Category: Alcohol

Guidici v. Guidici, 41 P.2d 932 (Cal. 1935)

Facts

The plaintiff was sixty years of age at the date of the execution of the said deed, and that he owned and resided upon a farm near Loyalton, Sierra County. He had purchased the farm in 1913, paying, therefore, the sum of $16,000. He owned no other property, except a small amount of stock maintained on his farm at the date he executed said deed, and said real property was the sole source of his livelihood and sole means whereby he contributed to the support of his three children. On the day the deed was executed, the plaintiff was driven in an automobile from his farm to Reno, Nevada for the purpose of the plaintiff and defendant being married in said city. On arriving at Reno, and after considerable delay, the four persons met in the office of a lawyer for the purpose of having said deed prepared and executed. They found, however, that they had no description of the property to be conveyed. The lawyer suggested that they get married and have the deed executed later. The defendant objected and refused to go on with the marriage ceremony until the deed was given. The party then returned to the plaintiff’s home for the purpose of getting a correct description of his land. The deed was dated November 12, 1930. This action was begun on February 14, 1931, soon after the plaintiff’s discharge from the hospital.

The plaintiff testified that he had been drinking excessively for ten days to two weeks prior to the date of said deed, and that he was so under the influence of intoxicating liquor that he had no recollection whatever of any of the occurrences which transpired on the trip to Reno, and no remembrance of signing or delivering said deed, or even of getting married to the defendant. That the plaintiff had indulged excessively in intoxicating liquor for some two weeks immediately prior to the date of the said deed is borne out by a number of witnesses.

Issue (law issue)

Plaintiff wants cancellation of deed because he said at the time of deed execution he was intoxicated due to heavy drinking and was not in his senses and was not aware of what he was doing. “This action was established by the plaintiff to terminate and set aside a deed to certain real property situated in Sierra County, executed by him in favor of the defendant, on the ground, as alleged in the complaint, ‘that at the time of the making of said deed the plaintiff, due to his age and due to the fact of his protracted and excessive drinking of alcoholic liquors… was entirely incapable of understanding his act in the execution of said deed, and was possessed of a great weakness of mind and was subject to the imposition and undue influence of defendant’. The court found this allegation of the complaint true, and further found that there was no consideration for the execution of said deed, and rendered judgment setting aside and canceling said deed. From this judgment the defendant has appealed, and in support of her appeal contends that the evidence is insufficient to support the findings of the trial court.”

Rule

Cancellation of instruments (Deeds, consideration, marriage) by incompetent persons

“Though marriage is a good consideration for a deed, or for a contract generally, if such a deed is executed by the grantor at a time when he is incapable of understanding his actions in the execution thereof, by reason of long and excessive drinking, and the marriage is entered into about an hour later, while he is in the same state of mind, it cannot be said that the marriage ceremony forms a valid consideration for the execution of said deed.” (Relief in equity from deed on ground of intoxication, notes, 6 A. L. R. 334; 36 A. L. R)

Application

Element issue: whether the plaintiff executed deed in normal condition or was he intoxicated at the time of deed execution. He has the right to cancel the deed if he was intoxicated and does not remember deed execution.

Legal reasoning method – using a definition:

In this action to cancel a deed to real property, the evidence that the plaintiff at the time of signing the deed was in such a state of mind, due to long and excessive drinking of intoxicating liquor, that he did not know what he was doing, and that he had no recollection of signing the deed, was sufficient to support the finding that he was mentally incapable, at that time, of understanding the nature of his act in the signing and execution of said deed, and such finding could not be disturbed on appeal even though there was considerable conflict in the evidence.

Comparing the definition of the element to the facts:

Several witnesses including the plaintiff’s neighbor, cashier of the bank and his daughter all testified that the plaintiff was over drunk for 2 weeks. Doctor at hospital gave his opinion that the plaintiff was at that time “wholly incapable of doing any business”. Dr. Lavery, who attended the plaintiff at the hospital during his sickness in January, 1931.

Result of the comparison:

Hence the deed executed during his ill health and intoxication will not be considered as valid.

Conclusion (to the law issue)

“The rule that the person alleging his incapacity should be bound by his contract because intoxication is his voluntary act was at first relaxed by allowing him to show that his condition was brought about by the other party. But a more rational view now prevails. The law now regards the fact of intoxication and not the cause of it, and regards that fact as affording proof of want of mental capacity. A completely intoxicated person is generally placed on the same footing as persons of unsound mind. One deprived of reason and understanding by reason of drunkenness is, for the time, as unable to consent to the terms of a contract as are persons who lack mental capacity by reason of insanity or idiocy. A person who at the time of making a contract is completely intoxicated may avoid his contract notwithstanding the fact that his intoxicated condition may have been caused by his voluntary act and not by the contrivance of the other party to the contract….” (6 Ruling Case Law, p. 595.)

Donnelly v. Rees, 74 P. 433 (Cal. 1903)

Facts

“On the 15th, November, 1897, Patrick H. Kean was the owner of the half interest in the mining claims described and referred to in the complaint, the defendants fraudulently, and without any consideration, and by arts and importunities and by greater force of character and ascendency over the mind of said Patrick H. Kean, procured from him the deed of conveyance and transfer to them set out and described in the complaint, which deed was made while the said Kean was in a condition of intoxication and drunken imbecility and very weak in mind from the effects of the excessive drinking of intoxicating liquors to such an extent as to render him unfit to transact business and entirely incapable of properly realizing and understanding or attending to the said transaction. And for more than five years immediately before the making of said deed, the said Kean had been and was a habitual drunkard and constantly under the influence of the excessive drinking of intoxicating liquors, which were injurious to his mind so as to make him an easy prey to the arts and schemes of the defendants, which they exercised over him to induce him to execute said deed, and but for which he would not have done it.”

Issue (law issue)

Appeal from a judgment for the plaintiff and from an order denying the defendants’ motion for a new trial. The plaintiff is the daughter and sole heir of Patrick Kean, and brings this suit to set aside, as fraudulently obtained, a deed made by her father to the defendant–of date November 15, 1897. The land conveyed was an undivided half of certain mines owned by the former, and, it is found, was of the value of ten thousand dollars.

Rule

An action may be maintained by the sole heir of a deceased person to set aside a deed procured from the deceased without consideration by the fraudulent practices of the defendants and their undue influence over the deceased, who was known to be an habitual drunkard for more than five years before the execution of the deed, to an extent seriously to impair his mind, and who was so intoxicated at the time as to render him unfit to transact business, and entirely incapable of realizing, understanding, or attending to the transaction.

Application

Element issue: Whoever tries to grasp deed via fraudulent means will not be granted that deed.

Legal reasoning method – using a definition:

The defendants’ account of the matter is somewhat different, but in view of the findings of the court need not be considered. The same observation is true of Kean’s own declaration made in an affidavit in the Monaghan case, to the effect that the deed was not sham, or without consideration, or in fraud of creditors. This was admissible in evidence (Code Civ. Proc., sec. 1853), and if the facts had been doubtful, would have been cogent in its effect; but it was not conclusive on the court. It may be observed that this affidavit, which was made in the presence of the defendants, alludes to a “contemporaneous writing executed by” them, of which they say nothing in their testimony; which is a significant circumstance. (Code Civ. Proc., sec. 1963, subd. 5.) On the facts found, the case comes within several of the provisions of section 2224 of the Civil Code, which, in view of other questions involved in the case, it may be important to distinguish: (1) The defendants gained the land by “fraud” –i. e. by actual fraud,–and also (2) by “undue influence,” and are therefore–or, rather, each is “an involuntary trustee of the thing gained”; and (3) the same result follows, because they gained the thing by “the violation of a trust.” Upon either of these principles, therefore, the plaintiff is entitled to recover, unless precluded–as is contended by the appellants –by the fact appearing from the testimony of Carroll, that the deed was made to defraud a creditor; with reference to which contention it is important to observe that the ground of relief under the first and second of the principles referred to is fraud and undue influence in procuring the original conveyance (Brison v. Brison, 75 Cal. 527 [FN1]); while under the third there is no fraud in the procurement of the instrument, but the fraud is one of those consisting “in the fraudulent use of instruments entered into upon a mutual confidence of the parties,” or, in other words, in violation of the trust voluntarily assumed in accepting the instrument.

Comparing the definition of the element to the facts:

Counsel for the respondent “do not deny the general rule that a court of equity will not grant relief to the person who has made a deed to [defraud] creditors,” and, for the purposes of the decision, this will be assumed to be the law; but their position is, that the rule has no application to a case like the present, where the deed was procured by undue influence or fraud of the defendants; and in this contention I think they are sustained by the authorities cited by them and by others.

Result of the comparison:

Kean did not rescind promptly, and that it was error to allow testimony as to the habits and condition of Kean at periods from seventeen to twelve years prior to the date of the transaction. But the last objection affects rather the weight than the admissibility of the testimony (Code Civ. Proc., secs. 1832, 1957, 1960, subd. 2); and the former contention is also untenable. (More v. More, 133 Cal. 489; Field v. Austin, 131 Cal. 379; Civ. Code, secs. 3406 et seq.) It was not necessary that the plaintiff should pay to the defendants the amount of their alleged bill, or to O’Brien the amounts alleged to have been advanced to Kean subsequently to the transaction; or that the court should so adjudge under the findings–which we have held to be sustained by the evidence. These matters cannot be regarded as being connected with the transaction.

Conclusion (to the law issue)

After taking into consideration all satisfactory reasons the case here comes clearly within the last, which is the narrowest, of the grounds assigned for the rule. It may be added that the principle applies a fortiori in this case, where, by express statutory provisions containing no qualifying or excepting words, “one who gains a thing by fraud… [or] undue influence” takes as trustee for the grantor. (Civ. Code, sec. 2224)

Marron v. Maron, 125 P. 914 (Cal. App. 1912)

Facts

On April 22, 1907, in consideration of the sum of $10, the deceased made a deed and assignment to his mother of property estimated to be of the value of about $15,000, and being nearly all of his real and personal property. He was then about thirty-three years of age. “He was fragile and a man of very nervous temperament”; was married and had a child, a girl, about four months old. At the time of his marriage in February, 1901, he was accustomed to drinking occasionally intoxicating liquor, and in the spring of the following year commenced to drink such liquor to excess, and continued to do so until the time of his death. On the day he made the deed and assignment he was drunk, stupid and appeared irrational. “He was not in his right mind and he didn’t know what he was doing.” His mother and other members of her family were probably present when he executed the instruments, but his wife, whom he held in high regard, was absent and knew nothing about the transaction until several days afterward. The notary before whom the acknowledgment was made, believing that the deceased was conveying his property to his wife, explained to him that “under the instrument his wife could sell the property if she wanted to,” and he made a note of such explanation in his official record.

