Category: Alcohol

Drug and alcohol use among adolescents in the United States tends to increase, and the lack of monitoring the adolescents’ behaviors by parents and teachers can lead to developing this tendency in the future.

Much attention should be paid to identifying predicting factors in order to avoid impacts on adolescents’ well-being, health, academic performance, and social interactions.

The results of the studies mentioned by McWhirter and the group of researchers in their work indicate that a range of factors related to the family, peer relations, and individual characteristics can be discussed as helpful to predict substance and alcohol use (McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 2013, p. 173).

In this context, it is important to discuss predicting factors, focus on the role of the family, peers, and individual features to influence substance use, concentrate on the legal and ethical aspects, and to determine connections between stated risks and youth’s development.

Variables Related to Drug and Alcohol Abuse in Adolescents

Family-Related Characteristics

Parents play the key role in predicting the abuse of drugs and alcohol in adolescents, but the problem is in the fact that there are also specific family factors associated with adolescents’ use of substances. The first factor is the approach used by parents to interact with their children.

The research shows that the authoritative parents’ behavior and the associated pressure within the family can be discussed as a factor to cause the alcohol and substance use in adolescents as a form of protest (McWhirter et al., 2013, p. 174).

The second factor is the absence of the parents’ monitoring within the family. Adolescents need the constant monitoring and support in their families, and the lack of attention leads to developing harmful behaviors in young people (McWhirter et al., 2013, p. 177).

If adolescents feel lonely in their families because they do not feel the parents’ support, love, and attention, the threat of risky behaviors increases.

Peer-Related Characteristics

Research demonstrates that two basic variables associated with the adolescents’ use of alcohol and drugs are provision of the information about drugs and provision of actual substances as well as the peer pressure (McWhirter et al., 2013, p. 178).

When adolescents receive the information about alcohol and drugs from their peers, their attitudes to this information can be often discussed as positive (Clinton, Clark, & Straub, 2010, p. 121). The peer influence is one of the strongest indicators related to drug and alcohol use in adolescents.

Providing alcohol and drugs, peers create the first experience for other adolescents while affecting the attitude towards these substances (Hannigan & Delaney-Black, 2012, p. 890).

The other important factor is peer pressure. When adolescents reject provided substances or act against the peer group’s rules, they become isolated or oppressed (Hannigan & Delaney-Black, 2012, p. 890). As a result, the use of alcohol and substances is often a kind of avoiding the peer pressure.

Individual Characteristics

In spite of the significant role of the external factors as the relations of adolescents with parents and peers to influence the choice of alcohol and drugs, much attention should be paid to variables related to the youth inner world.

The first important factor is the low self-esteem. This factor drives a young person to win the respect of peers and their positive attitude with the focus on following their behavioral patterns (McWhirter et al., 2013, p. 179).

The other factor is the feelings of loneliness and isolation in the family, peer group, and community.

Adolescents are vulnerable in terms of received recognition, and they are inclined to concentrate on their doubts if they do not receive the enough recognition and support from the peers and relatives (“How to spot drug and alcohol use in teens”, 2013, p. 1).

Depressive moods can make adolescent avoid worries with the help of alcohol and drugs.

Predictors of Drug and Alcohol Abuse in the Context of Legal and Ethical Issues

While focusing on the ethical and legal aspects of predicting adolescents’ substance and alcohol use in the context of the family, it is important to point at such aspects as the necessity of controlling the adolescents’ behaviors by parents and the necessity of making decisions regarding the adolescents’ treatment.

In the context of peer relations, adolescents should be guaranteed that their privacy is protected and the issue of confidentiality is addressed when they attend counselors or receive the necessary treatment. These two measures are important to avoid peers’ negative attitudes and pressure (Clinton et al., 2010, p. 123).

In addition, there are legal and ethical issues associated with substance users’ individual characteristics. Counselors, teachers, and parents need to realize the control over adolescents’ behaviors without the pressure, in order to prevent aggression and disobedience.

The other important point is the focus on activities to prevent harmful behaviors and crimes associated with alcohol and drug abuse.

Relations between Systems’ Risk Factors and At-Risk Youth’s Growth

Focusing on the family as the system within which an adolescent interacts, it is important to note that such parenting issues as the lack of communication and monitoring lead to worsening the relations with young people and to their further unpunished use of substances.

The character of relationship between relatives and adolescents changes when young people start using drugs because they become secretive and spend more time alone or with peers, and it is rather difficult to control adolescents’ actions in this situation.

The problems are also associated with the sphere of peer relations. Adolescents choose drugs and alcohol proposed by their friends because they are inclined to improve social relations and increase their status in the peer group. In this context, peer pressure is one of the most influential factors (McWhirter et al., 2013, p. 179).

While discussing the sphere of the adolescent’s individual development, it is important to state that risks are associated with the person’s difficulties at school and in personal relations.

Adolescents often demonstrate the lack of motivation to overcome barriers, and they choose drugs and alcohol instead of communicating with parents and teachers.

Conclusion

Factors that can predict the alcohol and substance use in adolescents can be divided into three categories, and they can be related to the family, peers, and individual characteristics.

In order to address the problem of alcohol and drug abuse in the youth, it is necessary to pay attention to these risky factors and focus on their connections with the aspects of adolescents’ attitude to substances and motivation.

References

Clinton, T., Clark, C., & Straub, J. (2010). The quick-reference guide to counseling teenagers. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.

Hannigan, J., & Delaney-Black, V. (2012). Faithful friends: Teen reporters of peer substance use. Addiction, 107(1), 885–891.

How to spot drug and alcohol use in teens: Guide for parents. (2013). The Brown University Child and Adolescent Behavior Letter, 29(S5), 1-2.

McWhirter, J. J., McWhirter, B. T., McWhirter, E. H., & McWhirter, R. J. (2013). At-risk youth: A comprehensive response for counselors, teachers, psychologists and human service professionals. Belmont, TN: Brooks/Cole Publishers.

Many psychologists argue that abstinence should be the ultimate goal for the treatment of people who are addicted to alcohol. It seems to be the safest and most cost effective way of dealing with the problem of alcohol addiction. A lot of money is used in buying alcohol, a substance that not only affects the emotion of a person but also alters the human behavior.

In addition, the society incurs a lot of expenses trying to deal with the impacts of alcohol which include reduced productivity, increased demand for health services, violence, and accidents. According to many psychologists, abstinence seems to be the only feasible way to deal with this problem.

However, some medical practitioners argue that abstinence is not the only way to deal with the problem of alcohol because alcoholics can be encouraged to control their drinking through guidance and professional support.

Through moderate drinking, individuals can be able to deal with the problems that are attributed to alcohol drinking. This paper looks at both sides of the argument; it will look at abstinence as being the safest way to deal with the problems associated with alcoholism and the control of drinking habits.

Facts for Each Side

According to Patricia Owen, abstinence is the most honest goal for treating people who are addicted to alcohol. It seems as the most logical way of dealing with this problem given that most people who are addicted to alcohol find it easy to control their drinking habits. They feel contented with their behaviors. Some may be aware of the negative effects associated with addiction while others may be ignorant of the same.

Most people live in denial of their habits and do not consider their behaviors as being problems rather they concentrate on the positive side of it and ignores the side effects. People do not take heed of the negative effects or the advice given by their peers.

They feel that it is the best thing to do since it gives them self satisfaction. Such people can only be treated from the problem of addiction through abstinence. Owen further observes that more than half of the individuals in need of treatment can be able to abstain from drinking (Owen, 2001).

On the other hand, Fetcher (2001) observes that moderate drinking should be the best treatment for alcohol. She notes that by allowing an individual to take at least one bottle of alcohol per week while providing him with professional counseling will help in reducing the problems of alcohol.

According to her, once a person has identified a particular pattern of behavior he becomes addicted to it and any efforts to discourage him may be in vain. He has already adopted a certain way of life and believes that life should take that course.

If one wants to be successful in influencing a person to leave his behavior then he has to give the person adequate time to think over his behavior. He should allow him time for self analysis and at the same time try to show him the risks associated with such a behavior.

