
Recall bias is a systematic deviation from the truth, which occurs when the respondents answers are affected by his or her memory (Hassan, 2006). Recall bias is one of the factors that affect the credibility or validity of the research. In epidemiological studies, the concept of recall bias is equally important. This is because the correctness of the respondents answer will determine the level of dependence one can place in such research. The correctness of the answer is usually dependent on the memory of the respondent. Therefore, this article analyses the concept of recall bias in epidemiological studies involving alcohol consumption.
Various factors can contribute to recall bias in research. Anders et al in their paper A Randomized Study of Secondary Prevention of Early Stage Problem Drinkers in Primary Health Care introduced a few factors in the methods that could lead to recall bias (1989). The element of time used in this research could introduce recall bias in the study. The questionnaires were delivered using mail and therefore, it took some time before they reached the respondents.
To add to this, the questionnaire focused on the previous weeks intake, during the weekdays and the weekend (Anders 1989). The time between the consumption of alcohol and answering the questionnaire is considerably long. During this time, the memory of the respondents may be distorted or may change thus introducing recall bias in the methods. Moreover, the researchers measured the alcohol consumption, and habits on basis of the previous weeks intake.
Time factor tends to affect the memory of the respondents. Each of the respondents will give an account of his or her alcohol consumption habits depending on what he or she recalls. This may reduce the level of accuracy in measurements because the respondents memory may not be very sharp after some time has passed. Therefore, to enhance this research, immediate analysis is required to ensure that the concept of recall bias is minimized.
Miles & Strang introduce an element of recall bias in the methods they used to analyze alcohol consumption and addiction (2001). The authors provided questionnaires to young people who had to report on their consumption habits. The subjects of the study had to report on the number of units consumed in the previous month and the number of units they consume on a typical day (Miles & Strang, 2001). Moreover, the questionnaire seeks to record data on the frequency of alcohol consumption. For example, data on weekly consumption, daily consumption, and monthly consumption. To add to this the researchers aim to find out the date that the subjects began drinking.
All these elements may contribute to recall bias. This is because when the subject is answering questions on daily alcohol consumption the information will be very accurate since his or her memory is not distorted by the time factor. However, when the subjects answer questions about monthly and weekly consumption, there may be deviations in the data given. This is because the period between consumption and the time of actually answering the questionnaire is long.
During this time, the subject may confuse or lose some memory about his or her consumption habits thus distorting information. The element of recall bias in this study may interfere with the results obtained by the researchers. Therefore, researchers have to introduce some form of control to ensure that the bias introduced in the study is eliminated. In the case of the time factor, researchers should perform their questioning immediately after consumption.
References
Anders, R., Lena, A., Hakan, B., Stefan B., Claes G., Olle H., Annika Hassler, Anna K., Peter M., Roland M., Kjell Nyman, Anders O., Eva O., Anders R., & Olle W. A. (1989). Randomized Study of Secondary Prevention of Early Stage Problem Drinkers in Primary Health Care. British Journal of Addiction, 84(1), 1319-1327.
Hassan, E. (2006). Recall Bias can be a Threat to Retrospective and Prospective Research Designs. Internet Journal of Epidemiology, 3(2), 1-10.
Miles, H. Winstock, A. & Strang, J. (2001). Identifying young people who drink too much: the clinical utility of the five-item Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Drug and Alcohol Review, 20 (1), 9-18.
The major reason for the call to outlaw advertising of alcohol is its abuse. The term abuse can have various meanings from one section of society to another. For example, to a college student, drinking to the extent of vomiting uncontrollably is abuse. In religious groups, even a taste of alcohol is termed to be illegal. In a family setting, abuse of alcohol occurs when couples are in constant strife. Most societies have however illegalized underage drinking.
According to a WHO Charter, all states have the responsibility of ensuring that all children are raised in an environment secluded from negative influences and consequences of liquor consumption. This includes the promotion of these beverages. For a better understanding of this, the agreement suggests that all states exercise strict control on adverts addressed to young people.
Main Body
However, reports from the U.S and elsewhere in the world indicate that beer companies spend a lot of money on promotional activities either directly or indirectly. The activities usually take the form of organizing sports contests, academic sponsorship, music concerts, or support to charity organizations. To make matters even worse, most of the alcohol adverts tend to neglect references to the bad effects associated with the consumption making it look like an alternative to soft drinks.
Most alcohol adverts especially on TV use animation, music, comedy, and celebrities to pass across their message. Research has established that this technique is more appealing to teenagers and adolescents who believe that the adverts target them. Some of the adverts also associate drinking with excellent and sporting success hence influencing the emotionally sensitive young minds. A recently concluded research indicated that most young people will recognize many beer brands labels that the portraits of their former presidents. This is because alcoholic beverages ads are more popular than the patriotism associated with the recognition of the national heroes by the younger generations.