Issue (law issue)

About three months thereafter he died, and subsequently the plaintiff, his wife, was appointed the administratrix of his estate, whereupon she brought this action to set aside the deed and bill of sale to said properties, upon the grounds that Thomas F. Marron was of unsound mind at the time the instruments of conveyance were executed; that they were procured from him by undue influence and by fraud practiced upon him by the defendant Mary Marron.

This is an appeal from a judgment following the granting of a motion for nonsuit in an action brought by the plaintiff to set aside a transfer of real and personal property. On and prior to the twenty-second day of April, 1907, Thomas F. Marron was the owner of certain pieces of real property situated in the city and county of San Francisco. He was married and had one child, aged four months. On the abovementioned date he made a deed and an assignment, purporting to convey to Mary Marron, one of the defendants, the real and personal property described in the complaint.

Rule

In an action by the wife of a deceased husband, as administratrix of his estate, to set aside a deed made to his mother of nearly all of his real and personal property of the value of $15,000, for a nominal consideration of $10, alleged to have been procured from him by his mother while he was mentally incompetent, by means of fraud and undue influence, to the exclusion of his wife and infant child, whom he loved, it is held that the evidence was such as to throw upon the mother the burden of proof to show that the deed was not so obtained, and that it was error to nonsuit the plaintiff.

Application

After the plaintiff had closed her case, the court granted a motion for nonsuit on the ground that the plaintiff evidence failed to show that, at the time of making the instruments, the deceased was incompetent or that the execution of those documents was the result of fraud or undue influence exercised upon him as charged in the complaint. Upon this order judgment was regularly entered. Plaintiff excepted to the ruling granting the motion, and now assigns that ruling as error. We think the ruling cannot be sustained.

The evidence shows that the deceased for a number of years was continually becoming intoxicated. He was drunk and appeared stupid and irrational on April 22d; and yet on that day and in that condition his mother accepted the instruments in question, transferring substantially all of his property to her, and, according to a fair inference from the testimony, without any, or if any, a totally inadequate, consideration. This left him and his wife and baby, to whom he was fondly attached, with so small a portion of his property that his act may be regarded as an unusual one and one inconsistent with his duties and obligations to his wife and child as well as to himself.

Generally, when there is weakness of mind in a person executing a conveyance of land, arising from age, sickness, intoxication or any other cause, although not amounting to absolute disqualification, and inadequate consideration, imposition or undue influence will be presumed.

For the reasons above indicated we think the trial court erred in granting the motion for nonsuit. The judgment is therefore reversed.

Conclusion (to the law issue)

The circumstances under which a conveyance was made, the condition of the grantor at the time, and the injustice to him and his heirs if it is upheld, may cast on the grantee the burden of showing the absence of undue influence or imposition. (Bennett v.Bennett, 65 Neb. 432, [91 N. W. 409, 96 N. W. 994].)

Swan v. Talbot, 94 P. 238 (Cal. 1907)

Facts

In his petition for a rehearing appellant, with other matters, presses upon the attention of the court the fact that in the judgment given against him he is charged with the sum of $2,591.96, being the amount of a note for two thousand dollars, with interest, executed by one Anderson to plaintiff and by plaintiff deposited as collateral security for his indebtedness to the bank, the payment of which indebtedness defendant had assumed. Petitioner, moreover, shows that there is a direct conflict in the evidence between Swan, the payee, and Anderson, the maker of the note, Swan testifying that it was a note given by Anderson in payment of moneys which plaintiff had from time to time loaned to him, Anderson testifying that it was a mere accommodation note given to Swan to assist him in borrowing money. There is no evidence touching the responsibility of the maker of the note, nor of its value. Under these circumstances, it was inequitable to charge Talbot with the amount of the note and accrued interest. The judgment against Talbot should therefore be modified by subtracting therefrom the amount of the Anderson note with accrued interest.

Issue (law issue)

Plaintiff sued for the cancellation and rescission of a bill of sale which he had executed to defendant, and under which defendant had taken possession of the personal property therein described. He prayed that he be restored to the possession of the property and in case possession could not be had, be compensated for the value of the property withheld.

Rule

The judgment heretofore given by this court is set aside, and the following judgment given: “It is ordered that the court below modify the judgment heretofore given by subtracting from the judgment against Talbot the amount of the Anderson note with accrued interest, and that when so modified, the judgment shall stand affirmed. The order denying a new trial is affirmed. Appellant shall recover his costs on this appeal.”

Application

The ground of action was that defendant had knowingly taken advantage of plaintiff while the latter was so intoxicated as to be incapable of transacting business, and, under these circumstances, secured his signature to the instrument. It was alleged that the property conveyed was of great value, and that the consideration for the bill of sale was grossly inadequate. The cause was tried before the court without a jury, and the court found the incompetency and incapacity of the plaintiff because of his drunkenness, and found that the property which Swan conveyed to Talbot was of the value of $21,949.86, while the total amount due from Swan to Talbot, including two hundred dollars in coin paid to Swan at the time of the execution of the bill of sale, was but $10,604.32. The court found, moreover, that owing to changes of ownership in the personal property it was impracticable, while decreeing a cancellation of the bill of sale, to further order the restoration of the personal property, and therefore proceeded to give judgment for plaintiff in the sum of $11,345.54, being the difference between the amount of Swan’s indebtedness to Talbot and the value of the property which Talbot obtained under the bill of sale. From this judgment and from the order denying the defendant’s motion for a new trial he prosecutes this appeal.

It is contended that the evidence is insufficient to support the finding of the plaintiff’s legal incapacity by reason of intoxication. By plaintiff it was shown that he was, and for years had been, a tenant of defendant, farming parts of defendant’s lands on shares, and that he had accumulated personal property, farming utensils, stock, interest in growing crops and the like of great value. He was married, and with his wife lived upon one of defendant’s ranches. He discovered that his wife was illicitly intimate with defendant, and upon the discovery went to the neighboring town of Willows and undertook to drink away his sorrow. His drinking led to a protracted debauch, lasting several days. Upon the day that the bill of sale was executed, and before its execution, he was so drunk, according to the testimony of several witnesses, that he fell on the streets and had to be helped upstairs, and three hours after the execution of the instrument he was so drunk that he collapsed and was put to bed. He recollected nothing of the transaction. There was thus certainly sufficient evidence in the record to support the finding of the court.

The action is in form of a simple action for a rescission of the bill of sale and the restoration to the plaintiff of the property of which defendant took possession under the instrument. As has been said, the court found for a rescission of the instrument, but found also that it was impracticable to decree a restoration and return of the property, and it proceeded thereupon to state and settle an account between the parties.

Conclusion (to the law issue)

“It is no objection to the relief which is thus decreed in an equitable action that the court should finally determine that the necessary and appropriate remedy should take the form of a personal monetary judgment. The court in this case was therefore justified in determining the value of the properties conveyed by Swan, the amount of Swan’s indebtedness to Talbot, and in decreeing a personal judgment for the difference.” For these reasons the judgment and order appealed from are affirmed.

Phelan v. Gardner, 43 Cal. 306 (1872)

Facts

The defendant employed the plaintiff as his broker, to sell for him certain land at an agreed commission of five per cent on the amount of the sale. The plaintiff procured and brought to the defendant one Cusheon, who agreed with the defendant, verbally, to purchase the land for the sum of thirty thousand dollars. The defendant gave Cusheon a memorandum in writing, by which he promised to sell to him for the price named, and to give him fifteen days to complete the search and purchase of the land. Before the expiration of the fifteen days, Cusheon tendered to the defendant a performance in accordance with the agreement, and was informed that the land had been sold to another party. The plaintiff brings suit to recover the amount of his commissions. It is not contended upon either part that there was a valid and binding contract of sale between Cusheon and the defendant. The defendant claims that for this reason the plaintiff’s commission was not earned. This theory is untenable. The plaintiff could do no more than procure a purchaser who was acceptable to the defendant, and willing and able to purchase the land upon terms satisfactory to him. He could not control the will of the defendant or force him to make a binding contract with the purchaser, or prevent him from selling to another. In the absence of an agreement to that effect, the principal cannot refuse to pay the broker’s commissions upon the ground that he did not choose to make the sale. He cannot avoid the contract by his voluntary act disabling himself from performance.

Issue (law issue)

It was competent for the plaintiff to rebut defendant’s evidence of the settlement and receipt by proof that at the time of the transaction the plaintiff was incapable of contracting intelligently by reason of intoxication. The proof upon this point was conflicting. There was evidence tending to show that the plaintiff was intoxicated when he signed the receipt, and other evidence to the effect that he was then sober, but that the completion of the business was followed by a protracted carouse. The Court permitted the plaintiff’s wife to testify that he was brought to his home by the defendant and another person several hours after the time when the receipt was shown to have been signed, and in a state of thorough intoxication. The fact to be arrived at was the mental condition of the plaintiff at the time the business was transacted. We cannot say that under the circumstances of the case the Court erred in holding that his condition a few hours later in the same evening would throw some light upon the question under consideration.

Rule

The judgment roll in the action of forcible entry and detainer was properly excluded.

The issue in that case was whether a certain sum of money had been paid by the defendant and received by plaintiff in satisfaction, discharge, and settlement of the cause of action involved in that suit. It was alleged in the answer in that case, and found by the Court, that the money was paid and received in discharge and settlement of this present action as well as of the one then pending. But this was a finding without the issues made, and unnecessary in the decision of that case. It was not necessary that the court should find that the payment to plaintiff was made and received in satisfaction, discharge, and settlement of every claim, debt, or cause of action,” but only of the cause of action then under consideration. At most, the fact of the settlement of this case could be only incidentally in controversy in the County Court. which might have been litigated and decided in the suit. Judgment and order affirmed

Application

The Court erred in refusing to admit in evidence the judgment roll in the forcible entry and detainer action. The claim of plaintiff in this action, and the action itself, could be settled by agreement between the parties, by payment of a less sum than that claimed by plaintiff, it not being a liquidated debt. Cases there cited, by editor in the notes to sixth American edition. The settlement pleaded by the defendant in this action is shown by the judgment roll offered in evidence to have been adjudicated between the same parties in another action, so that it was res judicata at the time of the trial in this action. The judgment being pleaded as estoppel, the judgment roll should have been admitted, and the jury instructed, that by the judgment the plaintiff was estopped to deny the settlement alleged in the answer.

The evidence in said action is insufficient to sustain the verdict, in that it fails to show that plaintiff ever became entitled to the commissions for which he sues. The defendant did not give to plaintiff the exclusive right to sell the land. Not having done so, defendant had the right to sell the land at any time before the plaintiff should bring to him a purchaser able and willing then and there to buy the land on the terms proposed.

When plaintiff brought Cusheon to defendant, as a purchaser, nothing further was done than for the defendant to give Cusheon, without consideration, a promise that he should have fifteen days to complete his search and purchase at a price certain. The defendant had the right, at any time before the bargain was closed, to recall his offer and sell to another.

Conclusion (to the law issue)

Upon these undisputed facts the defendant owed the plaintiff the precise liquidated sum of one thousand five hundred dollars according to the authorities cited by the defendant’s counsel in his brief, and the case in this Court of Middleton v. Findla, 25 Cal. 76, and Blood v. Shannon, 29 Cal. 359.