Opinion for Each Side

Owen is of the opinion that abstinence is the best treatment for people with alcohol problems. He notes that if a person is suffering due to alcohol, then the best approach should be to eliminate drinking of alcohol because it is an offending behavior.

According to him an individual seeks treatment as a last resort when all other methods have proved to be futile (Owen, 2001). The same applies to alcohol drinkers who must have tried other ways to stop drinking before opting for treatment. This person is ready to change and should be encouraged to abstain.

Fetcher is of the opinion that as far as it is very hard to convince someone to abstain from drinking, it is good to try and do something other than watch such people get into the addiction. We should try as much as possible to show them what they are getting into before their lives are ruined.

By helping them to control their drinking, they are able to accept their situation and may be willing to abstain from alcohol. She also suggests that people with drinking problems should be provided with the right information to help them overcome their problem.

One characteristic of drunkards is ignorance. Although some may be aware of the negative consequences, there are some who remain in that stage out of ignorance. They are not aware of the consequences and thus choose to remain in the addictive behaviors. If such people are provided with enough information they might choose to change their behavior.

Strengths and Weaknesses

One of the strength of abstinence is that it offers a permanent solution to the problems caused by drinking alcohol. Throughout this treatment, an individual goes through counseling sessions that helps him to stay away from drinking even in later years. One of the weaknesses of abstinence as a method of treatment is that it ignores the fact that drinking patterns differs from one individual to the other.

Some individuals will be satisfied by taking one or two bottles while others have become addicts and can take more than ten bottles at a go. Before treatment has commenced one should take note of the stage of addiction that an individual is in. For instance, a person in the pre contemplation stage lives in self denial and feels that his behavior is normal and should not be a cause of alarm.

One advantage of moderate drinking is that it gives an individual time to reflect on his behavior before deciding which course of action to take. Heather, a former drunkard, admitted that abstinence is a better option to drinking although many people are not ready to make a permanent commitment (Fletcher, 2001).

She further stated that if the therapists who were treating her on moderate drinking would have asked her to abstain; she would not have accepted their treatment. Moderate drinking is normally accompanied by professional counseling which helps an individual to accept his present condition, thus increasing his chances of leading a healthy life.

The major weakness of this form of treatment is that it is only applicable to people with specific characteristics. It would be very hard to control the drinking habits of an alcohol addict because he is already addicted and may not be able to control the amount of alcohol taken.

Credibility and Support

Both options are credible in their own sense. For instance, abstinence offers a permanent solution to alcoholics thereby solving the problems that are associated with drinking, such as, broken marriages and poverty. However, it would not be fair to request a moderate drinker to abstain from drinking. If a person is able to control his drinking habits, then controlled drinking should be the best option.

By comparing both options, I would prefer moderate drinking because we do not expect to have a society where no person takes alcohol. It is true that alcohol is costly and may deprive a family off some necessities but at the same time the sale of alcohol is a major source of revenue in a country.

If people are able to control their drinking habits then we would not have any problem associated with drinking and everyone would live in harmony.

Contemporary Research

Different studies give different results in regard to the ability of an individual to abstain; however, there are no doubts that a majority of people presented for treatment can succeed in achieving abstinence. Furthermore, abstinence improve the quality of life, for instance, it improves the relationship between spouses and increases the productivity level.

Other scholars assert that moderate drinking is not the solution for people with drinking problems. However, this depends with an individual. There are people who are able to control their drinking habits on their own once they realize the negative effects of it while others have to go through vigorous treatment before they succeed in abstaining.

Studies involving these two groups of people have shown that alcohol addicts who are able to moderate their drinking have less drinking problem in future or are able to abstain from alcohol as they grow. However, moderate drinking is only applicable to a specific group of people who are able to understand their situation and are ready to shun it.

Some of the characteristics of these people include but not limited to psychological stability, economic stability, well educated, believe that moderate drinking is possible, and do not see themselves as drunkards.

Conclusion

According to many scholars, abstinence should be the ultimate goal for treatment of alcoholics. However, others hold a different view and argue that moderated drinking is an equally important way of solving the problem of drinking.

Unlike moderate drinking, abstinence offers a guarantee that the individual being treated will be free from drinking. Nevertheless, I would prefer moderated drinking because many people would prefer to take some drinks occasionally.

Reference List

Fletcher, A. M. (2001). From sober for Good. New solutions for drinking- Advice from those who have succeeded. Houghton: Mifflin Company

Owen, P. (2001). Should Abstinence be the goal for Alcohol Treatment? The American Journal of Addiction 10:289-295.

Introduction

Alcoholism is one of the most misunderstood elements of human behavior, with different professionals having different views towards the subject. Each of the core aspects regarding alcoholism has been distorted by the underlying myth and misconception (Milam 2).

This in itself is a constraint of helping in the combating of alcoholism as a form of drug abuse. In the present times, alcoholism is taken to be an instance of moral degradation, which is as a result of life choices that are facilitated by the absence of will power and exhibition of maturity in human behavior.

The outcome of alcoholism is always perceived to be lack of maturity and the sense of self-confidence. In order to deal effectively with cases of alcoholism, it is essential to establish a line between the myths concerning alcoholism and the facts regarding alcoholism, which have already been established.

An integration of the various aspects of human behavior also plays an essential role in understanding the core issues behind alcoholism (Milam 12). Until them, the different professional views concerning the subject are long overdue from reaching a consensus regarding the subject of alcoholism.

This paper highlights the summaries of the myths and facts regarding alcoholism as presented in the book, Under the Influence, a precise explanation of alcoholism by examining the underlying causes of alcoholism and how its addiction is gradual yet inevitable.

The underlying complexity of alcohol usually makes it difficult to understand alcoholism.

For instance, in small amounts, alcohol can be perceived as exhilarating stimulant, however, in larger amounts, alcohol acts as a sedative and it is usually harmful for the human health; in the sense that regular consumption of alcohol in large amounts is usually damaging to the body cells.

Despite these dangers, alcohol remains to be one of the most addictive and abuse drugs. For example, in the United States, approximately 10 percent of the alcohol consumers in the United States are addicted and perceive alcohol as a less harmful social beverage.

The state of affairs is further worsened by the fact that alcohol is classified under the foods category, which is rich in calories and a prospective energy source for the human body.

Perhaps, the most appealing attribute associated with alcohol is its ability to relieve the distress that it has created, that is, a person suffering from withdrawal symptoms associated has only one remedy, which is getting back to drink the alcohol again (Milam 59).

This results to a continued circle of drinking, which may ultimately result to addiction if appropriate measures are not deployed to curb the disease.

A precise understanding of alcoholism requires an understanding of the substances that make up alcohol, which is a combination of the chemical, drugs and food that has the capability of inflicting extraordinary pleasure, while at the same time inflicting unusual pain.

There are various reasons why people involve themselves in the intake of alcohol, with the most principal reason to subject oneself to the perceived good effects of alcohol, which entails the euphoric feeling, stimulated and a feeling of relaxation.

Sometimes, people indulge in alcohol with the prime reason of easing ones frustrations (Milam 90). Different people take alcohol for different reasons, for example, to relieve tension, achieve a good mood, and gain confidence, while others simply drink for leisure.

The nature of alcoholism is determined by the amounts of alcohol consumption, how regular ones engage in drinking sprees and the social set up in which a person engages in drinking. Other factors such as social, economic, cultural and psychological factors come to play in influencing the drinking patterns.

The core argument is that the effects of psychological and social factors are not unique to either alcoholics or non-alcoholics; this is because they both drink together for similar reasons and that both the stimulating and energizing effects associated with indulgence in alcohol.

The only difference is that at some point, there are variations in the drinking patterns, with the alcoholic more addicted to alcohol due to intense alcoholic personality traits compared to the non-alcoholics.

Despite the perception that alcohol serves as a solution to the problems, whereby drinking is viewed as a strategy to help in forgetting of the current issues, the underlying fact is that there is an abnormal psychological reaction from within, which is responsible for the causation of increased psychological and emotional problems.