Other than pulling underage people into excessive consumption, econometric techniques have indicated the close relations between alcohol adverting and the rise of accidents. An example is the lifting of a ban on television and radio advertising of spirits after 1996 which led to the rise in road accidents to about 3000 annually. This heavy loss of life results from cases where individuals attending social parties involving alcoholic drinks ignore the role of designated drivers. Some of the companies run adverts which can at times make drivers lose concentration from the steering wheel to thoughts of pleasure associated with alcohol drinking leading to road accidents.
Medical researchers in New Zealand have categorized alcohol as a psychoactive drug. This is due to its ability to alter the mind by making one be subconscious. In this state, one can unconsciously engage in some dangerous activities including sexual immorality thus increasing risks to STDs and HIV infections. The subliminal state can create physical body injuries while walking due to the inability of maintaining a good body posture. This has led some religious groups to blame alcohol advertisements for promoting promiscuity and moral decay in societies, hence support for the ban on alcohol.
On the other hand, breast cancer is greater among women who drink than those who abstain. The other health risk among these individuals is complete liver damage translating into hepatitis C. Therefore, patients found with the illness must quit drinking completely. All these health problem cases will continue to be on the rise as long as alcohol consumption increases through advertisements in the national mass media.
Despite all these misgivings, breweries and advertising industries argue that alcoholic drinks are legal products contributing tax to the economy. To them, alcohol is legal and should be advertised. They claim that were the advertisements to be banned, it would greatly affect businesses and the media. They also say that outlawing the drink is not justifiable because advertising is only concerned with promoting an individual products sales and that theres no proof to relate the adverts and the number of harms associated with alcohol consumption. This means that advertising is not concerned with new membership recruitment into becoming drinkers of a particular brand but just raises the sales within the existing customers. The other point is that successful advertisement will increase the companys market share at the expense of fellow competitors share index in the business.
In siding with the advertisement and brewery industries, those opposing the ban on liquor drinks adverts have indicated that alcohol consumption has many health benefits if used correctly. One of the positive impacts of alcohol consumption on the body is that it reduces the risk of a heart attack. Cardiovascular health improves by lowering heart disease or stroke based on the sick-quitter theory. From this point of view, it is right to argue that the liquor drinks advertisement is less like promoting a curative remedy but not illicit and abusive drinks.
The health benefits of alcohol mostly occur to moderate drinkers leading to a longer life than abstainers or those drinking a lot. In addition to a reduction in the possibility of a heart attack, consumption of alcohol reduces the likelihood of hypertension, Alzheimers, common cold, and high blood pressure. Other possible conditions minimized by moderated alcoholic drinking include stress, osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Therefore, moderated drinking can be important for healthy living just like eating a well-balanced diet and regular exercising. Therefore, imposing a ban on advertising of such important products in the human lifestyle, just because some people misuse it, will amount to increasing the citizens susceptibility to poor health and lower life expectancy.
The rise in alcohol adverts appearing on different television channels in Colombia led to increased survivability among patients with heart attacks, who admitted to being moderate drinkers. According to medical research, moderate consumption of alcohol throughout the year reduces the risk of dying in case of serious myocardial infection, and men drinking frequently after a cardiac attack are not likely to experience it again unlike the none-drinkers. These kinds of gain will be lost if the ban on the advertisement of alcohol is enforced. The reason for this is that liquor drinks help in controlling and repairing damages in the heart following an attack.
Despite condemnation for evil deeds in society, alcohol consumption can also offer solutions to people suffering from obesity by its ability to accelerate the libido of the blood hence destroying bad cholesterol as well as improving the blood clotting ability-checking bleeding in case of injury. Therefore, the ban on alcohol will deny the public to access different brands of products important for their daily health. (Biays & Wershoven 232)
Conclusion
Though alcohol has its benefits to the human body, its side effects far outweigh the benefits. Alcohol advertisements should not be carried out during prime time on national broadcasters. The picture portrayed by these adverts that one will feel good after taking beer should also be discouraged at all costs. Underage people should also not be allowed to play an active role in these campaigns. The ban on underage drinking should be enforced in every state and those who ignore it prosecuted. Beer companies should also show the negative side of drinking in order to allow people to make informed choices. At the end of the day, we should ask ourselves if we want to build a nation of working people or drinking people. If we evaluate everything, all of us will conclude and with good reason that alcohol advertising should be banned.
Works Cited
Biays, John, & Wershoven, Carol. Along these Lines: Writing Paragraphs and Essays.5th ed.Prentice Hall, 2008.