There was no error in excluding the judgment roll in the County Court.

Similarities and Differences among the cases

One similarity in all the cases is that they are related with overdrinking and intoxication that resulted in loss of intellect and wise thinking. The defendant took the advantage of the plaintiff’s ill-health, overconsumption of alcohol and intoxication and got signed the deed, bill and any other property related papers that executed the deal.

In Guidici v. Guidici, 41 P.2d 932 (Cal. 1935) the defendant got the deed signed by the plaintiff when he was intoxicated with over consumption of alcohol and was not in his normal state to conduct any business dealings. In same intoxication condition she got married to the plaintiff to obtain the deed.

In Donnelly v. Rees, 74 P. 433 (Cal. 1903) the sole heir and daughter of the deceased Patrick Kean sued the defendant for getting signed in the deed from his father when he was over drunk and intoxicated due to heavy consumption of alcohol. The portion of land that was given to the defendant while he was not normal and competent to do any business, and the portion of the mines were an undivided half owned by her father.

In Marron v. Maron, 125 P. 914 (Cal. App. 1912) the plaintiff sued mother of her husband for fraudulently getting her husband’s property transferred to her in the state of intoxication. When her husband was heavily drunk and not in his normal state of mind, his mother and family got him signed the deed of his property.

In Swan v. Talbot, 94 P. 238 (Cal. 1907) the defended took advantage of plaintiff’s intoxication and over consumption of alcohol and got the bill of sale of his property signed from him at much lower the cost of its original value to get his property. However, after recovering plaintiff sued defendant for fraudulently getting his property at much lower price when he was not in his senses and drunken.

In Phelan v. Gardner, 43 Cal. 306 (1872) plaintiff is a broker who filed a case against defendant, a property owner, that he found a buyer for him and he must pay off his commission. However, defendant’s claim that he found another buyer and took 15 days period to search of his own. Meanwhile defendant found another buyer and he sold off the property to someone else. The case was ruled in favor of defendant that he’s the owner and can sell his property to anyone he wishes.

References

1. Guidici v. Guidici, 41 P.2d 932 (Cal. 1935)
2. Donnelly v. Rees, 74 P. 433 (Cal. 1903)
3. Marron v. Maron, 125 P. 914 (Cal. App. 1912)
4. Swan v. Talbot, 94 P. 238 (Cal. 1907)
5. Phelan v. Gardner, 43 Cal. 306 (1872)

The restriction of alcohol sales at outdoor music events creates a market inequality in the sense that alcohol manufacturers lose out on their competitive advantage to substitute products such as soft drinks. Outdoor music events take place very frequently in the country and they represent high marketing traffic opportunities for corporations. By imposing such regulations, the government seeks to avoid the detrimental effects that alcohol consumption can have on society. It seeks to reduce alcoholic beverage sales to minors as well as the risk of overconsumption at such events. However, the same risks apply in public areas that sell alcoholic beverages such as bars and night clubs. The risk of overconsumption can therefore not be fully addressed with a bias to certain market segments.

There have also been cases where legislation was sought to restrict sponsorship of such music events by alcohol drink manufacturers. Such legislation would see these firms lose out on advertising opportunities and further extend the market inequalities. The effects of these legislations are also detrimental to music event organizers and the entertainment industry in general in that they reduce attendance levels. The profits earned, in effect, become diminished. On the other hand, retraction of sales restrictions can allow the firms to aggressively promote their products at the events. This can have a negative outcome if overconsumption is not kept in check.

The uptake of alcoholic beverages elicits a natural desire to consume more of it. If the consumption levels per individual exceed a certain point, an alcoholic drink may qualify as a drug. The need to control the scalability of this trend comes from emerging statistics concerning increased overconsumption at music events. A cost thus has to be incurred by firms to help in preventing the associated health-related dangers to society. The best method of filling the market imperfection gap is by imposing a higher price rate policy that will reduce consumption levels rather than eliminate the supply.

Introduction

The United States has various agencies which are taxed with ensuring the protection of its citizens as well as preventing illegal activities. One such agency is the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) which is part of the U.S. Department of Justice under the Homeland Security Act (ATF Online). The mission of this agency is to protect the U.S. from the illegal use of firearms and explosives as well as the trafficking of tobacco and alcohol products. This agency acts as a law-enforcement entity with unique enforcement skills which can be used to independently investigate and stop crimes or in collaboration with other law enforcers. As such, ATF works “directly and in cooperation with other agencies to suppress and prevent crime and violence” (Shappard and Bilchik 75).

Through its many agents who have vast experience and varying expertise in many areas, the ATF plays a significant role in crime prevention as well as mitigating violence in the U.S. This paper shall set out to highlight the most significant accomplishment of the ATF in the last 10 years so as to articulate the importance of this agency to our country. The paper shall also discuss the educational requirements that the ATF requires of its Agents. A look at the benefits which one can accrue from being an ATF agent will also be discussed.

Accomplishments in the last 10 Years

The AFT has had numerous successes in fulfilling its mission which is to “prevent terrorism, reduce violent crime and protect the public” (U.S. DOJ 1). A significant accomplishment by the AFT has been the disruption of the smuggling of firearms. This has been made possible through Project Gunrunner which was set up especially to “disrupt the illegal flow of firearms across the US-Mexican border and curb the associated violence perpetrated on both sides of the border by Mexican drug traffickers” (ATF Press Release). Project Gunrunner dedicates an additional number of special agents as well as intelligence research specialists to the investigation of arms smuggling into Mexico. The disruption that Project Gunrunner causes are of great significance since gun smuggling across the US-Mexican border has been a problem that has haunted the US for many years. These firearms are used to arm drug cartels that are responsible for the smuggling of drugs into the US. A press release by the ATF reveals that in December 2008, the AFT successfully apprehended individuals who were part of a firearms smuggling syndicate responsible for supplying the Sinaloan drug cartel with automatic weapons. The efforts of the ATP have therefore been responsible for dismantling the network which this illegal trafficker use, the number of guns smuggled has been reduced significantly.

The U.S. Department of Justice reveals that since 2000, organized criminal groups have become active in the diversion of tobacco products, using the profits obtained from these schemes to further their criminal activities (1). The reason why there has been prevalence in this illegal activity is that diversion of tobacco is a relatively low-risk criminal activity for the gangs involved. In addition to this, the monetary benefits accrued from diversion are immense. To counter this, the ATF has developed large-scale undercover operations which are aimed at investigating this crime. By the year 2008, the ATF through its Alcohol and Tobacco Diversion Program was responsible for the seizures valued at $26,680,976 from tobacco diversion cases (U.S. Department of Justice 16). This represented an over 400% increase in seizures from the year 2004 which were valued at $6 Million.

Considering the fact that the money obtained from the illegal diversion of alcohol and tobacco products acts as potential funding for criminal and terrorist enterprises, stopping this illegal diversion is paramount for national security. Investigations by the ATF revealed that money obtained from illegal diversions was been siphoned off to help fund terrorist groups such as Hezbollah (Horwitz 1). As such, illegal diversions not only result in the Federal and State governments losing revenue but also results in groups that are engaged in terrorism activities sometimes against U.S. interests being funded and therefore strengthened. In 2008, ATF was responsible for stopping a smuggling ring that was linked to a Korean organized crime group. These Efforts by the ATF also resulted in the stopping of crimes that were financed by this diversion. The U.S. Department of Justice also reported that the Korean-linked gang was responsible for other crimes including; identity theft, counterfeit goods, and money laundering (18).

Violent crime remains to be a troubling issue that many states in our country face. This compounded with the ease of gun availability has made many cities unsafe for their residents. The ATF has in the past played a crucial role in mitigating this problem, therefore, making the U.S. a safer place. As a partner in the President’s Project Safe Neighborhoods which was started in 2001, the AFT has played a role in reducing the number of homicides and other crimes committed with firearms (Krouse 9). As a result of the ATF input, gang-related investigations have increased from 403 in the year 2000 to over 4000 in 2007. Some of these investigations have resulted in the conviction and subsequent sentencing of the suspects. This has had the overall effect of reducing the rate of crime in our cities as the violent perpetrators are put behind bars.

In the U.S. all guns are supposed to be licensed for identification through federal firearms licensees. By having all the guns licensed, it is easy for law enforcers to trace guns to their original owner in case they are used to committing a violent crime or in case the gun is reported lost. The success of this registration depends on the federal firearms licensees keeping a record of all guns sold. However, this is not always the case and there have been incidents where corrupt federal firearms licensees have doled firearms without keeping the record at higher prices (Chu and Krouse 2). This has resulted in many drug trafficking organizations from Mexico coming to the U.S. to purchase guns from such dealers. Investigations by the ATF have resulted in the detection of illegal off-the-book transactions between gun dealers and persons in the general public. In the past few years, the ATF has increased efforts to monitor federal firearms licensees so as to ensure their compliance with U.S. gun laws, therefore, preventing diversion of firearms to illegal channels (Chu and Krouse 13).

Since being elected president of Mexico in 2006, President Felipe Calderon has made it a priority for his government to tackle the drug cartels which had until then operated with impunity through some regions of Mexico. This government move resulted in retaliation in kind by the drug cartels which are keen on maintaining their influence. The U.S. Department of Justice assets that the greatest organized crime and drug trafficking threat that the U.S. faces is from Mexican drug cartels. Drugs such as cocaine, marijuana, and heroine find their way into the U.S. through the U.S. Mexican border. As such, assisting the Mexican government to combat the drug cartels is a major objective of the U.S. government. To this end, the ATF has played a major role since it is a well-known fact that drug cartels buy most of their high-powered weapons from the U.S. The ATF has with success ran traces of firearms recovered by Mexican authorities so as to determine their origins and help in putting controls to prevent illegal trafficking of guns into Mexico (Chu and Krouse 18). As a result of these traces, many homicide and gun trafficking cases were solved.

In post 9/11 America, terror and terrorist attacks have gained prominence on a previously unprecedented scale. The fear of home-based attacks has especially risen and this has resulted in the government taking steps to mitigate the occurrence of such attacks. The ATF is recognized for its expertise in responding to arson and explosive incidents as a result of its immense knowledge on the subjects. For these reasons, this agency has been at the forefront in mitigating terrorism activities within the U.S. Krouse states that ATF closely monitors the U.S. explosives industry and undertakes investigations of explosive thefts and losses (17). In addition to this, the ATF has conducted thousands of background checks for licensees to prevent prohibited persons from acquiring explosives and possibly building bombs and causing damage as was the case with the Oklahoma City bomber in 1998. The AFT has significantly increased its compliance inspections from 2600 cases in 2008 to about 4000 in 2009. With such efforts in place, the ATF is in effect reducing the chances of a terrorist attack being perpetrated in America by the use of explosives bought from the country.