The principal argument is that psychological, cultural and social factors play an integral role in influencing a person’s drinking patterns and behavior, but have no effect in determining whether and individual becomes an alcoholic at the first instance.

Therefore, physiological differences explain why some individuals become addicted to alcohol while others are not addicted to it.

This is explained by the enzymes that are found in alcoholic substances, the hormones and genes and an integration of the brain chemistry that determines the way an individual reacts to alcohol, and ultimately addiction (Milam 100).

The fundamental predisposing factors that make individuals susceptible to alcoholism include abnormal metabolism, preference factors, heredity, prenatal influences and some instances of ethnic susceptibilities.

Stages in alcoholism

The early stage of alcoholism is marked by an adaptive stage, where the alcohol consumer has the ability to increase his alcohol intake, yet still function properly.

This implies that the alcoholic does not perceive any imminent dangers associated with the alcohol intake because there are minimal withdrawal and psychological symptoms (Milam 46). In fact, the symptoms of the disease are usually painful to notice, making it difficult to diagnose alcoholism at an early stage.

A typical characteristic of the early stage alcoholism is that it is almost impossible to convince an alcoholic in the making, and such attempts are met by intense confrontations and resistances due to the fact they do not perceive themselves as alcoholics and are aware of the developmental process associated with alcoholism.

During the early stage in alcoholism, it is normally difficult to identify and diagnose the disease, and it is usually characterized with increased adjustments in the liver and the central nervous systems, intense tolerance to alcohol and enhanced performance after indulgence in alcohol.

Responses associated with adaptations are rapid enough for the individual to notice. Adaptation plays a vital role during the onset of alcoholism. An outcome of tolerance to alcohol is improved performance.

Performance differences at an early stage can be used to differentiate alcoholic from non-alcoholic in the sense that when a non-alcoholic stop drinking, his physical and psychological performance is enhanced.

Tolerance, on the other hand, refers to the ability to withstand the short term of effects of alcohol and large amounts of alcohol before succumbing to them through occurrences such as passing out.

The middle stage of alcoholism is the second stage in the development phases of alcoholism.

In most individuals, there are clear cut distinctions between the transitions from an early phase of alcoholism to the middle phase of alcoholism. A significant characteristic of this phase is iterative drinking with the intent of addressing the pains inflicted by previous drinking instances.

The fundamental characteristics of the middle stage alcoholism include physical dependence, which is characterized by acute and protracted withdrawal syndromes; cases of craving and intense loss of control.

Physical dependence is characterized by an increase in alcohol tolerance and the body cells become adapted to withstanding high levels of alcohol amounts (Milam 70).

Craving is characterized by an increasing desire to consume alcohol. Craving is normally developmental and its effects are based on the fact that the alcoholic has developed physical dependence.

Loss of control is characterized by the lack of the ability of the person to restrict drinking to social places and during recommended times. In most cases, the person prioritizes drinking at the expense of the daily undertakings.

The late deteriorative stage of alcoholism is the last phase of alcoholism and usually characterized by increased symptoms as a result of the toxicity and damage to the body organs. At this stage, the tolerance levels are reducing because of the intense liver damage and impairments in the Central Nervous Systems.

Also, the mental and physical health are significantly impaired, due to the fact the individual spends most of his times drinking. In fact, it can be said the person lives solely for the sake of alcohol.

Some of the health complications associated with the late stage of alcoholism include heart failures, liver Cirrhosis, respiratory tract diseases, pancreatic, cancer, and ultimately death if alcoholism is not addressed in a timely fashion.

Work cited

Milam, James. Under the Influence. New York: Bantam Books, 1983. Print.

Bartholow, B. D., & Heinz, A. (2006). Alcohol and aggression without consumption: Alcohol cues, aggressive thoughts, and hostile perception bias.Psychological Science, 17(1), 30–37. Web.

The paper focuses on investigating the correlation between alcohol and aggression. The authors conduct an experiment to examine the alcohol-related cues to aggressive thoughts and violent perceptions in the absence of alcohol or using a placebo. The results show that aggression-related expectancies result in increased levels of violent behaviors even if the placebo is consumed. It proves the idea that some individuals might experience aggression even if they do not drink but because of the environment and specific expectations linked to its consumption.

Davis C. N. (2020). Guidelines and recommendations for training ethical alcohol researchers. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 14(1), 52–59. Web.

The article offers guidelines on overcoming ethical challenges associated with researching alcohol consumption in laboratory settings. The author states that researchers working on the problem face several ethical challenges that might impact the outcomes and result in the emergence of conflicts. For this reason, organizing ethical alcohol administration and investigation is critical. The guidelines offer the framework for supervising, measuring, and conducting experiments of this sort. Using these recommendations, it is possible to build ethical research and avoid potential claims.

Davis, K. C., Neilson, E. C., Kirwan, M., Eldridge, N., George, W. H., & Stappenbeck, C. A. (2021). Alcohol-involved sexual aggression: Emotion regulation as a mechanism of behavior change.Health Psychology, 40(12), 940–950. Web.

The study focuses on investigating the test emotion regulation as a mechanism underlying sexual aggression regarding the use of alcohol. The authors assume that heavily drinking men might demonstrate aggressive and violent behaviors because of the negative impact of the given substance. For this reason, the research investigates the emotional regulation mechanisms regarding alcohol consumption and whether they can be controlled and measured. The results show that alcohol might negatively impact individuals, triggering aggression and reducing the ability to control behaviors.

Eastwood, A. P., Penton-Voak, I. S., Munafò, M. R., & Attwood, A. S. (2020). Effects of acute alcohol consumption on emotion recognition in high and low trait aggressive drinkers.Journal of Psychopharmacology, 34(11), 1226–1236. Web.

The researchers assume that alcohol is one of the key factors promoting the change in social behaviors. The double-blind placebo-controlled experiment shows that the substance promotes poorer emotion recognition. It might also increase the overall levels of sadness, which is one of the predictors of more aggressive behaviors. In such a way, the research proves the idea that alcohol consumption might be responsible for the emergence of specific changes in individuals’ behaviors and their becoming more aggressive as a result of being unhappy or unable to understand others’ emotions.

Hendler, R. A., Ramchandani, V. A., Gilman, J., & Hommer, D. W. (2013). Stimulant and sedative effects of alcohol.Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 13, 489–509. Web.

The investigators delve into the effects alcohol cause on individuals and the behaviors associated with it. They outline that the substance causes stimulant and sedative effects on people, meaning that their responses to the increased consumption might differ. The research shows that individuals with a high risk of alcohol disorders demonstrate a lower sedative response to alcohol, meaning they can become more violent and demonstrate more aggressive behaviors. This factor is critical for understanding how the substance correlates with violence levels and the emergence of undesired inclinations.

Kraus, L., Tryggvesson, K., Pabst, A., & Room, R. (2015). Involvement in alcohol-related verbal or physical aggression. Does social status matter?Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 32(5), 449–464. Web.

The article analyzes the relations between alcohol, verbal aggression, and an individual’s social status. The authors assume that the social status of an individual might moderate aggressive and violent behaviors emerging as a result of heavy drinking. The survey conducted by the researchers shows no associations with aggression, alcohol use, and low-income regarding verbal aggression and actions. It means that social status is not the primary factor impacting alcohol-related aggression and its levels among different population groups.

Kuypers, K., Verkes, R. J., van den Brink, W., van Amsterdam, J., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2020). Intoxicated aggression: Do alcohol and stimulants cause dose-related aggression? A review.The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 114–147. Web.

The authors assume that alcohol is one of the major causes of unnatural deaths because of aggressive acts of violence. For this reason, the study focuses on investigating whether there is a direct correlation between alcohol intoxication and aggression. Analyzing 1578 publications, the researchers come to the conclusion that there are many contextual and individual factors promoting the emergence of aggressive thoughts and acts under the influence of alcohol. The increase in the dose results in more violent thoughts, which is a severe concern for society.