Disasters are a reality in our existence and while some can be avoided, some are inevitable. How we go about managing a disaster situation greatly determines the extent of the damage done. When dealing with disasters of a natural or manmade kind, the various personnel involved have to effectively communicate and coordinate their operations so as to contain the situation. Due to the heightened levels of psychological pressure, anxiety, and strain on resources, the normal forms of organization and communication may prove to be inadequate. The ATF has in the past 10 years been responsible for “planning and coordinating the national, state and local level in preparation for emergencies” (ATF Press Release). In particular, the ATF was responsible for providing safety and security for rescue staff during the 2007 California wildfires as well as the devastating Hurricanes in 2007. While the role of ATF in these disasters was mostly limited to supporting the other agencies and organizations which dealt first hand with the victims of the disasters, the role of ATF was immeasurable in ensuring that the rescue operations were successful.

Educational Requirements of ATF

The AFT employs individuals who have varying educational specialties since the agency needs the expertise of people from various fields. In particular, the AFT employs industry operations investigators and according to the ATF recruitment office, these investigators are the backbone of ATF operations. For one to be employed by the ATF, there are certain requirements that one must meet. At the very basic level, one must be a U.S. citizen capable of handling the physical requirements that the job demands.. The ATF also requires its employees to meet certain educational requirements. These educational requirements are a factor of the particular grade level for which one intends to work at the ATF.

The lowest grade that the ATF has is Grade 5 and at this level, the AFT requires a person to have fulfilled a 4-year course of study. This course should have resulted in a bachelor’s degree in a necessary area of study. The ATF also requires that the education be obtained from an accredited college or university and as such, the applicant should be able to have proof of this through certification from the educational institute.

At the second level which is grade 7, the AFT has a number of additional educational requirements. A person must have fulfilled a 4-year course of study from an accredited educational institute. In addition to this, the candidate must have completed a one-year higher-level graduate education also from an accredited institution. The fields of study that one has taken a graduate degree for should be related to AFT operations such as; criminal justice, political science, public policy among others (ATF 1).

The AFT also has a grade 9 which has even higher educational requirements than the two previous grades. To begin with, one must have an undergraduate degree from an accredited university or college. The individual must also have successfully completed a master’s degree in a relevant field from an accredited institution. The ATF recruitment office stipulates that this Masters’s degree must provide the individual with the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are required for one to perform their duties as industry operations investigators.

Benefits of Being an ATF Agent

While working as an ATF agent is taxing, there are numerous benefits to be accrued from being an agent. As with other government employment opportunities, the ATF agent gets an annual leave which can extend for up to 26 days every year. In addition to these paid-for leaves, an ATF agent has the opportunity to go for up to 10 fully paid holidays in the course of his career. The agent is also entitled to sick leave which can extend up to the time when the ailing agent is back to good health.

The U.S. health care system is deemed by many to be faulty and the insurance schemes currently in place have made the United States the country with the most expensive health care system anywhere in the world. The ATF ensures that its agents have access to low-cost health insurance with a variety of plans being made available to the agent. This ensures that the ATF agent has adequate health cover. In addition to this, the ATF offers various health improvement programs for its agents since the health of an individual has some bearing on his performance and productivity.

Without a doubt, some of the activities in which the ATF agent will be required to carry out will harbor some risk. This is especially so since some ATF field agents are exposed to gang members and smugglers who may be in possession of weapons with which they can injure or even kill the ATF agent. In recognition of this, ATF ensures that its agents have access to low-cost life insurance. With such a scheme in place, ATF agents can carry out their duties with relative peace of mind since they know that they are insured.

All employees are concerned as to their welfare when they retire from active employment. ATF ensures that its agent’s future is secure through the Federal Employee Retirement Systems Benefits. With this system, an agent will be entitled to pensions once he/she has retired from active duty in the ATF. Another retirement savings plan offered to ATF agents is the “Tax-deferred Thrift Savings Plan” which ensures that money saved by the ATF agent is exempt from tax. With this scheme, the ATF agent can make savings for his/her retirements with the account not being taxed until when he/she wants to withdraw it which is at retirement.

Conclusion

This paper set out to discuss the accomplishments of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives as well as the educational requirements for one to join this agency. To this end, the paper has outlined some of the major accomplishments of the ATF most notably of which are the reduction in gun trafficking into Mexico in the Texan border as well as the curbing of cigarette diversion. From the discussions presented herein, it is evident that the ATF plays a very critical role in not only maintaining the protection of U.S. citizens but also ensuring that the Federal and State governments are not defrauded by the illegal trade in Tobacco and Alcohol. This paper has also highlighted the educational requirements that ATF demands of its employees. The numerous benefits that the agency offers to its agents have been outlined therefore proving that ATF is not only concerned with the welfare of the nation but the wellbeing of its agents as well.

References

AFT Press Release. Statement of Kenneth E. Melson, Deputy Director Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives before the house committee on appropriations subcommittee on commerce, justice, science and related agencies. 2010. Web.

ATF Recruitment. Industrial Operations Investigator Informational Packet. 2010. Web.

Chu, Vivian and Krouse, William. Gun Trafficking and the Southwest Border. CRS, 2009.

Horwitz, Sari. Cigarette Smuggling Linked to Terrorism. U.S. Department of Justice, 2004.

Krouse, William. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and Operations for FY2010. Congressional Research Service, 2010.

Sheppard, David and Bilchik, Shay. Promising strategies to reduce gun violence report. Diane Publishing, 2007.

U.S. Department of Justice. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives’ Efforts to Prevent the Diversion of Tobacco. 2009. Web.

Introduction

Around the world, the cost of implementing healthcare reforms is very high (Lee, 2007). To shoulder the ever-increasing cost of healthcare, the US legislators have proposed that taxes on liquor and cigarettes should be increased. According to the Senate Committee mandated to oversee the department of finance, the cost of managing diseases related to liquor and cigarettes in the next ten years will be over $1.5 trillion (Lee, 2007). In the final part of the first article, problems related to the proposed initiatives are illustrated. The second part of the article uses ethos to enhance its authority. As such, statistics and figures on the use of alcohol and tobacco are provided. Through this, the solutions and advantages of the problems are highlighted.

The first problem and its solutions

Based on the health statistics, one in every twenty American students smoked cigarettes during the 1990s (Lee, 2007). However, after the tax on cigarettes was increased, the tobacco usage rate dropped to 18.9% in the year 2011(Lee, 2007). Currently, statistics indicate that one in seventy-one students smoke cigarettes. In section one of this article, the increased usage of tobacco and alcohol in American society is considered a major problem that is leading to an increase in the cost of healthcare. Therefore, the first solution to the problem is to increase the tax levied on these products. It is believed that if the taxes levied on the products are increased; their cost will augment. With an increased cost, consumers will be forced to purchase fewer products. By doing so, the social harm caused by consumption and overconsumption of the products will be decreased (Piasecki & Mccarthy, 2008).

Another advantage associated with the solution is that with increased cost, the students and minors will be restricted from purchasing the products. Usually, minors purchase alcohol or tobacco products using their pocket money. However, when the prices of the products are increased, the minors will be prevented from purchasing the products by their limited funds. In the end, the country will benefit from economic and environmental gains. The country will manage to save on the cost of healthcare. Similarly, air pollution associated with the use of tobacco will be decreased.

The second problem and its solutions

The second problem identified in the first part of the article is that the use of alcohol and tobacco results in health costs, which have a tendency to be borne by the public. Based on the problem, individuals who are willfully choosing to engage in harmful activities should be responsible for their increase in healthcare costs. The solution to the above problem is to enact laws, which will ensure that smokers or alcoholics bear personal responsibilities for their behaviors.

If the solution is implemented, tobacco and alcohol users will be forced to seek higher insurance premiums compared to non-users. The solution will offer social and economic benefits. As such, increased premiums will force users to change their social behaviors. More revenues will be raised from increased premiums to be used in the treatment and research of diseases related to the use of the products. The extra revenues may be used in other development projects (Rampell, 2010)

Third problem and its solutions

The first part of the article alleges that there is a problem in how the government distributes sin taxes. Based on the article, the government lacks an appropriate way of ensuring that distributed levies are appropriately utilized as intended. Similarly, the public has no access information about the amount of money used in meeting medical costs, generated from taxing the products. Therefore, the third solution would be to come up with an appropriate and equitable means of distributing the above taxes and ensuring that the public is informed about the tax proceedings.

The solution would reassure the taxpayers that the levies collected from the products are being utilized as required. With respect to social benefit, availing of the information to the public will encourage them to change their behavior. Through the information, the public will become aware of how costly it is to manage tobacco and alcohol-related diseases and motivate them to change their conduct.

With respect to economic benefits, the public will be informed that the taxes accrued from tobacco and alcohol-related products are being utilized in researches and interventions aimed at managing disease associated with the use of the products. As such, the public will appreciate that other taxes meant for development projects are not being directed at managing the diseases. Through this, they will be loyal when paying their taxes, knowing that they are appropriately utilized, enhancing the country’s economic growth. In addition, it is morally right for the government to inform the public how their taxes are being utilized.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be noted that to address the three problems, a tax increase on alcohol and tobacco products should be implemented and laws that ensure that smokers or alcoholics bear personal responsibilities for their behaviors should be enacted. Similarly, the government should adopt appropriate and equitable means of distributing taxes and ensuring that the public is informed about the tax proceedings.

References

Lee, J. (2007). The synergistic effect of cigarette taxes on the consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and betel nuts. BMC Public Health, 7(1), 121. Web.

Piasecki, T. M., & Mccarthy, D. E. (2008). Alcohol consumption, smoking urge, and the reinforcing effects of cigarettes: An ecological study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22(2), 230-239. Web.

Rampell, C. (2010, April 17). For Cash-Strapped States, Sin Is Sure Lucrative. New York Times, p. 23. Web.

Introduction

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is defined as mental and/or physical defects occurring in fetuses born by mothers who had persistent alcohol consumption during pregnancy; alcohol is a teratogen in a mother’s womb, and its excessive consumption results in adverse effects on fetus development (Garrett, 2010). In medical terms, conditions resulting from alcohol consumption are referred to as ARBD (Alcohol-Related Birth Defects); the most detrimental ARBD is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).

Glial cells and their continued interaction with neurons play an essential role in brain development and have an effect on adults brain power; during pregnancy, when mothers are engaged in excessive consumption of alcohol, they reduce the rate at which the brain develops (Nayak & Murthy, 2008). In neural development, there are a number of cells that should be operating at an optimal rate; however, alcohol retardates the cell development rate. This paper discusses Fetal Alcohol Syndrome; it will focus on the cells that are affected by alcohol and the effects it has on human life in the efforts of creating an interface between biology and psychology in child development.

Neural Development (the biological process at an ideal condition)

At ideal situation, the pre-natal world of a child is an environment of sanity and one that does not have any foreign things that can reduce the sanity and purity of the womb. At this condition, the mother is taking adequate and healthy food to facilitate the growth of the child. The process of brain development is complex and involves a number of functions; the process is called ontogenetic process; a biological process through which mammalian central nervous system (MCS) is developed in the mother’s womb; it involves cells generation, cell migrations, and cell maturation.
During the above process, numerous migrations and growth that need to operate at an ideal situation without disturbance, neuronal migration, which should follow mitotic neurons, are guided by glia fibers to build the strength of human brains and mental development. The process is the one that builds neuronal process elongation, neurite guidance, and the formation of functioning synapses; the above three are the main components of the human brain. When any of the processes are interrupted, the growth is hampered, and the effect is felt in one’s life (Varier & Kaiser, 2011). It is the role of the mothers and medical practitioners to ensure that the food and the medication that he takes at pregnancy will not affect the life in her.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Research has found a close connection between changing the internal fetus environment through a repercussion of an external environmental in mothers’ wombs; the influenced internal physiological environment affects the development of a child’s brains. Ethanol found in alcohol is believed to be the main cause of brain defects in the fetus; it affects the glial cells; research and experiments have should that glia cells are affected by neurotoxic agents. Alcohol toxicities the brain developments agents, and the results are FAS; the following are the main symptoms of a person suffering From FAS:

• Pre and post-natal growth retardation/deficiency
• Minor or major abnormalities found on patients face and skin
• Neurological damage and behavior disturbance
• Long term cognitive and behavior deficits

Brain injury

Ethanol has the ability to penetrate the placenta and enter the fetal circulatory system, when in the system its acts as toxic addition of materials in the process, thus affect the normal functioning of the brain development process. Alcohol interferes with placental blood flow to the fetus; it does this by constricting blood vessel and blood-brain barrier of the fetus, the effect it will have depends with gestational period, dosage, and chronicity of abuse; when in the system, the immediate observable effects are hypoxia and fetal malnutrition.

Research and experiments have shown that utero alcohol exposure has an effect on structural and functional abnormalities in the brain of fetus; the abnormalities occur when there is interference between gliogenesis and glial-neuranal interaction process in the brain process. The effects in the brains can be classified into the following areas:

• Impairs cells growth and developments in the brains, this causes physical and psychological abnormalities in children suffering from FAS
• Interferes with glia fibrillary acidic protection, when the protection is reduced, it exposes the brain to damage that may cause complete damage of the brain
• Stimulatory effects of trophic factors, when this happens, then it interferes with protein trafficking that is necessary for brain growth

During the fetus stage, the brain structure of the child is affected by toxic elements that find their way to the womb destroying the normal operation of the process. When alcohol is injuring the brains, the process is an interference with the normal operation of the ontogenetic process; the following are the structure of effects:

Effects on oligodendrocytes (effects on optic nerve)

Ethanol has an effect on oligodendrocytes and myelin developments; in normal situations, there should be a facilitated expression of myelin basic proteins (MBPs) and transferring in brains. When this happens, then there is a reiterated growth of the brains, and the patient suffers long life damage on the brains. With the delayed intersection, the myelin thickness is reduced, which means that fewer myelinated axioms affect the optic nerve. The above-interpreted process is believed to be the main cause of visual problems in children suffering from FAS (Guerri, Pascual & Jaime, 2001).

Effects on Astrogilial cells

Research has found that ethanol has an effect on L1 adhesion molecules; they are the molecules that prevent toxic and foreign elements get to the brain nerve system of the fetus when the active peptides from NAP and SAL (Brain proteins) are interfered with, the brain of the child is exposed to damages and dangers of external environment. When the process of brain development is hampered, then the neuronal migration is tampered with, and reduction in size and number of glial cells from the somatosensory cortex results in a reiterated growth of the brain. The effect of the system is seen in the corpus callosum in children with FAS (Guerri, Pascual & Jaime, 2001).

Teratogens

Teratogens are agents likely to be found in mother’s womb and have an effect on the birth of the newborn; a normal situation, mother’s womb should be free from impurities and any external things that can affect the health and development of a child; Teratogens results into children born with birth defects. Some defects can be physical while others are psychological; it is expected that about 4-5% of birth defects be caused by Teratogens (one, Moore & Erickson, 2004).

When a pregnant mother is consuming alcohol, ethanol finds its way into the development system of the child resulting in birth defects. After dertilization, it takes about ten days before the embryo is anchored into the uterus; after the anchoring, then the embryo is fed through the blood system of the mother. The close connection means that if in the mother’s blood, there is some intoxication, then they can find their way into the baby and have an effect on the child (onein, Moore & Erickson, 2004).

There some organ developments that are sensitive to teratogens throughout the process, the main area affected is the development of the central nervous system; the central nervous system has the embryos spinal code and brain. When a mother is consuming alcohol at any stage in the pregnancy, then the ethanol in alcohol has the potential of affecting the central nervous system, which in turn is a sensitive development stage. When affected, it results to abnormalities like FAS (Pinto & Schub, 2011).

The following are the effects of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (this section interface between biology and psychology)

Pre and post-natal growth retardation/deficiency

When a child is suffering from birth defects resulting from consumption of alcohol during pregnancy, growth deficiency is in the form of average height and weight and in some extreme situations both. Some of the physical defects of the children suffering from Fetal Alcohol Syndrome are: the face is pale, they have red deeply rooted eyes, they have penetrating forehead on a small head. When someone looks at the child and knowing the age, one can tell that there was a problem somewhere. It has been discovered that there is a close relationship between human attitude, behavior and personality and the size; when someone has some deficit in one area, they tend to be aggressive and have high temper (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010).

Neurological damage and behavior disturbance

Children suffering from FAS have damaged neurology; their behavior on the other side is affected; behavior has both attributes of socialization and some inborn traits. The hereditary process involves the development of attributes in the child during pregnancy; when a mother is consuming alcohol in large volumes, then the process is hampered. The strength of the brain is an important attribute in decision making and ensuring that the child or a person is of the right will, personality and can make sound decisions. The reduced growth rate cause by teratogens in alcohol affects the child throughout their life.

Research has found that people who might have suffered from FAS are more likely to suffer from cognitive disorders in their later life. Cognitive disorders are the feeling that a person get when he or she is confronted by two opposing ideas at the same time. It happens when one is persuaded to do something that is contrary to his or her believed. It can be explained as embarrassment, guilt or the uncomfortable feeling. The strength of the feeling is increased with the increase in the importance of the conflicting matter and the inability to make a rational decision on the best way of doing something.

As a result of the slowed brain growth rate and development of the central nervous system, the social life of a person suffering from FAS is affected, at young age, the children has problems in developing normally, for example they may take long before they start talking, walking or even toileting themselves. They are gloomy and seem not to have interest in what is going around them. When the child is the age of going to school, the child has difficulties in learning and socialization; he opts to engage in games played by children younger than him/her, probably because his mind is not at par with those of his age. In adult life, the person’s character posses some abnormalities which include inappropriately friendly to strangers, this is so because his mind is not acute sensitive of any danger than he/she might be exposed as a result of being with the stranger (Platzman, Erickson & Falek, 1991).

Human emotions are a factor of hereditary and developmental factors; when the child is developing, during infancy, the John Bowlby’s theory of internal working models states that for health social and emotional development, a child requires the care and emotional attachment of their parents; however, the attachment can only occur for a certain defined period. On the other hand, learning theory of development is of the opinion that at different stages in the child development, there are things that the child should be learning. In the case of a child who has suffered birth complications, FAS, then the rate at which the child learns is prolonged.

Parents and caregivers are caught by time and they precede the child before he has fully moulded the mental and emotional attachments. The result is a child who cannot control his emotions even in adult hood. At this tender age (tender in the sense that the child has not fully developed as per its years), a child mind is opened to learn from the surrounding. The young brain is exposed to things that are practically not right, the result of the case can be seen even in adulthood where you find people with lack of control over emotions, poor impulse control and people who are not sure who to trust, love or confide in (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010).

Human brainpower has an effect on the decisions that a person makes; intelligence, which happens to be a factor of hereditary and socialisation has a linkage with the brains development. Children who have suffered birth defects like FAS have low intelligence rates. Intelligence is an individual’s minds power; it defines why different people have different capabilities. It is sum of different aspects some inborn, developed, shaped and moulded by socialisation. Intelligence building starts from child conception, where children have some attributes of intelligence at birth like suckling.

After birth, intelligence develops alongside ones personality; when a child has low intelligence, then the power and the mental drive that the child as is hampered. The reasoning capacity does not conform to the age of the child and in most times he is seen as out of place. Intelligence assessment is gauging the potential that a person have, whereas achievement assessment us measuring how much somebody has learnt. The focus on achievement knowledge is the achieved knowledge while that of intelligence assessment is how someone can make meaning out of the prevailing condition (Shaffer, 2009).

Treatment

Although physicians are engaging in massive research to see whether there is something that can be done on children who have suffered FAS, one thing is for sure the effects are long lasting, and cannot be treated. There have been tests to do surgery on some areas but the success rate is minimal, at schools and day care units, some programs have been implemented to boost the mental capacity of children suffering from FAS however, the success rate of the programs is minimal. The fact of the matter is despite the efforts made by medical practitioners, and social workers (here it include teachers, parents and the community), the child will have a below average in physical and mental development throughout his life; this statistics calls for prevention measures.

Prevention

The surest way that mothers can do is to avoid alcohol during pregnancy; according to research, consumption of alcohol at any stage of the pregnancy can have an effect on the child. Visiting an expert from time to time is important to establish if there is any Teratogen in the womb, which can affect the fetus. When a woman is pregnant, it is crucial to be following pre-natal clinics so that incase of something the doctor can advice.

Conclusion

Pregnant mothers consuming alcohol risk the chance of getting children suffering from Fetal Alcohol Syndrome; ethanol interferes with child biological development and results into a child with mental and/or physical defects. At normal neural development, the womb offers a risk-free child development environment; however when teratogens, like ethanol get their way to the womb, they interfere with the operation and the result is a child who has mental, central nervous system and physical defects. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome cannot be cured; children suffering from the condition have below average physical and mental development throughout their life, the surest way of preventing the occurrence of the condition is not taking alcohol during pregnancy.

References

Cohen, R., & Swerdlik, E.(2010). Psychological Testing and Assessment. An Introduction to Tests and Measurement. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Company.

Garrett, B. (2010). Brain & Behavior: An Introduction to Biological Psychology. London: Sage Pubns.

Guerri, C., Pascual, M., & Jaime, R. (2001). Glia and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Neurotaxicology, 22(1), 593-599.

Nayak, R., & Murthy, P. (2008). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Indian Pediatrics, 45(12), 977-983.

onein, M., Moore, C., & Erickson, J. (2004). Can we ensure the safe use of known human teratogens? Introduction of generic isotretinoin in the US as an example. Drug Safety: An International Journal Of Medical Toxicology And Drug Experience, 27(14), 1069-1080.

Pinto, S., & Schub, T. (2011). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Web.