Robertson, K., Forbes, S., & Thyne, M. (2020). Perpetration of alcohol-related aggression by male and female college students: An examination of overt and relational aggression.Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(5–6), 1454–1475. Web.

The study investigates the nature of alcohol-related aggression among male and female college students. The authors state that the existing body of literature outlines the correlation between substance use and overt aggression. For this reason, they conduct a web-based survey measuring alcohol consumption and violent behaviors. The results show that all participants, regardless of gender, have a higher chance of being aggressive when drinking. For this reason, the investigators conclude that alcohol might promote specific changes in individuals’ behaviors.

Spirito, A., Nestor, B., Massing-Schaffer, M., Esposito-Smythers, C., Stout, R., Frazier, E., Gomez, J., Graves, H., Yen, S., Hunt, J., & Wolff, J. (2021). Predictors and moderators of marijuana and heavy alcohol use outcomes in adolescents treated for co-occurring substance use and psychiatric disorders in a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 131, 108536. Web.

The research delves into the outcomes of substance use and its impact on daily interactions. The exploratory predictor and moderator analysis of heavy alcohol use outcomes shows specific behavioral changes. Thus, individuals demonstrate altered perceptions and reactions to usual triggers, meaning that there is a higher risk of the emergence and development of undesired and violent behaviors. Under these conditions, the authors conclude that substance use might be a factor impacting social interactions and promoting the rise of aggression in specific cases.

Watkins, L. E., DiLillo, D., & Maldonado, R. C. (2015). The interactive effects of emotion regulation and alcohol intoxication on lab-based intimate partner aggression. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29(3), 653–663. Web.

The study investigates the impact of alcohol intoxication on intimate partner aggression. The authors assume that the substance might promote revealing hidden negative thoughts and violent behaviors. The research involved 69 couples individually randomized to an alcohol or placebo condition. The results showed that groups consuming alcohol were more aggressive and violent in their actions and judgments. It means that the study proves the idea that substance use can trigger the emergence of undesired thoughts and responses between partners, which proves the existing theory.

Whiteside, L. K., Ranney, M. L., Chermack, S. T., Zimmerman, M. A., Cunningham, R. M., & Walton, M. A. (2013). The overlap of youth violence among aggressive adolescents with past-year alcohol use-A latent class analysis: aggression and victimization in peer and dating violence in an inner city emergency department sample.Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74(1), 125–135. Web.

The study aims at identifying the overlap between peer and dating aggression among adolescents with a history of alcohol use. The authors assume that the experience of heavy alcohol use might serve as a triggering factor, leading to the emergence of more violent and aggressive thoughts and behaviors. The study proves the idea as it shows that past alcohol use leads to stronger responses to various triggers and might be viewed as a risk factor. At the same time, the background and the context play an essential role in the development of such responses.

References

Bartholow, B. D., & Heinz, A. (2006). Alcohol and aggression without consumption: Alcohol cues, aggressive thoughts, and hostile perception bias.Psychological Science, 17(1), 30–37. Web.

Davis C. N. (2020). Guidelines and recommendations for training ethical alcohol researchers. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 14(1), 52–59. Web.

Davis, K. C., Neilson, E. C., Kirwan, M., Eldridge, N., George, W. H., & Stappenbeck, C. A. (2021). Alcohol-involved sexual aggression: Emotion regulation as a mechanism of behavior change.Health Psychology, 40(12), 940–950. Web.

Eastwood, A. P., Penton-Voak, I. S., Munafò, M. R., & Attwood, A. S. (2020). Effects of acute alcohol consumption on emotion recognition in high and low trait aggressive drinkers.Journal of Psychopharmacology, 34(11), 1226–1236. Web.

Hendler, R. A., Ramchandani, V. A., Gilman, J., & Hommer, D. W. (2013). Stimulant and sedative effects of alcohol.Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 13, 489–509. Web.

Kraus, L., Tryggvesson, K., Pabst, A., & Room, R. (2015). Involvement in alcohol-related verbal or physical aggression. Does social status matter?Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 32(5), 449–464. Web.

Kuypers, K., Verkes, R. J., van den Brink, W., van Amsterdam, J., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2020). Intoxicated aggression: Do alcohol and stimulants cause dose-related aggression? A review.The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 114–147. Web.

Robertson, K., Forbes, S., & Thyne, M. (2020). Perpetration of alcohol-related aggression by male and female college students: An examination of overt and relational aggression.Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(5–6), 1454–1475. Web.

Spirito, A., Nestor, B., Massing-Schaffer, M., Esposito-Smythers, C., Stout, R., Frazier, E., Gomez, J., Graves, H., Yen, S., Hunt, J., & Wolff, J. (2021). Predictors and moderators of marijuana and heavy alcohol use outcomes in adolescents treated for co-occurring substance use and psychiatric disorders in a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 131, 108536. Web.

Watkins, L. E., DiLillo, D., & Maldonado, R. C. (2015). The interactive effects of emotion regulation and alcohol intoxication on lab-based intimate partner aggression. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29(3), 653–663. Web.

Whiteside, L. K., Ranney, M. L., Chermack, S. T., Zimmerman, M. A., Cunningham, R. M., & Walton, M. A. (2013). The overlap of youth violence among aggressive adolescents with past-year alcohol use-A latent class analysis: aggression and victimization in peer and dating violence in an inner city emergency department sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74(1), 125–135. Web.

Alcohol use disorder is a chronic relapsing brain disease characterized by the following:

• Compulsive alcohol use
• Loss of control over alcohol intake
• Negative emotional state when not using alcohol.

Alcohol abuse has led to health deterioration and a number of problems in John’s life, including:

• Addiction
• Behavior
• Health issues

John’s Case

• John was introduced to alcohol abuse by his teenage friends during adolescence and had multiple prior treatment attempts.
• John had periods of sobriety but ultimately returned to alcohol use.
• John often experiences significant functional impairment and social isolation.

John has undergone different prior treatments:

• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
• Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET)
• Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meetings

John’s Prior Treatment

The prior treatments were essential in several ways:

• CBT involved meeting with a therapist to discuss thoughts, feelings, and behaviors related to alcohol use.
• MET included regular meetings with a sponsor and attendance at Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meetings.
• AA is a self-help group that supported John in his struggle with alcohol addiction.

Proposed Alcohol Abuse Prevention Models

Some of the alcohol abuse prevention models that could be used to deliver support to John are:

• The community reinforcement approach and family training (CRAFT)
• Community-based interventions for alcohol misuse in young people (COMBI)
• Multidimensional family therapy (MDFT)
• Motivational interviewing (MI)
• Community-based interventions for alcohol misuse in young people (COMBI)
• Multidimensional family therapy (MDFT)
• Motivational interviewing
• Multidimensional family therapy (MDFT)
• Motivational interviewing (MI)
• Motivational interviewing (MI)

The key principles of MI include:

• Expressing empathy and understanding
• Focusing on the person’s own motivations and goals
• Avoiding judgmental or confrontational language
• Supporting self-direction and self-reliance

Proposed John’s Treatment Strategies

Concerning John’s treatment strategies, I can propose:

• Detoxification
• Rehabilitation
• Aftercare

Treatment Goals

The goal of treatment for alcohol use disorder is:

• To achieve and maintain abstinence from alcohol
• To resolve any associated problems with alcohol consumption

Conclusion

Alcohol use disorder is a serious and potentially fatal disease that affects millions of people around the globe. It can lead to cirrhosis of the liver, heart disease, and other life-threatening conditions. Treatment for alcohol use disorder is available, but it requires professional help. Aftercare, rehabilitation, and detoxification are some of the best treatment strategies. Furthermore, some of its prevention models are CRAFT, COMBI, MDFT, and MI.

References

Blaine, S. K., & Sinha, R. (2017). Alcohol, stress, and glucocorticoids: From risk to dependence and relapse in alcohol use disorders. Neuropharmacology, 122, 136-147. Web.