Platzman, K, Erickson, S.,& Falek, A. (1991). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at school age. I. Physical and cognitive development. Neurotoxicol Teratol13 (4): 357–67.

Shaffer, D. (2009). Social and Personality Development (6th Ed). Belmont, CA: Belmont.

Varier, S., & Kaiser, M. (2011). Neural development features: spatio-temporal development of the Caenorhabditis elegans neuronal network. Plos Computational Biology, 7(1), 144.

Introduction

For generations, alcohol has held an important place in the spiritual, emotional and social experience of people. For this reason, people drink as a form of relaxation, to mark important cultural events, and as a way of celebrating with friends (Heron 7). Taken in moderation, alcohol does not have any drastic effects on the drinker.

Problems only arise when alcohol is consumed in excess. Each year, nearly 80,000 lives are lost in the United States due to excessive use of alcohol (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention n.p.). It is estimated that in 2006, some $ 223.5 billion was lost due to excessive consumption of alcohol.

Causes of alcohol consumption

There are a number of reasons why people consume alcohol. People drink alcohol as a way of reducing associations in their minds. Alcohol weakens molecules separating neurons in the brains, thereby impairing communication. Consequently, an individual finds it hard to associate ideas. Psychologists also say that we drink as a way of escaping the self. Most people say that they drink alcohol in order to drown their sorrows. Since alcohol impairs communication, people momentarily forget their troubles.

Like other things in life, there are other underlying reasons that shape our drinking habits. For example, some people drink because they feel sad, angry, or lonely.

Others drink as a way of bonding with their friends and loved ones (Heron 8). Therefore, our drinking habits, whether in excess or in moderation, are shaped by hidden motivations. In the case of heavy drinkers, this behavior could be due to the need to address underlying problems, such as difficulty in dealing with low self-esteem, inability to handle strong emotions, and problems with relationships.

Peer pressure is yet another reason why people may start drinking alcohol (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention n.p.). For example, a teenager may start experimenting with alcohol while in college because his friends are also doing it. In this case, he feels compelled to experiment with alcohol so that he can belong with his peers. We also drink since alcohol has become culturally normalized.

The media aggressively promote alcohol consumption to an extent that it has now become culturally normalized. Alcohol is also readily available in supermarkets, bars, and discount stores. In fact, children under the age of 18 years can buy alcohol without some seller requesting to see their IDs first. For these reasons, consumption of alcohol has become normal and socially acceptable.

Effects of alcohol use

The effects of alcohol on the drinker are dependent on a number of factors. First, it depends on the body chemistry. This means that some people can get tipsy quite easily while others need larger quantities of alcohol to get drunk.

The effects of alcohol are also dependent on one’s weight, gender, and age (Masters 21). For example, women tend to get drunk by smaller quantities of alcohol compared with men. Effects of alcohol also depend on one’s weight. Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is the level of alcohol in the blood that causes one to get intoxicated, and is weight-dependent.

Thus, a man who weighs say, 200 pounds, may be less intoxicated than one who weighs 150 pounds even after both men have consumed the same quantity of alcohol. Among the elderly, the rate at which the liver metabolizes alcohol is slower in comparison with younger people. Other important factors to consider include quantity and type of alcohol consumed, drinking experience, and whether one had eaten or not, before taking alcohol.

The effects of alcohol use on one’s behavior also vary, depending on the amount of alcohol consumed. As one gets drunk, they are talkative, and more confident. As they become more intoxicated with alcohol, their speech is slurred, while their balance and coordination gets impaired. Their reflexes also slows down, and their exhibit unstable emotions.

Consequences

Excessive consumption of alcohol is associated with immediate health risk that if not addressed, can lead to long-term health risks.

Immediate health risks

Excessive consumption of alcohol is linked violent behavior. Masters (23) reports that nearly 35% of the violent crimes are caused by individuals under the influence of alcohol. Moreover, excessive alcohol use also leads to cases of child neglect and maltreatment (The National Center on Addition and Substance Abuse 4).

Excessive use of alcohol also causes unintentional injuries such as falls, burns, traffic injuries, and drawings (Rehm et al. 41). Risky sexual behaviors such as sexual assault and engaging in unprotected sex are also some of the other immediate health risks of excessive alcohol use (Naimi et al. 1139).

Long-term health risks

If the immediate health risks of excessive alcohol use are not addressed, the victim could suffer neurological impairments, in addition to suffering from various social problems. They are also likely to develop chronic illnesses. Some of the neurological problems attributed to long-term excessive alcohol use include stroke, dementia, and neuropathy (Corrao et al. 615).

Over time, too much of alcohol can also cause psychiatric problems like anxiety, depression, and suicidal thoughts (Booth and Feng 162). Excessive alcohol use is also linked to liver diseases such as cirrhosis, which is today one of the leading causes of lifestyle-related deaths in the United States (Heron (8).

Conclusion

There are various reasons why people consume alcohol, including peer pressure, to drown sorrows, and to bond with families and friends, among others. Excessive consumption of alcohol causes both immediate and long-term health effects, including violence, involvement in risky sexual behaviors, and neurological and psychiatric problems.

Works Cited

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Alcohol-Related Disease Impact (ARDI), Atlanta, GA: CDC, 2012. Print.

Corrao, Giovanni, Vincenzo, Bagnardi and Antonella, Zambon. “A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases.” Prev Med, 38(2004):613-619.

Heron, Melonie. “Deaths: Leading causes for 2004.” National vital statistics reports, 56.5(2007):1-96.

Masters, Ruth. Counseling Criminal Justice Offenders, London: Sage, 2003. Print.

Naimi, Timothy, Leslie Lipscomb, Robert Brewer and Brenda Gilbert. “Binge drinking in

the preconception period and the risk of unintended pregnancy: Implications for women and their children.” Pediatrics, 11.5(2003):1136-1141.

Rehm, Jurgen, Gerhard Gmel, Christopher Sempos and Maurizio Trevisan. Alcohol related morbidity and mortality. Alcohol Research and Health, 27.1(2003):39-51.

During the past two decades, the attention of public health professionals and other health care providers in America and abroad has been increasingly drawn to understanding how social conditions and the drivers of these conditions influence health and health-related behaviors (Braveman & Gottlieb, 2014).

These social and economic conditions, which are often referred to as the social determinants of health (SDH), shape the health of populations in diverse and influential ways, hence their mounting interest as professionals try to provide solutions to a multiplicity of health issues affecting the society (Krumeich & Meershoek, 2014). In this light, the present paper illuminates selected social determinants of health and how they influence excessive alcohol consumption among elderly American adults.

Available literature demonstrates that, over the past two decades, alcohol and substance abuse among elderly American adults has been an important topic of discussion due to the debilitating health and socio-economic challenges associated with alcohol and substance abuse (Briggs et al., 2011; Sorocco & Ferrell, 2006).

In particular, the problem of excessive consumption of alcohol has been found to deprive “older adults of their health, their quality of life, and indeed their very lives” (Briggs et al., 2011, p. 113). Additionally, these authors acknowledge that the problem of excessive alcohol consumption among American adults 50 and older is likely to triple by 2020, hence the importance of the population and the health issue for the health profession.

The World Health Organization’s Commission on the Social Determinants of Health, comprehensively cited in Braveman and Gottlieb (2014), has described SDH as “the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age” and “the fundamental drivers of these conditions” (p. 19). Drawing from this description, it is safe to argue that the two foremost SDH impacting the health issue for this group of the population include lack of social support networks/social exclusion and stress.

In justifying the selected SDH, it is not unusual for people to lose social and emotional support systems as they advance in age, not mentioning that they are also exposed to social isolation due to the death of a spouse or close friends, retirement, altered activity levels, disability, relocation of family and friends, as well as family dissonance (Briggs et al., 2011).

In justifying stress, it has been reported that many elderly citizens gravitate toward excessive alcohol consumption due to their experiences with stressful life events, such as retirement, menopause, children leaving home, assuming a caregiving role for dependents, as well as the death of a spouse or partner (Sorocco & Ferrell, 2006). Overall, these determinants work individually or collaboratively to exacerbate the problem of excessive alcohol consumption among older adults.

Lastly, it can be argued that the SDH selected (lack of social support networks/social exclusion and stress) impact the health behavior of elderly American adults in terms of triggering depression and other risk behaviors. In particular, the determinants are likely to trigger

1. withdrawn, isolated, impulsive, or hypersensitive behaviors among the elderly,
2. sleep problems and malnutrition,
3. suicidal ideation and increasing deaths arising from cardiovascular disease (Sorocco & Ferrell, 2006).

The two social determinants are fundamental drivers of these conditions among older adults engaged in excessive consumption of alcohol, hence the justification.

Overall, this paper has illuminated how lack of support networks/social isolation and stress influence excessive alcohol consumption among older adults in America, and how the determinants serve as the root cause of other behaviors related to the health issue. Consequently, it is of critical importance for health care professionals to address social determinants if they are to succeed in assisting older adults in changing their drinking habits.

References

Braveman, P., & Gottlieb, L. (2014). The social determinants of health: It’s time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Reports, 129(2), 19-31. Web.

Briggs, W.P., Magnus, V.A., Lassiter, P., Patterson, A., & Smith, L. (2011). Substance use, misuse, and abuse among older adults: Implications for clinical mental health counselors. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 33(2), 112-127. Web.

Krumeich, A., & Meershoek, A. (2014). Health in global context: Beyond the social determinants of health. Global Health Action, 7(1), 1-8. Web.

Sorocco, K.H., & Ferrell, S.W. (2006). Alcohol use among older adults. The Journal of General Psychology, 133(4), 453-467. Web.

Teratogens are substances, which when exposed to pregnant women, they cause harmful effects to the fetus before or after birth. After birth, exposure to the teratogens may be necessitated through breastfeeding. These teratogens include alcohol, illegal drugs, prescription/nonprescription medication, vaccines, environmental and occupational exposures among other things. Whenever a pregnant woman is exposed to such teratogens, the teratogen is absorbed into the bloodstream and then passed onto the developing fetus through the placenta. In this study, teratogen alcohol is discussed. Teratogen alcohol is a widely recognized teratogen used by pregnant women. Additionally, this teratogen is ranked among the leading teratogens that cause physical malformations, neurological, and mental retardation in fetuses.

In regards to the effects of alcohol on a fetus, the effects may be minor or severe. Once a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, the alcohol level in her blood is equivalent to the alcohol level in the fetus’ blood only after a few minutes. The toxic nature of alcohol affects the growing cell of the fetus. This hinders development and placement. However, the extent of damage by this teratogen to the fetus is dependent on the amount, pattern, timing of exposure, and genetic makeup. The consumption rate of alcohol by the pregnant woman is a major determinant of the extent of the damage. Pregnant women with a low consumption rate, probably 2 to 4 on frequent drinks, will have a fetal alcohol effect on the fetus. This effect is characterized by developmental delays, lowered hyperactivity of the child, and low miscarriage risks. On the other hand, pregnant women who are heavy consumers of alcohol, probably chronic (5-6 bottles of alcohol daily) and binge drinkers, may experience Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (Roberton, and South, p. 285). In such a case, the risks of miscarriage are high, and in cases where the miscarriage does not happen, the fetus succumbs to long term effects before and/or after birth. These effects are permanent and are known as a primary disability. These include head and facial abnormalities such as small head, eyes, and nose; mental retardation due to brain impairment and heart defects.