Breuninger, M. M., Grosso, J. A., Hunter, W., & Dolan, S. L. (2020). Treatment of alcohol use disorder: Integration of Alcoholics Anonymous and cognitive behavioral therapy. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 14(1), 19. Web.

DiBartolo, M. C., & Jarosinski, J. M. (2017). Alcohol use disorder in older adults: Challenges in assessment and treatment. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 38(1), 25–32. Web.

DiClemente, C. C., Corno, C. M., Graydon, M. M., Wiprovnick, A. E., & Knoblach, D. J. (2017). Motivational interviewing, enhancement, and brief interventions over the last decade: A review of reviews of efficacy and effectiveness. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, 31(8), 862–887. Web.

Govender, K., Beckett, S. E., George, G., Lewis, L., Cawood, C., Khanyile, D., Tanser, F., & Kharsany, A. B. (2019). Factors associated with HIV in younger and older adult men in South Africa: Findings from a cross-sectional survey. BMJ Open, 9(12), e031667. Web.

Kirby, K. C., Benishek, L. A., Kerwin, M. E., Dugosh, K. L., Carpenedo, C. M., Bresani, E.,… & Meyers, R. J. (2017). Analyzing components of Community Reinforcement and Family Training (CRAFT): Is treatment entry training sufficient?Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 31(7), 818. Web.

Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Rowe, C. L., Henderson, C., Greenbaum, P., Wang, W., & Alberga, L. (2018). Multidimensional Family Therapy as a community-based alternative to residential treatment for adolescents with substance use and co-occurring mental health disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 90, 47–56. Web.

Magill, M., Ray, L., Kiluk, B., Hoadley, A., Bernstein, M., Tonigan, J. S., & Carroll, K. (2019). A meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioral therapy for alcohol or other drug use disorders: Treatment efficacy by contrast condition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 87(12), 1093. Web.

Abstract

Alcohol abuse leads to a decline in cognitive ability. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of alcohol consumption on cognitive ability. 12,589 participants of the study have been classified into two groups: the control group of non-drinking participants of the experiment and the experimental group of the regular consumers of alcohol. Their health and cognitive abilities were assessed five times over the ten years. It is found that the effects of alcohol consumption on cognitive ability are more obvious in the case of regular alcohol consumers.

Introduction

Alcohol abuse leads to a decline in cognitive ability. Sabia et al. (2014) conducted a study of “the association of midlife alcohol consumption assessed three times over ten years with subsequent cognitive decline” (p. 332). The purpose of the following research was to examine the effect of alcohol consumption on the cognitive ability of middle-aged people and to assess it five times. On the assumption that the cognitive ability of regular consumers of alcohol is lower than that of non-drinkers and the decline in cognitive ability is higher, null and working hypotheses were proposed. H₀: The cognitive ability of regular alcohol consumers is the same as that of non-drinkers, and cognitive decline rates do not differ. H₁: The cognitive ability of regular alcohol consumers is lower than that of non-drinkers, and the cognitive decline of regular alcohol consumers is higher than that of non-drinkers.

Method

The study of the Effects of Alcohol Consumption on Cognitive Ability was established in 2015 to examine the supposed decline in the cognitive ability of 12,589 medium-level managers. The study employed the repeated measures design for the experiment because it allows monitoring the changes of an individual over the prolonged period (Gleitman, Gross, & Reisberg, 2011, p. 41). Since the signs of cognitive dysfunction become apparent over time, the experiment was completed in 2025. The experiment was held in five phases. The length of the experiment from the first to final phase was ten years.

Design

The study employed the classic experimental design that has two groups: an experimental group that is “exposed to the experimental intervention” and a control group that is “left alone” (De Vaus, 2013, p. 13). The fact of alcohol consumption was the independent variable. The dependent variable showed the effect of alcohol consumption on cognitive ability (Zimbardo, Johnson, Lee, & McCann, 2012, p. 32). Thus, the independent condition of the control group was to avoid alcohol during the experiment, and the experimental group was to continue alcohol consumption. The extraneous variables included age, vascular risk factors, and smoking status (Coolican, 2014, p. 60).

Participants

The sample of the experiment is a group of medium-level managers aged 30-45 years in 150 companies based in London, United Kingdom. The total number of invitees was 12,589. In the first phase of the experiment, the participants were divided into two groups: the control group with non-drinking participants and the experimental group with regular consumers of alcohol. As a result, the control group consisted of 6,500 respondents, and the experimental group comprised 6,089 participants.

Materials

The materials for the experiment include print and digital versions of the three-page questionnaire, standard 30-word list for the free-recall test on memory, three-page list of mathematical tasks, 30-word list for the vocabulary test, and informed consent form.

Procedure

Before the experiment, the participants signed the informed consent form. This form included the identification of the researchers, identification of the purpose of the research, notation of risks to the participants, and guarantee of confidentiality to the participants (Creswell, 2013, p. 89). The experiment was held in five phases. In the first phase, the participants were offered to answer the questionnaire that included sections on lifestyle factors, health, demographic and work characteristics. Then they attended the medical examination where physicians registered the primary health indicators such as blood pressure, the amount of glucose in the blood, and markers of cardiovascular disease. These indicators were necessary to control the extraneous variable of vascular risk factors. After the medical examination, the participants passed the cognitive test that consisted of five tasks evaluating the cognitive function: 30-word free recall test, a series of 50 mathematical tasks, vocabulary test, phonemic and semantic verbal fluency tests. This procedure was repeated in 2020 during the third phase and in 2025 during the final phase. In 2017 and 2022, the participants only answered the questionnaires and sent their answers to researchers via e-mail.

Results

In the first phase, Global Cognitive Scores for the control group of non-drinking participants of the experiment and experimental group of the regular consumers of alcohol were estimated. The subsequent phases showed a decline in Global Cognitive Score for both groups. Table 1 presents the results of cognitive tests in the Global Cognitive Score that were made during the five phases of the experiment.

Table 1. Effects of Alcohol Consumption on Cognitive Ability

The analysis of these results shows that the total decline in the cognitive ability of the control group is –0,14 and of the experimental group is –0,22. The mean of the decline in the cognitive ability of regular alcohol consumers is higher than that of non-drinking participants, which is demonstrated in figure 1. The decline in the cognitive ability of non-drinking participants may be explained by such extraneous variables as age, vascular risk factors, and smoking status.

Discussion

In her study, Sabia et al. (2014) conclude that people consuming alcohol in midlife are “more likely to experience faster 10-year cognitive decline” (p. 337). Our findings are in agreement with previous studies demonstrating that the effects of alcohol consumption on cognitive ability are more obvious in the case of regular alcohol consumers. Thus, the working hypothesis has been confirmed.

References

Coolican, H. (2014). Research methods and statistics in psychology (6th Ed.). London: Psychology Press.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.

De Vaus, D. (2013). Surveys in social research. New York, NY: Routledge.

Gleitman, H., Gross, J., & Reisberg, D. (2011). Psychology (8th Ed.). New York: Norton.

Sabia, S., Elbaz, A., Britton, A., Bell, S., Dugravot, A., Shipley, M.,… Singh-Manoux, A. (2014). Alcohol consumption and cognitive decline in early old age. Neurology, 82(4), 332-339.

Zimbardo, P. G., Johnson, R. L., Lee, R., & McCann, V. (2012). Psychology. New York, NY: Pearson.

The introduction: some basic points of alcohol problem

While analyzing the drinking age, I would like to point out some fundamentals of the so-called alcohol problem. First of all, there is a need to admit that genetic factors in alcoholism, as well as personality traits and social aspects are considered to be the key points of underage drinking.

So, special investigations have shown that there is a strong interdependence between hereditary and alcohol use. Thus, Leigh Sexton (2011) is of the opinion that “Where children whose biological parents were alcoholics were adopted at birth into non-alcoholic families they still had higher levels of alcohol addiction than adopted children with no alcoholic parent” (para. 2).

Personality traits are also to be analyzed, as there is an opinion that anti-social traits, lack of self-confidence are recognized to be the causes, which lead to alcohol addiction.