Apart from the above impacts, exposure to alcohol has other risks. These are known as secondary effects. The affected children experience secondary effects associated with social life. These secondary effects include homelessness, joblessness, social isolation, mental problems, behavioural problems, learning difficulties, as well as difficulties in managing anger and personal relationship with others. However, secondary effects are not usually present in all those who have FAS. They experience hardships integrating with the community. In most cases, they require assistance from various systems like health, housing, education, and social services amongst others to be integrated into society. For this reason, the effect of this damage is not only suffered by the individual alone, but also to those around him/her. This includes family and society.

On the front of technological advancement, this teratogen problem has reduced recently. Studies have shown that there are several factors that determine the onset and continued use of alcohol by an individual. These are the genetic makeup, surrounding environment, and metabolism. These factors also relate to the pattern of alcohol exposure and risks of alcohol dependence. The technological advances have led to the identification of genes associated with alcohol dependence, as well as their interaction with the environment and metabolic factors. Development of disorders and complexities in behavior is controlled by the interaction of genetic factors with the environmental factors. This has led to the introduction of lifespan perspective to understand the effect of this teratogen.

As far as the steps to reduce the effect of this teratogen are concerned, a lot of attention is required. However, this can be applied to overcome secondary effects. First and foremost, early diagnosis and assessment of the child is necessary regardless of their age. Next, monitoring of the child’s health and physical development is highly recommended. This helps to establish the extent of damage and measures to be applied. As earlier mentioned, it is necessary to provide a home environment that is safe and stable. Relative to the behavioral problems, clear and concrete measures should be used to correct their behavior (Bernstein and Shelov, p. 272). This is attributed to the fact that the affected individuals experience difficulties in understanding and predicting the impacts of their actions. In addition, they can be easily influenced, thus prone to negative behaviors. Appropriate education and training should be emphasized to overcoming learning and joblessness. The affected children should be taken to institutions designed to cater for individuals with FAS. Learning and job placements should be based on an individual’s ability Furthermore, respite should be provided to the parents or caretakers handling the affected individuals.

The embryo and fetus development stages of life are the most vulnerable to teratogen effects particularly alcohol. Alcohol exposure to the fetus cause primary disabilities such as physical malformations and neurological dysfunction and secondary effects later in life. They range from minor to severe effects to the fetus based on the amount Fetal alcohol syndrome is the adverse effect of exposure to alcohol during pregnancy. Preventive measures of these effects lie in reducing the damage caused due to its exposure and more significant minimizing or prohibiting alcohol consumption amongst pregnant women.

Works Cited

Bernstein, Daniel, and S. P Shelov. Pediatrics for Medical Students. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2012. Print.

Roberton, Don M., and M J. South. Practical Paediatrics. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2006. Print.

Introduction

Researchers, child psychologists, policy makers and other theorists have demonstrated increased interest in the broad topic of drinking alcohol during pregnancy and the health risks associated with this behavior.

Indeed, some of the available literature has focused attention to not only evaluating the unnecessary risks posed to the unborn child by engaging in drinking while pregnant, but also providing a framework through which women can understand how they could contribute to long-term health, behavioral and personality problems of their children by drinking during pregnancy (Zammit et al., 2008).

It has, however, proved difficult to occasion a positive behavior change in women who drinks during pregnancy due to the reason that drinking as a social behavior is culturally defined, thus different cultures perceives the issue differently in the absence of a standardized yardstick to guide and direct policy interventions (Alvik et al., 2006).

This paper purposes to critically discuss the issue of drinking during pregnancy with a view to explain why it poses unnecessary risks to the development of the unborn baby.

Nearly all civilizations across the world have some recorded episodes of alcohol use as a social unifier, and hence its dependence to maintain the social fabric (Alvik et al., 2006). This cultural orientation have served to entrench to people some misguided perceptions about drinking habits to a point where alcohol has become a national problem in some countries, especially in the developed world.

The long-drawn court battles between beer-manufacturing conglomerates and government and health agencies only serves to demonstrate the fact that alcohol causes more problems to the general population than what may actually be perceived using the knowledge that is held in the public domain (Zammit et al., 2008).

As will be discussed below, the problems and health risks are even exacerbated when pregnant women engage in drinking alcohol since such a habit does not only negatively impact their physical and mental health, but also poses considerable health risks to the developing fetus.

Towards Understanding & Evaluating the Risks Involved

It is imperative to first understand the processes involved when a pregnant woman consumes alcohol so as to have a clearer understanding on the risks involved. When a pregnant woman drinks, the alcoholic beverage passes from the stomach into the blood stream and finally into the developing fetus through the placenta.

In the fetus developing body, alcohol is synthesized and broken down at much slower rate than is normally the case when it is ingested in an adult’s body and, as such, the alcohol level in the fetus’ blood can be higher due to the slow absorption level, and may remain raised for longer periods than the intensity in the mother’s blood (March of Dimes, 2010). This situation can cause the baby to suffer irreparable damage.

It is a well established fact that alcohol use and dependence during pregnancy can impair the healthy development of the fetus. In spite of the fact that many women are well aware that heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy can occasion a myriad of birth defects, many do not realize or are ignorant of the fact that moderate or even light drinking can also impair the healthy development of the fetus (March of Dimes, 2010).

Research, according to Alvik et al (2006), has demonstrated that “fetuses exposed to even moderate levels of alcohol show intellectual and behavioral problems” (p. 1). The high level of chemicals and other toxics contained in alcohol has been largely blamed for impairing the faculties charged with cognitive and behavioral development in neonates, a factor that is comparatively related to cognitive, personality, and behavioral impairment as children progresses through the lifespan.

Heavy drinking early in pregnancy has been positively associated with severe neurobehavioral shortfalls, emotional problems, anxiety, depression, aggressive behavior, youth antisocial behavior, discipline and character development problems, and self-perceived learning difficulties both at school and home (Alvik et al., 2006; Buddy, 2010). Such impairments end up negatively impacting the social fabric, and demonstrate why drinking in pregnancy presents unnecessary risks to the development of the unborn baby.

Animal studies have revealed enhanced brain damage associated to heavy alcohol exposure, and human studies have also demonstrated that alcohol is responsible for destroying millions of cells found in the brain (Alvik et al., 2006).

These studies reinforce the assumption that drinking during pregnancy, especially during the first and second trimester of pregnancy, can have a devastating effect on the development of the fetus’ brain. The brain is one of the most important constituents of the human body by virtue of the fact that it guides our cognitive and motor capacities, not mentioning the fact that is predominantly involved in guiding our daily experiences within the environment, including socialization processes.

When the brain is damaged or constrained to develop to the fullest potential, victims will be burdened with negative long-term effects such as inability to socialize, inability to develop their cognitive capacities and, to the extreme end, inability to perform normal daily activities or become productive in life. These are consequences that no woman can, in her right frame of mind, wish her child to acquire and, as such, the only option available is to quit drinking during pregnancy.

In line with brain damage, it is also known that drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause impairments involving the heart, face, limbs, eyes, and other vital body organs (March of Dimes, 2010; Alvik et al., 2006). The cruelest of these effects is known as the fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), a condition that is commonly known to lead to mental retardation.

According to March of Dimes (2010), “babies with FAS are abnormally small at birth and usually do not catch up on growth as they get older…They have characteristic facial features, including small eyes, a thin upper lip and a smooth skin in place of the normal groove between the nose and upper lip” (para. 8).

Critical organs such as the heart and brain may not form or function properly, leading to undesirable characteristics such as poor coordination, inattentiveness, mental disability, and emotional and behavioral challenges. This situation is further exacerbated by the fact that the negative effects of FAS, mostly occasioned by indulgence in binge drinking, last a lifetime.

For instance, adolescents and adults with this condition are not only unable to sustain a job and live independently, but they are at a higher risk of developing psychological and behavioral problems, not mentioning that such individuals are more likely to become criminals (March of Dimes, 2010). The above underlines the risks involved in drinking during pregnancy, especially in espousing the long-term effects caused to the child by prenatal exposure to alcohol.

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy enhances the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, and premature delivery, especially in women who have a deep-rooted drinking problem.

A 2008 survey conducted on Dutch women revealed that women who drink heavily during the initial four months of pregnancy had an estimated 56 percent elevated risk for delivering a stillbirth than their counterparts who did not indulge in heavy drinking (March of Dimes, 2010). Another study conducted in 2008 revealed that women who take five of more units of alcohol per week stood a 70 percent risk of delivering a still born baby than those who never indulged in alcohol during pregnancy.

These statistics are not only shocking, but also demonstrates the depth and magnitude of the risks involved in drinking during pregnancy. More importantly, the statistics demonstrates the fact that such risks to healthy development of the fetus can be completely eliminated if women make conscious decisions not to drink during the span of the pregnancy or, better still, kick out the habit altogether.

Conclusion & Recommendations

This paper has aptly demonstrated the unnecessary risks to the developing fetus and to the child’s long-term development occasioned by drinking during pregnancy.

Not every binge drinker will develop liver cirrhoses in spite of standing a higher risk of developing the disease – and in this particular scenario, not every child will be negatively affected or influenced by prenatal exposure to alcoholic beverages. This perception have made some women to think that it is okay to indulge in drinking during pregnancy as long as one doesn’t get deep into drinking.

However, research and science has demonstrated that no level of drinking, however minimal, can indeed be proved to be safe during pregnancy (Buddy, 2010). A 2001 research study quoted by March of Dimes (2010) “…found that 6- and 7- year-old children of mothers who had as little as one drink a week during pregnancy were more likely than children of non-drinkers to have behavior problems, such as aggressive and delinquent behaviors” (para. 15).

It is therefore highly recommended that women refrain from consuming any form of alcohol as soon as they get the information that they are indeed pregnant. In addition, information on the risks alcohol pose to prenatal development should be made readily available to women of childbearing age to enable them make informed decisions that will go a long way to providing children with the opportunity to have the best start to life.

Reference List

Alvik, A., Heyerdahl, S., Haldorsen, T., & Lindermann, R. (2006). Alcohol use before and during pregnancy: A population-based study. Acta Obstetricia & Gynecologica Scandinavica, 85(11), 1292-1298. Retrieved from Academic Source Premier Database.

Buddy, T. (2010). Drinking in pregnancy linked to behavioral problems. Web.

March of Dimes. (2010). Drinking alcohol during pregnancy. Web.

Zammit, S.L., Skouteris, H., Wertheim, E., Eleanor, H., Paxton, S.J., & Milgrom, J. (2008). Pregnant women’s alcohol consumption: The predictive utility of intention to drink and pregnancy drinking behavior. Journal of Women’s Health, 17(9), 1513-1522. Retrieved from Academic Source Premier Database.