In other words, various personality abnormalities or disorders are considered to be the primary reasons of alcohol abuse. Another important point I would like to highlight is that those parents who bring up their kids in an alcoholic home increase the risk of alcohol use by their children.

The most interesting fact, however, is that alcohol abuse can be omitted. There can be no alcohol abuse, but the chances that children start drinking at 15 or 16 are still high. “Drinking in the teens nearly doubles the risk of alcohol abuse compared with those who start drinking after they enter their twenties” (Sexton, 2011, para. 5).

Social drinking is one of the most complicated cases of alcohol abuse. Thus, among young gatherings drinking is considered to be desirable and even standard process. In most cases, there are friends who encourage the person to drink. On the other hand, it is also rather important to pay attention to familial behaviors. Sometimes, the parents mention that the idea to drink a cold beer seems to be quite attractive. In their turn, children comprehend such messages as normal desire to slake one’s thirst.

The thesis statement

Alcohol addiction of adolescents is mostly related to lack of personality development, lack of self-confidence, age-related issues, and unstable family role. Thus, the idea to lower the drinking age to 18 seems to be totally absurd. The analysis of some investigations can help to resolve the issue and take right decision.

The body: alcohol, parenting and psychological disorders

Generally, alcohol abuse among youths is recognized to be the most serious problem, which is to be resolved. Prof. David J. Hanson (2011) says that “On national television programs, Califano reported horror stories of alcohol abuse among college students, associating it with assault, rape, and even murder” (para. 2).

Some important data shows that 60% of STD are acquired at the state of alcoholic inebriation. 90% rapes take place when the victim is drunk. 95% of illegal actions are alcohol-related.

Prof. David J. Hanson (2011) states that “the average young person will have seen 100,000 beer commercials between the age of two and eighteen But just think – sixteen years or about 5,844 days occur between a person’s second and eighteenth birthday” (para. 5).

In the late eighties, all fifty states of the USA prohibited alcohol drinking for those who are less than 21. The law was adopted when higher traffic fatalities were associated with alcohol-abusing persons under the age of 21. However, “many underage youth continue to consume alcohol and to experience alcohol related problems” (Hingson & Kenkel, n.d., para. 1). Thus, underage drinking is one of the key problems American society is to think about.

The most interesting facts, however, seem to be rather ambiguous. For instance, drinking problems are low “when children are served alcohol by their parents” (Hanson, 2011, para. 6). On the other hand, when youths are prevented from alcohol, some bigger problems appear. In other words, such prevention causes the opposite effect. However, I suppose it depends upon the principles of upbringing whether a child relies on his or her parents’ behavior and role models or no.

For this reason, I would like to point out three basic principles of parenting. So, first of all, it is necessary to demonstrate good drinking behavior; the parents should expect that children will copy their mode of life. Thus, the parents are to think about their own actions. Finally, various mass media means can be used to demonstrate the positive and negative consequences of drinking. Of course, the parents should use appropriate mass media programs.

Taking into account the investigation made by Patrick M. O’Malley, Ph. D., Lloyd D. Johnston, Ph. D., and Jerald G. Bachman, Ph. D. one can state that alcohol use among adolescents is a real problem. Thus, the 1997 the Monitoring the Future Study “found that 54 percent of 8th graders (almost all of whom are ages 13 to 14)

reported having consumed alcohol (i.e., more than just a few sips) in their lifetime” (O’Malley, Johnston & Bachman, 1998, p. 86). The most widespread alcohol problems adolescents experience are considered to be difficulties in communication, i.e. interpersonal problems, health problems, medical problems. Moreover, numerous psychological disorders appear.

For instance, one is to keep in mind that there is certain interdependence between a person’s mental state and alcohol addiction or use. ”One US study found that 19.9% of the general population had one or more psychiatric disorders, but in those with alcohol abuse or dependence the figure rose to 36.6%” (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2007, p. 3).

Another important point I would like to highlight is the disorders which cause alcohol addiction. So, the most common are depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorders, manic-depressive illness, and schizophrenia. Young people mostly suffer from the first three disorders.

I’ve pointed out that there are psychological diseases, which cause alcohol addiction; however, on the other hand, I have to notice that the opposite effect is also possible. Thus, there are many cases, when young people start to experience the above-mentioned disorders because of alcohol use. Anti-social personality disorder is also one of the most widespread consequences of alcohol dependence.

The conclusion: no permission to lower the drinking age

It is not a secret that alcohol is recognized to be popular psychoactive drug. In most cases, adolescents use alcohol to relax. Other popular variants are to be happy, to feel less anxious, (less inhibited, less depressed), to fit in, to celebrate, to make friends, to become confident, and to forget problems. When analyzing the reasons, one can understand what psychological problems may occur.

Finally, when analyzing alcohol addiction and abuse, one is to keep in mind the fundamentals of parenting, as well as the consequences of social, health, and economic aspects of underage drinking.

References

Hanson, D. (2011). Alcohol. Problems and Solutions. Web.

Hanson, D. (2011). Children, Alcohol and Parenting. Web

Hingson, R., & Kenkel, D. Social, Health and Economic Consequences of Underage Drinking. Web.

Institute of Alcohol Studies. (2007). Alcohol and Mental Health. Web.

O’Malley, P., Johnston, L., & Bachman, J. (1998). Alcohol Use Among Adolescents. Web.

Sexton, L. (2011). Genetics Versus Upbringing in Alcohol Abuse. Web.

Abstract

The problem of alcohol and drug dependency has increased over the years, fueled by factors such as easy accessibility of drugs, high cost of living, poverty, financial instability, and laxity on the part of authorities to curb the vice. As a result, psychologists have been faced with an influx of drug addicts who are struggling to come out of the physical, psychological, and social effects brought about by their alcohol and drugs dependency. Behaviorism is one of the theories that psychologists continue to employ to help the victims out of the mess. Behaviorism confines itself to the objective study of quantifiable and observable characteristics of behaviors. It seeks to explain the behavior of humans and animals entirely in terms of measurable and observable responses to environmental stimuli. As such, behaviorism theory has been used widely to influence the therapeutic system of behavior modification

This paper has relied widely on the two types of conditioning – classical and operant – to explain how behaviorism theory can be used to help individuals out of their drug related problems. Classical conditioning, developed by Pavlov, occurs when a behavior turns to a reflex response of a stimulus. Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, argues that behavior can be reinforced through a system of rewards and punishments. This paper has extensively elaborated how the two techniques can be used by psychologists to curtail the vice of drug dependency.

In the application of behaviorism theory, psychologists must be able to instill in the addicts the concept that any unwanted behavior can effectively be changed through a vivid demonstration of a desired behavior. The theory is important in helping the drug addicts gain stimulus control, urge control, and social control over their predicaments. However, the theory is presented with major difficulties in that drug dependency is an individual decision that requires more individual good will rather than external help. Psychologists are also hard pressed to know the behavior reinforcements agents that causes particular individuals to be drug addicts. This paper also discusses spiritual treatment of alcohol and drug dependence. In spiritual treatment, addicts are brought in touch with the higher nature in an attempt to make them drop the vice.

Introduction

Though drugs and alcohol has been present in the world from the time of our forefathers, their use and abuse has risen tremendously during the last few decades. Today, nothing worries a parent of teenage children more than the possibility of their children being addicted to drugs and alcohol (Mahel, 2003; Domingos et al., 2008). The problem has been worsened by easy accessibility of the drugs and lack of clear cut policies from governments on how the problem should be controlled. The ever rising cost of living, poverty, and financial instability are also driving more people to self destruction by making them to depend more on drugs and alcohol to ‘forget’ their problems.

Various theories and schools of thoughts have been established to inquire and offer useful insights on why people continue to abuse drugs and alcohol, and how they could be helped out of the situation. One of them is behaviorism, which psychologists believe it’s useful in helping individuals with drug and alcohol related problems. Behaviorism confines itself to the objective study of quantifiable and observable characteristics of behavior, excluding subjective phenomena such as motives and emotions (Baum, 2004; Davis et al., 2008). This paper attempts to uncover if behaviorism is indeed useful in helping individuals to tackle the problem of alcoholism and drug dependency

Effects of alcohol and drug abuse

Drugs and alcohol are a major problem in society today. Even with concerted efforts from a number of stakeholders, the people who abuse drugs seem to augment in number as the years advance. The prevalence of drug abuse is highest among teenagers and young people; the bulk of the countries productive population. This presents a real need for the issue to be addressed as a matter of urgency. Below are some of the effects of alcohol and drug dependency.

Physical effects

Dependence and prolonged use of drugs and alcohol has adverse effects on the physical wellbeing of the individual. After ingestion, alcohol is carried through the blood stream to the brain where it causes impairment and affects the person’s normal functioning. It depresses the nervous system and can damage vital body organs (Clune, 2008). It is linked to medical conditions such as gastrointestinal problems, high blood pressure and several types of cancer, namely; cancer of the colon, stomach, liver and the pancreas. Different types of drugs also produce varying effects on the body. Marijuana has been linked to liver damage, increased heart rate and anxiety. Cocaine has been linked to chest pain, seizures, respiratory and cardiac arrest. Sedative hypnotics such as tranquillizers can cause memory impairment and opiates such as heroine can elevate blood pressure and cause pulmonary complications (Davis et al.).

Psychological effects

Continued use of alcohol breeds addiction among other psychological disorders. One looses control and becomes the slave of an overwhelming, compulsive desire to consume the drug. The realization that one has become dependent is usually a big blow to their self esteem. They may feel out of control, worthless and unable to control their lives. This prompts them to sink into depression and they may even try to commit suicide (Wozniak, 2007).

Social effects

The social life of any drug-alcohol dependent person is usually adversely affected. The habit may prompt them to withdraw from social life as they do not want to be found out by their friends and relatives. They may fail to fulfill certain promises that they had made to their friends or any responsibilities that they may have towards their families and this in effect, alienates them from their loved ones who may not understand their sudden change of behavior. It is the resultant solitude and loneliness that eventually drives them even deeper into their dependence. Family and friends may also feel like or actually abandon their addicted kin especially if they keep on denying their problem or if they keep relapsing into the habit (Clune, 2008; Calderia et al., 2008).

Behaviorism, alcohol and drug dependency

Behaviorists, according to Omrod (2003) seek to explain the behavior of humans and animals entirely in terms of measurable and observable responses to environmental stimuli. Basically, a behavior is a psychological reaction to environmental stimuli. According to the theorists, mental processes are irrelevant and unscientific. This theory was advanced further by American behaviorist, B.F. Skinner, who said that individual habits, which could be learned or unlearned plays an important role in conditioning emotions. In the same vein, it is worthy mentioning that the behaviorist theory gave rise to the therapeutic system of behavior modification. Therapy, as we all know, shapes behavior through a variety of processes referred to as conditioning (Clune, 2008; Davis et al., 2008).

Behaviorism as a learning theory

As already mentioned, the theory of behaviorism was developed by B.F. Skinner, who relied heavily on previous works of Guthrie, Tolman, Thorndike, and Hull. These investigators based their works around three principal assumptions. First, they assumed that behaviors are shaped by the environment. Second, they assumed that there must be a manifestation of behavior change if learning has taken place. Third, they came up with the principles of reinforcement and continuity as mechanisms used to explain the learning process (Clune, 2008). To date, behavioral theorists argue that learning takes place when an individual acquires new behavior through conditioning.

There are two types of conditioning. Classical conditioning, credited to Pavlov, occurs when a behavior turns to a reflex response of a stimulus. In his experiments, Pavlov discovered that dogs could learn to associate the sound of bell to mean that it was feeding time. When the bell rang, the dogs started to salivate even when there was no food. Here, salivating is the reflex response, whereas the sound of a bell is the stimulus (Davies et al., 2008). Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner on the basis that a behavior can be reinforced through a system of punishments or rewards. He argued that reinforcing a behavior through offering a reward increased the chances of that behavior recurring again; while punishing that behavior reduced the chances of its recurrence (Citation).

Classical conditioning and the treatment of drugs’ dependence

Some classical conditioning techniques such as aversive conditioning can be employed in cases where individuals wish to break free from a life threatening condition such as drug use or alcoholism. In line with the principles of classical conditioning, addiction occurs because of the pleasurable physiological effects of these substances which can be referred to as the unconditional stimuli and the actual taste of drugs which is the conditional stimuli. One wants to continue abusing the drugs due to the good feeling that it brings. If the conditional stimuli are paired with a negative response, say, nausea and vomiting the result will be an aversion to the unconditional stimulus which is the taste of the drugs (Zebrowski, 2007).

This technique involves introducing unpleasantness as a control agent in dealing with alcoholism and drug use. This assertion depends on the view that a response definitely terminates a primary aversive event. We all want to get away from situations that are unpleasant to us through negative reinforcement. According to Martin and Pear (2002), proponents believe that necessary coping responses can be attained without undue suffering through avoidance learning. This method has been used mostly by psychologists who introduce foul smelling medications for individuals to use whenever they are embraced by the desire to take drugs. The foul smelling-nausea causing prescriptions take out the desire to engage in drugs. Repeated exposure conditions the individual’s mind not to take alcohol or drugs (Maher, 2003).

Operant conditioning and the treatment of drugs’ dependency

This technique is deeply rooted in B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory. In this kind of therapy, individuals are motivated to change their behaviors by being promised some set rewards (Martin & Pear, 2002). Punishment has also been largely used as an aversive control technique. According to Maher (2003) and Clune (2008), the probability of a response producing stimuli is effectively decreased by punishment. But for it to be effective, Punishment must be administered immediately and with intensity. This method has been used by parents and institutions of learning to curtail the drug vice. If a child is punished immediately after engaging in drug abuse, chances are that he may not repeat the mistake again. Though successful, the therapy has been strictly resisted by many people, especially the human rights activists.

Application of Behaviorism theory to drugs’ dependence

In classical conditioning, we have seen that if the conditional stimuli are paired with a negative response, say, nausea and vomiting the result will be an aversion to the unconditional stimulus which is the taste of the drugs (Zebrowski, 2007). This basically involves introducing unpleasantness as a control agent in dealing with alcoholism and drug use. In operant conditioning, we have seen that alcoholism and drug abuse can be checked through the introduction of a system of rewards and punishments.

In the application of behaviorism, psychologists must be able to instill in the addicts the concept that any unwanted behavior, no matter how bad it is, can effectively be changed by a vivid demonstration of the desired behavior. They must also be able to show to the addicts the consistent rewards that are tied with the efforts of stopping the habit of alcoholism and drug abuse. The rewards may be in the form of good health, good concentration, and financial independence. The punishments may be in the form of poor heath, life-threatening diseases, and poverty. Therapeutic activities towards rehabilitation may include, but not limited to making the addicts rehearse the desired behaviors, fulfilling specific assignments, or exposing the addicts to foul smelling medications when they have the urge to engage in the practice (“Scientific approaches”, 2003).

This helps the alcohol and drugs addicts to gain control in three vital areas. First is the stimulus control, which will help the addicts to walk away from situations that are associated with alcohol and drugs indulgence. Stimulus control will also help the addicts to learn to use their time in activities that are incompatible with drugs abuse. Second, behavior theory will help the addicts to control the urges towards alcohol and substance abuse as the patients are helped to recognize and change the feelings, thoughts, and plans that leads them to drug indulgence. Finally, the theory helps addicts in social control, whereby social systems or rewards and punishments can be used on the individual to help him get out of the quagmire (“Scientific approaches,” 2003). Such social systems rewards must be seen to reward alcohol abstinence and punish indulgence.