Background Information

Alcoholism represents a major social problem for the adult population in the United States not only in terms of consequent addictions and financial dependence due to loss of productivity and absenteeism, but also in enhancing neighborhood crime, traffic accidents due to drunk driving, incarceration rates of offenders, family-related violence, and social costs related to fetal alcohol syndrome (Black & Paltzer, 2013).

These authors acknowledge that the problem of excessive alcohol consumption among adults in the state of Wisconsin is deeply rooted, and has led to several public health challenges that require immediate intervention.

The indicators of excessive alcohol consumption in Wisconsin are many and varied. In 2011, for example, excessive alcohol consumption in this state “resulted in approximately 1529 deaths, 48,578 hospitalizations, 46,583 treatment admissions, 60,221 arrests, and 5,751 motor vehicle accidents” (Black & Paltzer, 2013, p. 1).

Additionally, as reported by these authors, Wisconsin has over the years reported high incidences of alcohol consumption and dependence among its adult population and pregnant women. Many of the victims reported in the mentioned statistics are 35 years or older, implying that these indicators are a true representation of how the problem of excessive alcohol consumption is affecting the adult population.

Social Determinants of Health

It can be argued that the two foremost social determinants of health impacting the issue of excessive alcohol consumption include lack of social support networks/social exclusion and stress.

Adults and the elderly are more likely to lack social and emotional support systems and become socially excluded from the community due to factors such as advancing age, death of a spouse or close friends, retirement, altered activity levels, comorbidity, relocation of family and friends, and family dissonance (Briggs, Magnus, Lassiter, Patterson, & Smith, 2011).

Similarly, it has been reported that adults and older people are likely to experience psychological distress due to varied life events, including retirement, menopause, children leaving home, assuming a caregiving role, and death of a spouse or partner (Sorrocco & Ferrell, 2006).

The selected social determinants of health impact the health-related risk behaviors of adults in terms of

1. triggering withdrawn, isolated, impulsive or hypersensitive behaviors,
2. enhancing sleep problems and malnutrition,
3. reinforcing suicidal ideation,
4. increasing the number of deaths arising from cardiovascular disease (Sorrocco & Ferrell, 2006).

Socio-Ecological Theory & Application

The significance of the socio-ecological model is grounded on the fact it is a highly adaptable tool that can be used by public health professionals and other stakeholders to not only identify prevailing health issues by revealing the diverse yet interrelated issues affecting human behavior across the five levels of the model (individual, interpersonal, organizational, community/environment, and society/public policy), but also to deal with these issues by customizing interventions to achieve optimal outcomes (Pearson, Vaughan, Vaughan, & FitzGerald, 2005).

Consequently, the socio-ecological model can be applied to identify the population and health-related issues that are directly associated with the two foremost social determinants of health mentioned above (lack of social support networks/social exclusion and stress), and also to enable public health officials and other professionals to develop customized interventions to deal with the issue of excessive alcohol consumption among adults.

The intervention proposed in this paper is for the state government to provide adequate funds that would be used to operate media campaigns targeted at the factors associated with the mentioned social determinants of health.

These factors include advancing age, death of a spouse/partner or close friends, retirement, altered activity levels, comorbidity, relocation of family and friends, family dissonance, menopause, children leaving home, and assuming a caregiving role for dependents (Briggs et al., 2011; Sorrocco & Ferrell, 2006).

Applying this intervention across all levels of the socio-ecological model is bound to contribute to positive health outcomes due to a number of factors, such as

1. ability to provide public health officials and other stakeholders with a framework for understanding the complex interplay between the factors that are unique to different levels of the model,
2. capacity to take a holistic approach in identifying and understanding the factors related to excessive consumption of alcohol among adults,
3. capacity to ensure that factors in different levels of the model are successfully addressed using a holistic approach (McMurray, 2007).

The visual application of the socio-ecological model for the mentioned intervention is illustrated below.

Table 1 Application of the Socio-ecological Model

Figure 1 Application of the Socio-ecological Model

Stakeholders and Organizations

For the successful execution of the mentioned intervention, there is need to involve health professionals, public health officials, researchers, community leaders, media consultants, and policy makers. Health professionals, public health officials and researchers will provide rich contextual information on

1. how adults should cope with the factors arising from the mentioned social determinants of health,
2. how such factors should be dealt with across the five levels of the socio-ecological model (Bauer et al., 2003).

Community leaders will be involved in identifying the needs and challenges of adults at the community level, while media consultants will be involved in designing the pamphlets for delivery to the affected population and health messages to be aired using various communication channels (e.g., radio, TV).

State and local policy makers will be involved in debating and enacting legislation aimed at providing the legal basis for the media campaigns and funding.

Social support networks, community-based organizations (CBOs), faith-based organizations (FBOs), health institutions, different media organizations, funding agencies, and state- and local-wide governments will also be involved.

Social support networks, CBOs and FBOs will be used as reference organizations not only in distributing the pamphlets to the affected population, but also in providing avenues for the development of social networks, reorientation of social support organizations, and strengthening of community action (Bauer et al., 2003).

Health institutions will be used to provide the much needed mental health care services to adults, while media organizations will be involved in ensuring the health messages get to the affected population through a multiplicity of communication channels.

The primary role of funding agencies is to avail the funds needed to implement the intervention, while that of state- and local-wide governments is to ensure that policies are put in place to support the intervention and hence facilitate successful implementation (McMurray, 2007).

Principals of Community-based Participatory Research

Community-based participatory research (CBPR) has been defined in the literature as “a collaborative approach to research that involves the equitable participation of those affected by an issue in the research process” (Kamanda et al., 2013, p. 1). In illuminating the principles, it is important to note that CBPR

1. recognizes the community as a unit of identity,
2. builds on strengths and resources within the community,
3. enhances collaborative partnerships in all phases of the research,
4. integrates knowledge and action for mutual benefit of all partners,
5. promotes a co-learning and empowering process that addresses recognized social inequities,
6. involves a cyclical and iterative process,
7. addresses health from both positive and ecological standpoints,
8. disseminates findings and knowledge gained to all partners, hence enhancing the understanding of a problem within the social, political, economic and cultural context of the community with the objective of taking action to improve the health and well-being of community members (Freudenberg & Tsui, 2014).

As demonstrated by Freudenberg and Tsui (2014), meaningful improvements in health for adults require modifying the social determinants of health that have been critical in reinforcing excessive alcohol consumption in this group of the population.

Consequently, in implementing the intervention of media campaigns, it is important to build on the strengths and resources within the community in identifying and dealing with the factors associated with the mentioned social determinants of health.

The community must be used as a reference point in disseminating media campaigns aimed at assisting adults to cope with the various factors associated with lack of support systems/social exclusion and stress. This calls for clarity in defining the roles of social support systems and other organizations found within the community, particularly in relation to the provision of socio-economic and emotional support to adults

Collaborative relationships and partnerships must be enhanced among the relevant stakeholders in an attempt to develop tailor-made media campaigns targeting the adults and how they can deal with the factors that lead them to abuse alcohol.

For example, public health officers, health care professionals and researchers from various universities across the state of Wisconsin should implement collaborative partnerships aimed at developing rich contextual health messages on how adults should cope with retirement, comorbidity, death of spouse or partner, and other health-related risk behaviors associated with social exclusion and stress (e.g., suicidal ideation, sleep problems and hypersensitive behaviors).

Available CBO’s, FBOs, community health institutions and media channels should be used to disseminate the pamphlets and health messages with the view to integrating knowledge and action for the mutual benefit of all partners (Kamanda et al., 2013).

According to the CBPR approach, the media campaigns should be implemented in a manner that enhances a co-learning and empowering process with the view to directly addressing the social determinants of health associated with excessive consumption of alcohol in adults (Kamanda et al., 2013).

Indeed, for the campaigns to succeed in addressing the health concerns of the population from both positive and ecological standpoints, they must have the capacity to provide adequate health information and also encourage adults to adapt well-researched personal and life skills.

Lastly, the pamphlets and health messages should be disseminated to the target group and all other partners engaged with the intervention not only to facilitate the learning process, but also to rally all stakeholders behind the case for change and the need for policy makers to allocate adequate resources to successfully implement the media campaigns (Freudenberg & Tsui, 2014).

Conclusion

Drawing from the above exposition, it is clear that the targeted intervention of rolling out media campaigns is likely to succeed in contributing to favorable health outcomes for adults due to a number of factors, namely

1. inclusion of the social determinants of health in attempting to identify the factors that cause adults to become dependent on alcohol,
2. employment of the socio-ecological model in developing tailor-made solutions for each of the factors across the five levels of the model,
3. inclusion of all relevant stakeholders and partners in designing and implementing the intervention,
4. assuming a holistic approach in dealing with health and ecological factors associated with excessive consumption of alcohol among adults.

Lastly, the proposed intervention informs, educates, and empowers people about the issue of excessive alcohol consumption among adults by ensuring the dissemination of rich contextual information on the health and ecological factors associated with this issue and how these factors can be successfully resolved. Here, pamphlets and health messages aired over the radio or TV are used to disseminate the information.

The proposed intervention also mobilizes community partnerships and action to identify and solve health problems by bringing together public health officials, health care professionals, researchers, media consultants, CBOs, FBOs, and health institutions in designing and disseminating the various media campaigns aimed at fighting excessive alcohol consumption among the adult population.

References

Bauer, G., Davies, J.K., Pelikan, J., Noack, H., Broesskamp, U., & Hill, C. (2003). Advancing a theoretical model for public health and health promotion indicator development: Proposal from the EUHPID consortium. European Journal of Public Health, 13(3), 107-113.

Black, P., & Paltzer, J. (2013). The burden of excessive alcohol use in Wisconsin. Web.

Briggs, W.P., Magnus, V.A., Lassiter, P., Patterson, A., & Smith, L. (2011). Substance use, misuse, and abuse among older adults: Implications for clinical mental health counselors. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 33(2), 112-127.

Freudenberg, N., & Tsui, E. (2014). Evidence, power, and policy change in community-based participatory research. American Journal of Public Health, 104(1), 11-14.

Kamanda, A., Embleton, L., Ayuku, D., Atwoli, L., Gisore, P., Ayaya, S…Braitstein, P. (2013). Harnessing the power of the grassroots to conduct public health research in Sub-Saharan Africa: A case study from western Kenya in the adaptation of community-based participatory research (CBPR) approaches. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 1-10.

McMurray, A. (2007). Community health and wellness: A socio-ecological approach. Maryland Heights, Missouri: Mosby Elsevier.

Pearson, A., Vaughan, B., Vaughan, B., & FitzGerald, M. (2005). Nursing models for practice (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences.

Sorrocco, K.H., & Ferrell, S.W. (2006). Alcohol use among older adults. The Journal of General Psychology, 133(4), 453-467.