In real life situations, psychologists must first identify the specific target behaviors that need to be changed for an alcoholic to recover. Psychologists must have prior knowledge of how often the individual engages in alcoholism and the circumstances in which he is more likely to engage in alcoholism. For example, they need to know how many sticks of cigarettes an individual smokes every day. They also need to know if the individual smokes more at certain times or with certain people. They must come up with all the stimuli that bring about alcoholism. For example, you may smoke a cigarette due to stress or anxiety so that you may feel relaxed. In this case, stress and anxiety are stimuli that cause smoking, while smoking behavior is reinforced by the feeling of relaxation (Martin & Pear, 2002; Domingos et al, 2008).

Afterwards, psychologists must strive to control the stimuli. This can be accomplished by avoiding, eliminating, or reducing the instances of these stimuli. In here, the aversive conditioning techniques developed by psychologists come into play. A schedule of frequent reinforcement must also be provided. Positive reinforcement rather than punishment should always be encouraged (Martin & Pear, 2002; Baum, 2004).

Behaviorism as a hindrance of treatment

According to the theorists, every behavior must be reinforced. It therefore follows that alcoholism and drug dependency are reinforced behaviors. It is often hard for psychologists to know or discern the reinforcement agents of alcoholic behaviors. Even when they know the agents, they come across another brick wall in that alcoholism and drug dependency are individual decisions and therefore, exposing some addicts to nausea-causing medications in the hope of cutting the dependence never works at all. Some scholars have argued that dogs used in the experiment cannot be equated to human beings. People have cognitive senses and therefore make individual decisions on what to do with their lives. Human rights activists have also argued that punishment as a form of curtailing a behavior can actually reinforce the behavior. In these perspectives, behaviorism can hinder the treatment of alcohol and drug dependency.

Alternative therapy: Spiritual treatment

Behaviorism as a method of treatment can be made more effective if it is used together with spiritual treatment. In spiritual treatment, individual addicts are brought in touch with their higher nature. Individuals are made to feel that it is only the higher authority that can help them come out of their conditions since their problems are connected with the higher authority. This technique uses methods such as meditation to help the alcohol and drug addicts to live harmoniously with their spiritual side (“Spiritual treatment,” 2007).

Though spiritual treatment is not founded on scientific principles, it has been found to help in the treatment of alcohol and drug-related problems especially to people who believe in the existence of a higher being. Through it, drug addicts are able to improve on their emotional and mental balance, thereby effectively kicking out the vice. Proponents of this concept believe that any type of healing must include a spiritual dimension (“Spiritual treatment,” 2007). The only problem with this concept is that it cannot be used to solve alcohol and drug dependency problems on individuals who do not confess to a higher authority.

Conclusion and further research area

Behaviorism is quite effective in changing behaviors, especially when aversive conditioning techniques are used. It has been used by psychologists time and again in identifying the various environmental factors that continue to lead people to the vice. The fight against alcoholism and drug abuse is far from being won. The mechanisms that have been put in place are quite repetitive and have not been very effective as the number of substance abusers continues to escalate. The answer to this crisis lies in research. The efforts shown by the various research organizations are commendable but a lot more can still be done. There is need for regular surveys and evaluations so as to establish the real situation on the ground, the statistics and emerging new trends. This will help the various stakeholders to initiate appropriate protective measures. In this respect, the government needs to allocate more money to wards funding of research

References

Baum, W. (2004). Understanding behaviorism. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9781405112628.

Clune, C.A. (2008). “Using the world to understand the mind: Evolutionary foundations for ecological psychology.” The journal of mind and behavior, vol. 29, no. 1. Web.

Davis, R.L., Ninness, C., Rumph, R., McCuller, G., Stahl, K., Ward, T., & Vasquez, E. (2008).

“Functional assessment of self-initiated maladaptive behaviors: A case study.” Journal of behavior and social issues, vol. 17, pp 66-85. 2008. Web.

Domingos, N., Lambez, R., Aguias, P., & Chick, J. (2008). “Effectiveness of sequential combined treatment in comparison with treatment as usual in preventing relapse in alcohol dependence.” Journal of Alcohol and alcoholism, Vol. 43, no. 6. Web.

Glassman, W.E., & Haded, M. (2006). “The Behaviorist approach.” Approaches to psychology journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 12-18.

Martin, G.L., & Pear, J. (2002). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it, New York: Prentice Hall.

Maher, L. (2003). “Don’t leave us this way: Ethnographic and injecting drug use in the age of Aids.” International Journal of Drug Policy, Vol. 3, no. 4, pp 311-325. 2008. Web.

Mattaini, M.A. (2008). “Behavior and social issues advances.” Journal of behavior and social sciences, vol. 17, pp 6. Web.

Omrad, J.E. (2003). Human Learning. (4^th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130941999.

Wozniak, R.H. (ed.) (1993). Theoretical roots of early behaviorism: Functionalism, the critique of introspection, and the nature and evolution of consciousness. London: Routledge/ Thoemmes.

Zebrowski, R.L. (2007). “Aversive conditioning.” The Journal of Applied behavior, Vol. 14, no.1. Web.

Scientifically based approaches to drug addiction treatment. (2003). Web.

Spiritual treatment for alcohol abuse and drug abuse in Colorado. (2007). Web.

In 2002, the U.S. National Policy regarding the use and trade of alcohol, tobacco, firearms and explosives was adopted. The policy in question shed a lot of light on the subject matter, drawing a very distinct line between the accepted actions and the ones that will trigger legal repercussions. Therefore, its adoption can be viewed as a major foot forward in the development of the national policies (Krouse, 2012).

The fact that the issues under analysis were finally handled by a single legal body clearly is one of the advantages of the policy mentioned above. As a result of the specified innovation, a more timely and efficient response to the related concerns can be expected. Moreover, the bureau should be credited for managing the issues related to drugs, firearms and explosives on a nationwide level as well as on the international one, therefore, tracking down the sources of drug peddling and firearms trade successfully (Ritter, 2015).

Unfortunately, the policy also has several flaws. The lack of connection between the cause of the problem and its outcomes can be viewed as the primary one; while RATFE allows addressing the concerns related to illegal tobacco, alcohol, firearms and explosives use, it fails to eliminate the social, political, and economic factors that cause the specified issues in the first place (Phillips et al., 2015).

Maintaining Advantages and Eliminating Disadvantages

The introduction of the latest technological advances into the framework of RATFE operations will enhance the timeliness and efficacy of its responses to the instances of illegal usage of the above-mentioned substances and items. Therefore, it is crucial that RATFE could be provided with the tools that will allow for the reinforcement of the policy and a careful and accurate information acquisition, interpretation, and transfer.

The disadvantages listed above can be managed with the help of amendments to the current regulation. Particularly, RATFE may need to consider the possibility of analyzing the issues that lead to the increase in alcohol- and drug-related crimes; particularly, the socioeconomic factors will have to be investigated. Indeed, recent studies show that drug peddling, alcohol abuse, and exceeding the limits of self-defense, as well as other crimes that are related to the current gun control policies. It should be noted, though, that the introduction of the RATFE members to new roles and responsibilities will require carrying out extensive training so that the board could be able to conduct the necessary assessments of the existing risks in an appropriate manner and respond to the emerging threats in a timely fashion.

Scholarly Support

How the Articles Support the Analysis

The papers used in the course of research provide sufficient evidence for proving the points raised above. These studies inform the evaluation of the policy under analysis by providing relevant information concerning its implications. In other words, the resources allow identifying the positive and negative outcomes of the policy applied to practical dilemmas.

Why the Articles Are Deemed as Credible

The papers can be considered valid, as they have been published in peer-reviewed journals and on the U.S. government sites and are comparatively recent. Hence, the sources are quite trustworthy and, therefore, reliable. Providing enough information for the evaluation, these papers serve as a strong foundation for the analysis to be based on.

Reference List

Krouse, W. J. (2012). The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF): Budget and operations for FY2011. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Web.

Phillips, C. D., Nwaiwu, O., Lin, S.-h., Edwards, R., Imanpour, S., & Ohsfeldt, R. (2015). Concealed handgun licensing and crime in four states. Journal of Criminology, 2015(803742), 1–8. Web.

Ritter, N. (2015). Study identifies ways to improve ATF ballistic evidence program. Web.